▼❛tr✐①

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥
❆ ♠❛tr✐① ✐s ❛ r❡❝t❛♥❣✉❧❛r ❛rr❛②s ♦❢ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ♦r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳ ❚❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ✭♦r
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✮ ❛r❡ ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ❡♥tr✐❡s ✭♦r ❡❧❡♠❡♥ts✮ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠❛tr✐①✳

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥
❆ ♠❛tr✐① ✇✐t❤ ♦♥❧② ♦♥❡ r♦✇ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛ r♦✇ ✈❡❝t♦r ✭♦r r♦✇ ♠❛tr✐①✮ ❛♥❞ ❛
♠❛tr✐① ✇✐t❤ ♦♥❧② ♦♥❡ ❝♦❧✉♠♥ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛ ❝♦❧✉♠♥ ✈❡❝t♦r ✭♦r ❝♦❧✉♠♥
♠❛tr✐①✮✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✸ ✴ ✷✺✶

▼❛tr✐①
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥
❆ ♠❛tr✐① ✐s ❛ r❡❝t❛♥❣✉❧❛r ❛rr❛②s ♦❢ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ♦r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳ ❚❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ✭♦r
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✮ ❛r❡ ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ❡♥tr✐❡s ✭♦r ❡❧❡♠❡♥ts✮ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠❛tr✐①✳

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥
❆ ♠❛tr✐① ✇✐t❤ ♦♥❧② ♦♥❡ r♦✇ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛ r♦✇ ✈❡❝t♦r ✭♦r r♦✇ ♠❛tr✐①✮ ❛♥❞ ❛
♠❛tr✐① ✇✐t❤ ♦♥❧② ♦♥❡ ❝♦❧✉♠♥ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛ ❝♦❧✉♠♥ ✈❡❝t♦r ✭♦r ❝♦❧✉♠♥
♠❛tr✐①✮✳

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥
❚❤❡ tr❛♥s♣♦s❡ ♦❢ ❛♥ m × n ♠❛tr✐① A = [aij ] ✐s t❤❡ n × m ♠❛tr✐① AT .

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✸ ✴ ✷✺✶

▼❛tr✐①
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥
❆ ♠❛tr✐① ✐s ❛ r❡❝t❛♥❣✉❧❛r ❛rr❛②s ♦❢ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ♦r ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✳ ❚❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡rs ✭♦r
❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥s✮ ❛r❡ ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ❡♥tr✐❡s ✭♦r ❡❧❡♠❡♥ts✮ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠❛tr✐①✳

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥
❆ ♠❛tr✐① ✇✐t❤ ♦♥❧② ♦♥❡ r♦✇ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛ r♦✇ ✈❡❝t♦r ✭♦r r♦✇ ♠❛tr✐①✮ ❛♥❞ ❛
♠❛tr✐① ✇✐t❤ ♦♥❧② ♦♥❡ ❝♦❧✉♠♥ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛ ❝♦❧✉♠♥ ✈❡❝t♦r ✭♦r ❝♦❧✉♠♥
♠❛tr✐①✮✳

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥
❚❤❡ tr❛♥s♣♦s❡ ♦❢ ❛♥ m × n ♠❛tr✐① A = [aij ] ✐s t❤❡ n × m ♠❛tr✐① AT .

Pr♦♣❡rt✐❡s
(AT )T = A✱ (A + B)T = AT + B T ✱ (cA)T = cAT ✱ (AB)T = B T AT ✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✸ ✴ ✷✺✶

❙♣❡❝✐❛❧ ▼❛tr✐❝❡s

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥
❆ sq✉❛r❡ ♠❛tr✐① ✐s s❛✐❞ t♦ ❜❡ s②♠♠❡tr✐❝ ✐❢ A = AT ✱ ✐✳❡✳ aij = aji .
❆ sq✉❛r❡ ♠❛tr✐① ✐s s❛✐❞ t♦ ❜❡ s❦❡✇✲s②♠♠❡tr✐❝ ✐❢ A = −A ✱ ✐✳❡✳ aij = −aji .
T

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✹ ✴ ✷✺✶

❙♣❡❝✐❛❧ ▼❛tr✐❝❡s

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥
❆ sq✉❛r❡ ♠❛tr✐① ✐s s❛✐❞ t♦ ❜❡ s②♠♠❡tr✐❝ ✐❢ A = AT ✱ ✐✳❡✳ aij = aji .
❆ sq✉❛r❡ ♠❛tr✐① ✐s s❛✐❞ t♦ ❜❡ s❦❡✇✲s②♠♠❡tr✐❝ ✐❢ A = −A ✱ ✐✳❡✳ aij = −aji .
T

 
✷✵ ✶✷✵ ✷✵✵

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ A =  ✶✷✵ ✶✵ ✶✺✵  ✐s s②♠♠❡tr✐❝

✷✵✵ ✶✺✵ ✸✵

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✹ ✴ ✷✺✶

❙♣❡❝✐❛❧ ▼❛tr✐❝❡s

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥
❆ sq✉❛r❡ ♠❛tr✐① ✐s s❛✐❞ t♦ ❜❡ s②♠♠❡tr✐❝ ✐❢ A = AT ✱ ✐✳❡✳ aij = aji .
❆ sq✉❛r❡ ♠❛tr✐① ✐s s❛✐❞ t♦ ❜❡ s❦❡✇✲s②♠♠❡tr✐❝ ✐❢ A = −A ✱ ✐✳❡✳ aij = −aji .
T

 
✷✵ ✶✷✵ ✷✵✵

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ A =  ✶✷✵ ✶✵ ✶✺✵  ✐s s②♠♠❡tr✐❝

✷✵✵ ✶✺✵ ✸✵
 
✵ ✶ −✸
B =  −✶ ✵ −✷  ✐s s❦❡✇✲s②♠♠❡tr✐❝✳

✸ ✷ ✵

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✹ ✴ ✷✺✶

❙♣❡❝✐❛❧ ▼❛tr✐❝❡s

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥
❯♣♣❡r tr✐❛♥❣✉❧❛r ♠❛tr✐❝❡s ❛r❡ sq✉❛r❡ ♠❛tr✐❝❡s t❤❛t ❝❛♥ ❤❛✈❡ ♥♦♥③❡r♦
❡♥tr✐❡s ♦♥❧② ♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❛❜♦✈❡ t❤❡ ♠❛✐♥ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✱ ✇❤❡r❡❛s ❛♥② ❡♥tr② ❜❡❧♦✇ t❤❡

❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ♠✉st ❜❡ ③❡r♦✳ ▲♦✇❡r tr✐❛♥❣✉❧❛r ♠❛tr✐❝❡s ❝❛♥ ❤❛✈❡ ♥♦♥③❡r♦

❡♥tr✐❡s ♦♥❧② ♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❜❡❧♦✇ t❤❡ ♠❛✐♥ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✳ ❆♥② ❡♥tr② ♦♥ t❤❡ ♠❛✐♥

❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ♦❢ ❛ tr✐❛♥❣✉❧❛r ♠❛tr✐① ♠❛② ❜❡ ③❡r♦ ♦r ♥♦t✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✺ ✴ ✷✺✶

▲✐♥❡❛r ■♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝❡ ❛♥❞ ❉❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ✈❡❝t♦rs
●✐✈❡♥ ❛♥② s❡t ♦❢ m ✈❡❝t♦rs ✈✶ , ✈✷ , · · · , ✈m ✭✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢
❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥ts✮✱ ❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ✈❡❝t♦rs ✐s ❛♥ ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥ ♦❢
t❤❡ ❢♦r♠
c✶ ✈✶ + c✷ ✈✷ + · · · + cn ✈n
✇❤❡r❡ c✶ , c✷ , · · · , cm ❛r❡ ❛♥② s❝❛❧❛rs✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✻ ✴ ✷✺✶

▲✐♥❡❛r ■♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝❡ ❛♥❞ ❉❡♣❡♥❞❡♥❝❡ ♦❢ ✈❡❝t♦rs
●✐✈❡♥ ❛♥② s❡t ♦❢ m ✈❡❝t♦rs ✈✶ , ✈✷ , · · · , ✈m ✭✇✐t❤ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢
❝♦♠♣♦♥❡♥ts✮✱ ❛ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ ✈❡❝t♦rs ✐s ❛♥ ❡①♣r❡ss✐♦♥ ♦❢
t❤❡ ❢♦r♠
c✶ ✈✶ + c✷ ✈✷ + · · · + cn ✈n
✇❤❡r❡ c✶ , c✷ , · · · , cm ❛r❡ ❛♥② s❝❛❧❛rs✳

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥
❚❤❡ ✈❡❝t♦rs v✶ , v✷ , · · · , vm ❛r❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r❧② ❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ✐❢ t❤❡r❡ ❡①✐st s❝❛❧❛rs
c✶ , c✷ , · · · , cm ♥♦t ❛❧❧ ♦❢ t❤❡♠ ✵✱ s✉❝❤ t❤❛t

c✶ ✈✶ + c✷ ✈✷ + · · · + cn ✈n = ✵.

❖t❤❡r✇✐s❡✱ t❤❡ ✈❡❝t♦rs ❛r❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r❧② ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✻ ✴ ✷✺✶

❘❛♥❦ ♦❢ ❛ ▼❛tr✐①
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡ ✈❡❝t♦rs ❛r❡ ▲■ ♦r ▲❉✳
✭✐✮ v✶ = (✶, ✵, ✵), v✷ = (✵, ✶, ✵), v✸ = (✵, ✵, ✶)✳
✭✐✐✮ v✶ = (✶, ✶, ✵), v✷ = (✶, ✸, ✷), v✸ = (✹, ✾, ✺)

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✼ ✴ ✷✺✶

❘❛♥❦ ♦❢ ❛ ▼❛tr✐①
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡ ✈❡❝t♦rs ❛r❡ ▲■ ♦r ▲❉✳
✭✐✮ v✶ = (✶, ✵, ✵), v✷ = (✵, ✶, ✵), v✸ = (✵, ✵, ✶)✳
✭✐✐✮ v✶ = (✶, ✶, ✵), v✷ = (✶, ✸, ✷), v✸ = (✹, ✾, ✺)
✸v✶ + ✺v✷ − ✷v✸ = ✵.

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✼ ✴ ✷✺✶

❘❛♥❦ ♦❢ ❛ ▼❛tr✐①
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡ ✈❡❝t♦rs ❛r❡ ▲■ ♦r ▲❉✳
✭✐✮ v✶ = (✶, ✵, ✵), v✷ = (✵, ✶, ✵), v✸ = (✵, ✵, ✶)✳
✭✐✐✮ v✶ = (✶, ✶, ✵), v✷ = (✶, ✸, ✷), v✸ = (✹, ✾, ✺)
✸v✶ + ✺v✷ − ✷v✸ = ✵.
✭✐✐✐✮ v✶ = (✸, ✵, ✷, ✷), v✷ = (−✻, ✹✷, ✷✹, ✺✹), v✸ = (✷✶, −✷✶, ✵, −✶✺)

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✼ ✴ ✷✺✶

❘❛♥❦ ♦❢ ❛ ▼❛tr✐①
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡ ✈❡❝t♦rs ❛r❡ ▲■ ♦r ▲❉✳
✭✐✮ v✶ = (✶, ✵, ✵), v✷ = (✵, ✶, ✵), v✸ = (✵, ✵, ✶)✳
✭✐✐✮ v✶ = (✶, ✶, ✵), v✷ = (✶, ✸, ✷), v✸ = (✹, ✾, ✺)
✸v✶ + ✺v✷ − ✷v✸ = ✵.
✭✐✐✐✮ v✶ = (✸, ✵, ✷, ✷), v✷ = (−✻, ✹✷, ✷✹, ✺✹), v✸ = (✷✶, −✷✶, ✵, −✶✺)
−✻v✶ + ✶✷ v✷ + v✸ = ✵.

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✼ ✴ ✷✺✶

❘❛♥❦ ♦❢ ❛ ▼❛tr✐①
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡ ✈❡❝t♦rs ❛r❡ ▲■ ♦r ▲❉✳
✭✐✮ v✶ = (✶, ✵, ✵), v✷ = (✵, ✶, ✵), v✸ = (✵, ✵, ✶)✳
✭✐✐✮ v✶ = (✶, ✶, ✵), v✷ = (✶, ✸, ✷), v✸ = (✹, ✾, ✺)
✸v✶ + ✺v✷ − ✷v✸ = ✵.
✭✐✐✐✮ v✶ = (✸, ✵, ✷, ✷), v✷ = (−✻, ✹✷, ✷✹, ✺✹), v✸ = (✷✶, −✷✶, ✵, −✶✺)
−✻v✶ + ✶✷ v✷ + v✸ = ✵.

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥
❚❤❡ r❛♥❦ ♦❢ ❛ ♠❛tr✐① ❆ ✐s t❤❡ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ ❧✐♥❡❛r❧② ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t
r♦✇ ✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ ❆

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✼ ✴ ✷✺✶

❘❛♥❦ ♦❢ ❛ ▼❛tr✐①
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t t❤❡ ✈❡❝t♦rs ❛r❡ ▲■ ♦r ▲❉✳
✭✐✮ v✶ = (✶, ✵, ✵), v✷ = (✵, ✶, ✵), v✸ = (✵, ✵, ✶)✳
✭✐✐✮ v✶ = (✶, ✶, ✵), v✷ = (✶, ✸, ✷), v✸ = (✹, ✾, ✺)
✸v✶ + ✺v✷ − ✷v✸ = ✵.
✭✐✐✐✮ v✶ = (✸, ✵, ✷, ✷), v✷ = (−✻, ✹✷, ✷✹, ✺✹), v✸ = (✷✶, −✷✶, ✵, −✶✺)
−✻v✶ + ✶✷ v✷ + v✸ = ✵.

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥
❚❤❡ r❛♥❦ ♦❢ ❛ ♠❛tr✐① ❆ ✐s t❤❡ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ ❧✐♥❡❛r❧② ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t
r♦✇ ✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ ❆
 
✶ ✵ ✵
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ r❛♥❦ ♦❢ A =  ✵ ✶ ✵ ✳
✵ ✵ ✶

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✼ ✴ ✷✺✶

❊❧❡♠❡♥t❛r② ❘♦✇ ❖♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s

❊❧❡♠❡♥t❛r② ❘♦✇ ❖♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s

■♥t❡r❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ t✇♦ r♦✇s ✭R✶ ←→ R✷ ✮✳

❆❞❞✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ♦❢ ♦♥❡ r♦✇ t♦ ❛♥♦t❤❡r r♦✇
✭R✶ = R✶ + cR✷ ✮✳
▼✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛♥ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❜② ❛ ♥♦♥③❡r♦ ❝♦♥st❛♥t c ✭R✶ = cR✶ ✮✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✽ ✴ ✷✺✶

❊❧❡♠❡♥t❛r② ❘♦✇ ❖♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s

❊❧❡♠❡♥t❛r② ❘♦✇ ❖♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s

■♥t❡r❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ t✇♦ r♦✇s ✭R✶ ←→ R✷ ✮✳

❆❞❞✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ♦❢ ♦♥❡ r♦✇ t♦ ❛♥♦t❤❡r r♦✇
✭R✶ = R✶ + cR✷ ✮✳
▼✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛♥ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❜② ❛ ♥♦♥③❡r♦ ❝♦♥st❛♥t c ✭R✶ = cR✶ ✮✳
◆♦t❡✿ ❆ ♠❛tr✐① ❆✶ r♦✇✲❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t t♦ ❛ ♠❛tr✐① ❆✷ ✐❢ ❆✶ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ♦❜t❛✐♥❡❞
❢r♦♠ ❆✷ ❜② ✜♥✐t❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t❛r② r♦✇ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✽ ✴ ✷✺✶

❊❧❡♠❡♥t❛r② ❘♦✇ ❖♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s

❊❧❡♠❡♥t❛r② ❘♦✇ ❖♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s

■♥t❡r❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ t✇♦ r♦✇s ✭R✶ ←→ R✷ ✮✳

❆❞❞✐t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ♠✉❧t✐♣❧❡ ♦❢ ♦♥❡ r♦✇ t♦ ❛♥♦t❤❡r r♦✇
✭R✶ = R✶ + cR✷ ✮✳
▼✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛♥ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❜② ❛ ♥♦♥③❡r♦ ❝♦♥st❛♥t c ✭R✶ = cR✶ ✮✳
◆♦t❡✿ ❆ ♠❛tr✐① ❆✶ r♦✇✲❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t t♦ ❛ ♠❛tr✐① ❆✷ ✐❢ ❆✶ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ♦❜t❛✐♥❡❞
❢r♦♠ ❆✷ ❜② ✜♥✐t❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t❛r② r♦✇ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s✳
◆♦t❡✿ ❘♦✇✲❡q✉✐✈❛❧❡♥t ♠❛tr✐❝❡s ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ r❛♥❦✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✽ ✴ ✷✺✶

❘♦✇ ❊❝❤❡❧♦♥ ❋♦r♠

❘♦✇ ❊❝❤❡❧♦♥ ❋♦r♠

···
 
r✶✶ r✶✷ r✶n
···
✵
 
a✶✶ a✶✷ a✶n  r✷✷ ··· r✷n 
 a✷✶ a✷✷ ··· a✷n  
 ···

··· ··· ···
✵ ✵ ✳
  
 ··· ··· ··· ···   
A= → ··· rrn =R
ar ✶ ar ✷ ··· arn
✵ ✵ ✵
   
   ··· 
 ··· ··· ··· ···  
 ···

··· ··· ··· 
am ✶ am ✷ ··· amn
✵ ✵ ✵ ···
❇② ❛♣♣❧②✐♥❣ s✉✐t❛❜❧❡ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t❛r② r♦✇ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ❝♦♥✈❡rt❡❞ t♦ R ✳
A

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✾ ✴ ✷✺✶

❘♦✇ ❊❝❤❡❧♦♥ ❋♦r♠

❘♦✇ ❊❝❤❡❧♦♥ ❋♦r♠

···
 
r✶✶ r✶✷ r✶n
···
✵
 
a✶✶ a✶✷ a✶n  r✷✷ ··· r✷n 
 a✷✶ a✷✷ ··· a✷n  
 ···

··· ··· ···
✵ ✵ ✳
  
 ··· ··· ··· ···   
A= → ··· rrn =R
ar ✶ ar ✷ ··· arn
✵ ✵ ✵
   
   ··· 
 ··· ··· ··· ···  
 ···

··· ··· ··· 
am ✶ am ✷ ··· amn
✵ ✵ ✵ ···
❇② ❛♣♣❧②✐♥❣ s✉✐t❛❜❧❡ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t❛r② r♦✇ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ❝♦♥✈❡rt❡❞ t♦ R ✳
A
◆♦t❡✿ ❚❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ ♥♦♥③❡r♦ r♦✇s r ✐♥ t❤❡ r♦✇✲r❡❞✉❝❡❞ ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥t ♠❛tr✐①
R ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ❛♥❞ ❛❧s♦ t❤❡
r❛♥❦ ♦❢ ❘ ✳ r❛♥❦ ♦❢ ❆

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✾ ✴ ✷✺✶

❘♦✇ ❊❝❤❡❧♦♥ ❋♦r♠

❘♦✇ ❊❝❤❡❧♦♥ ❋♦r♠

···
 
r✶✶ r✶✷ r✶n
···
✵
 
a✶✶ a✶✷ a✶n  r✷✷ ··· r✷n 
 a✷✶ a✷✷ ··· a✷n  
 ···

··· ··· ···
✵ ✵ ✳
  
 ··· ··· ··· ···   
A= → ··· rrn =R
ar ✶ ar ✷ ··· arn
✵ ✵ ✵
   
   ··· 
 ··· ··· ··· ···  
 ···

··· ··· ··· 
am ✶ am ✷ ··· amn
✵ ✵ ✵ ···
❇② ❛♣♣❧②✐♥❣ s✉✐t❛❜❧❡ ❡❧❡♠❡♥t❛r② r♦✇ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s ❝♦♥✈❡rt❡❞ t♦ R ✳
A
◆♦t❡✿ ❚❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ ♥♦♥③❡r♦ r♦✇s r ✐♥ t❤❡ r♦✇✲r❡❞✉❝❡❞ ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥t ♠❛tr✐①
R ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ❛♥❞ ❛❧s♦ t❤❡
r❛♥❦ ♦❢ ❘ ✳ r❛♥❦ ♦❢ ❆
✸ ✵ ✷ ✷ 
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ t❤❡ r❛♥❦ ♦❢  −✻ ✹✷ ✷✹ ✺✹ ✳
✷✶ −✷✶ ✵ −✶✺

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✾ ✴ ✷✺✶

❘❛♥❦ ♦❢ ❛ ▼❛tr✐①
   
✸ ✵ ✷ ✷ ✸ ✵ ✷ ✷
Answer  ✵ ✹✷ ✷✽ ✺✽ = ✵ ✹✷ ✷✽ ✺✽ ✳ ❚❤❡ ❧❛st ♠❛tr✐①
✵ −✷✶ −✶✹ −✷✾ ✵ ✵ ✵ ✵
✐s r♦✇✲❡❝❤❡❧♦♥ ❢♦r♠ ❛♥❞ ❤❛s t✇♦ ♥♦♥③❡r♦ r♦✇s✳ ❍❡♥❝❡ r❛♥❦ ❆ = ✷✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✷✵ ✴ ✷✺✶

❘❛♥❦ ♦❢ ❛ ▼❛tr✐①
   
✸ ✵ ✷ ✷ ✸ ✵ ✷ ✷
Answer  ✵ ✹✷ ✷✽ ✺✽ = ✵ ✹✷ ✷✽ ✺✽ ✳ ❚❤❡ ❧❛st ♠❛tr✐①
✵ −✷✶ −✶✹ −✷✾ ✵ ✵ ✵ ✵
✐s r♦✇✲❡❝❤❡❧♦♥ ❢♦r♠ ❛♥❞ ❤❛s t✇♦ ♥♦♥③❡r♦ r♦✇s✳ ❍❡♥❝❡ r❛♥❦ ❆ = ✷✳
◆♦t❡✿ ❆ ❛♥❞ ✐ts ❆❚ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ r❛♥❦✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✷✵ ✴ ✷✺✶

❘❛♥❦ ♦❢ ❛ ▼❛tr✐①
   
✸ ✵ ✷ ✷ ✸ ✵ ✷ ✷
Answer  ✵ ✹✷ ✷✽ ✺✽ = ✵ ✹✷ ✷✽ ✺✽ ✳ ❚❤❡ ❧❛st ♠❛tr✐①
✵ −✷✶ −✶✹ −✷✾ ✵ ✵ ✵ ✵
✐s r♦✇✲❡❝❤❡❧♦♥ ❢♦r♠ ❛♥❞ ❤❛s t✇♦ ♥♦♥③❡r♦ r♦✇s✳ ❍❡♥❝❡ r❛♥❦ ❆ = ✷✳
◆♦t❡✿ ❆ ❛♥❞ ✐ts ❆❚ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ r❛♥❦✳
◆♦t❡✿ ❆❧❧ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦❧✉♠♥s ❛r❡ ❦♥♦✇♥ ❛s ❝♦❧✉♠♥ s♣❛❝❡ ❛♥❞ ❛❧❧
❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ r♦✇s ❛r❡ ❦♥♦✇♥ ❛s r♦✇ s♣❛❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠❛tr✐①✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✷✵ ✴ ✷✺✶

❘❛♥❦ ♦❢ ❛ ▼❛tr✐①
   
✸ ✵ ✷ ✷ ✸ ✵ ✷ ✷
Answer  ✵ ✹✷ ✷✽ ✺✽ = ✵ ✹✷ ✷✽ ✺✽ ✳ ❚❤❡ ❧❛st ♠❛tr✐①
✵ −✷✶ −✶✹ −✷✾ ✵ ✵ ✵ ✵
✐s r♦✇✲❡❝❤❡❧♦♥ ❢♦r♠ ❛♥❞ ❤❛s t✇♦ ♥♦♥③❡r♦ r♦✇s✳ ❍❡♥❝❡ r❛♥❦ ❆ = ✷✳
◆♦t❡✿ ❆ ❛♥❞ ✐ts ❆❚ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ r❛♥❦✳
◆♦t❡✿ ❆❧❧ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦❧✉♠♥s ❛r❡ ❦♥♦✇♥ ❛s ❝♦❧✉♠♥ s♣❛❝❡ ❛♥❞ ❛❧❧
❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ r♦✇s ❛r❡ ❦♥♦✇♥ ❛s r♦✇ s♣❛❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠❛tr✐①✳
◆♦t❡✿ ❚❤❡ r♦✇ s♣❛❝❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❝♦❧✉♠♥ s♣❛❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ ♠❛tr✐① ❆ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡
❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥✱ ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ r❛♥❦ ❆.

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✷✵ ✴ ✷✺✶

❘❛♥❦ ♦❢ ❛ ▼❛tr✐①
   
✸ ✵ ✷ ✷ ✸ ✵ ✷ ✷
Answer  ✵ ✹✷ ✷✽ ✺✽ = ✵ ✹✷ ✷✽ ✺✽ ✳ ❚❤❡ ❧❛st ♠❛tr✐①
✵ −✷✶ −✶✹ −✷✾ ✵ ✵ ✵ ✵
✐s r♦✇✲❡❝❤❡❧♦♥ ❢♦r♠ ❛♥❞ ❤❛s t✇♦ ♥♦♥③❡r♦ r♦✇s✳ ❍❡♥❝❡ r❛♥❦ ❆ = ✷✳
◆♦t❡✿ ❆ ❛♥❞ ✐ts ❆❚ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ r❛♥❦✳
◆♦t❡✿ ❆❧❧ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦❧✉♠♥s ❛r❡ ❦♥♦✇♥ ❛s ❝♦❧✉♠♥ s♣❛❝❡ ❛♥❞ ❛❧❧
❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ r♦✇s ❛r❡ ❦♥♦✇♥ ❛s r♦✇ s♣❛❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠❛tr✐①✳
◆♦t❡✿ ❚❤❡ r♦✇ s♣❛❝❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❝♦❧✉♠♥ s♣❛❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ ♠❛tr✐① ❆ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡
❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥✱ ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ r❛♥❦ ❆.
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ t❤❡ r❛♥❦✱ r♦✇ s♣❛❝❡ ❛♥❞ ❝♦❧✉♠♥ s♣❛❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣
♠❛tr✐①
 
✶ ✷ ✸
✭❛✮  ✷ ✸ ✹ 
✸ ✺ ✼

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✷✵ ✴ ✷✺✶

❘❛♥❦ ♦❢ ❛ ▼❛tr✐①
   
✸ ✵ ✷ ✷ ✸ ✵ ✷ ✷
Answer  ✵ ✹✷ ✷✽ ✺✽ = ✵ ✹✷ ✷✽ ✺✽ ✳ ❚❤❡ ❧❛st ♠❛tr✐①
✵ −✷✶ −✶✹ −✷✾ ✵ ✵ ✵ ✵
✐s r♦✇✲❡❝❤❡❧♦♥ ❢♦r♠ ❛♥❞ ❤❛s t✇♦ ♥♦♥③❡r♦ r♦✇s✳ ❍❡♥❝❡ r❛♥❦ ❆ = ✷✳
◆♦t❡✿ ❆ ❛♥❞ ✐ts ❆❚ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ r❛♥❦✳
◆♦t❡✿ ❆❧❧ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦❧✉♠♥s ❛r❡ ❦♥♦✇♥ ❛s ❝♦❧✉♠♥ s♣❛❝❡ ❛♥❞ ❛❧❧
❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ r♦✇s ❛r❡ ❦♥♦✇♥ ❛s r♦✇ s♣❛❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠❛tr✐①✳
◆♦t❡✿ ❚❤❡ r♦✇ s♣❛❝❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❝♦❧✉♠♥ s♣❛❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ ♠❛tr✐① ❆ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡
❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥✱ ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ r❛♥❦ ❆.
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ t❤❡ r❛♥❦✱ r♦✇ s♣❛❝❡ ❛♥❞ ❝♦❧✉♠♥ s♣❛❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣
♠❛tr✐①
   
✶ ✷ ✸ ✵ ✸ ✺
✭❛✮  ✷ ✸ ✹  ✭❜✮  ✸ ✺ ✵ 
✸ ✺ ✼ ✺ ✵ ✶✵

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✷✵ ✴ ✷✺✶

❘❛♥❦ ♦❢ ❛ ▼❛tr✐①
   
✸ ✵ ✷ ✷ ✸ ✵ ✷ ✷
Answer  ✵ ✹✷ ✷✽ ✺✽ = ✵ ✹✷ ✷✽ ✺✽ ✳ ❚❤❡ ❧❛st ♠❛tr✐①
✵ −✷✶ −✶✹ −✷✾ ✵ ✵ ✵ ✵
✐s r♦✇✲❡❝❤❡❧♦♥ ❢♦r♠ ❛♥❞ ❤❛s t✇♦ ♥♦♥③❡r♦ r♦✇s✳ ❍❡♥❝❡ r❛♥❦ ❆ = ✷✳
◆♦t❡✿ ❆ ❛♥❞ ✐ts ❆❚ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ r❛♥❦✳
◆♦t❡✿ ❆❧❧ ❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦❧✉♠♥s ❛r❡ ❦♥♦✇♥ ❛s ❝♦❧✉♠♥ s♣❛❝❡ ❛♥❞ ❛❧❧
❝♦♠❜✐♥❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ r♦✇s ❛r❡ ❦♥♦✇♥ ❛s r♦✇ s♣❛❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠❛tr✐①✳
◆♦t❡✿ ❚❤❡ r♦✇ s♣❛❝❡ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❝♦❧✉♠♥ s♣❛❝❡ ♦❢ ❛ ♠❛tr✐① ❆ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡
❞✐♠❡♥s✐♦♥✱ ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ r❛♥❦ ❆.
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ t❤❡ r❛♥❦✱ r♦✇ s♣❛❝❡ ❛♥❞ ❝♦❧✉♠♥ s♣❛❝❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣
♠❛tr✐①  
    ✷ ✹ ✽ ✶✻
✶ ✷ ✸ ✵ ✸ ✺
 ✶✻ ✽ ✹ ✷ 
✭❛✮  ✷ ✸ ✹  ✭❜✮  ✸ ✺ ✵  ✭❝✮  ✳
 ✹ ✽ ✶✻ ✷ 
✸ ✺ ✼ ✺ ✵ ✶✵
✷ ✶✻ ✽ ✹

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✷✵ ✴ ✷✺✶

❙②st❡♠ ♦❢ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s

❆ ❧✐♥❡❛r s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ♠ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ✐♥ ♥ ✉♥❦♥♦✇♥s x✶ , x ✷ , · · · , x n ✐s ❛ s❡t ♦❢

❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠

a✶✶ x✶ + · + a✶n xn = b✶
a✷✶ x✶ + · + a✷n xn = b✷
············
am✶ x✶ + · + amn xn = bm
✇❤❡r❡ a✶✶ , · · · , amn ❛♥❞ b✶ , · · · , bm ❛r❡ ❝♦♥st❛♥ts✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✷✶ ✴ ✷✺✶

❙②st❡♠ ♦❢ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s

❆ ❧✐♥❡❛r s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ♠ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ✐♥ ♥ ✉♥❦♥♦✇♥s x✶ , x ✷ , · · · , x n ✐s ❛ s❡t ♦❢

❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠

a✶✶ x✶ + · + a✶n xn = b✶
a✷✶ x✶ + · + a✷n xn = b✷
············
am✶ x✶ + · + amn xn = bm
✇❤❡r❡ a✶✶ , · · · , amn ❛♥❞ b✶ , · · · , bm ❛r❡ ❝♦♥st❛♥ts✳

◆♦t❡✿ ■❢ ❛❧❧ t❤❡ bj ❛r❡ ③❡r♦✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❤♦♠♦❣❡♥❡♦✉s

s②st❡♠✳ ■❢ ❛t ❧❡❛st ♦♥❡ bj ✐s ♥♦t ③❡r♦✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛ ♥♦♥

❤♦♠♦❣❡♥❡♦✉s s②st❡♠✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✷✶ ✴ ✷✺✶

❙②st❡♠ ♦❢ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s

❆ ❧✐♥❡❛r s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ♠ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ✐♥ ♥ ✉♥❦♥♦✇♥s x✶ , x ✷ , · · · , x n ✐s ❛ s❡t ♦❢

❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠

a✶✶ x✶ + · + a✶n xn = b✶
a✷✶ x✶ + · + a✷n xn = b✷
············
am✶ x✶ + · + amn xn = bm
✇❤❡r❡ a✶✶ , · · · , amn ❛♥❞ b✶ , · · · , bm ❛r❡ ❝♦♥st❛♥ts✳

◆♦t❡✿ ■❢ ❛❧❧ t❤❡ bj ❛r❡ ③❡r♦✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❤♦♠♦❣❡♥❡♦✉s

s②st❡♠✳ ■❢ ❛t ❧❡❛st ♦♥❡ bj ✐s ♥♦t ③❡r♦✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛ ♥♦♥

❤♦♠♦❣❡♥❡♦✉s s②st❡♠✳

◆♦t❡✿ ■❢ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ✐s ❤♦♠♦❣❡♥❡♦✉s✱ ✐t ❛❧✇❛②s ❤❛s ❛t ❧❡❛st t❤❡

tr✐✈✐❛❧ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ x✶ = ✵, · · · , xn = ✵.

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✷✶ ✴ ✷✺✶

▼❛tr✐① ❢♦r♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❙②st❡♠ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s

Ax = b

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✷✷ ✴ ✷✺✶

▼❛tr✐① ❢♦r♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❙②st❡♠ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s

Ax = b
   
  x✶ b✶
a✶✶ a✶✷ ··· a✶n  x✷   b✷ 
 a✷✶ a✷✷ ··· a✷n  
✱ ① =  ·
  
✇❤❡r❡ A=
 ··· ···
✱ ❜ =  · ✳
··· ···  
 ·
  
  · 
am ✶ am ✷ ··· amn
xn bm

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✷✷ ✴ ✷✺✶

▼❛tr✐① ❢♦r♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❙②st❡♠ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s

Ax = b
   
  x✶ b✶
a✶✶ a✶✷ · · · a✶n  x✷   b✷ 
 a✷✶ a✷✷ · · · a✷n     
✇❤❡r❡ A =
 · · · · · · · · · · · · ✱ ① =  · ✱  · ✳
❜ = 
    
 ·   · 
am✶ am✷ · · · amn
xn bm
 
a✶✶ a✶✷ · · · a✶n |b✶
 a✷✶ a✷✷ · · · a✷n |b✷ 
❚❤❡ ❛✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♠❛tr✐① ✐s ❆ ⑦ =  
 ··· ··· ··· ··· · 
am ✶ am ✷ · · · amn |bm

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✷✷ ✴ ✷✺✶

❙♦❧✉t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❙②st❡♠s✿ ❊①✐st❡♥❝❡✱
❯♥✐q✉❡♥❡ss

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✭❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢♦r ▲✐♥❡❛r ❙②st❡♠s✮

❊①✐st❡♥❝❡
❆ ❧✐♥❡❛r s②st❡♠ ♦❢ m ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ✐♥ n ✉♥❦♥♦✇♥s x✶ , x✷ , · · · , xn ✐s ❝♦♥s✐st❡♥t✱
t❤❛t ✐s✱ ❤❛s s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s✱ ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢ t❤❡ ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥t ♠❛tr✐① ❆ ❛♥❞ t❤❡
❛✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♠❛tr✐① ❆ ⑦ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ r❛♥❦✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✷✸ ✴ ✷✺✶

❙♦❧✉t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❙②st❡♠s✿ ❊①✐st❡♥❝❡✱
❯♥✐q✉❡♥❡ss

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✭❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢♦r ▲✐♥❡❛r ❙②st❡♠s✮

❊①✐st❡♥❝❡
❆ ❧✐♥❡❛r s②st❡♠ ♦❢ m ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ✐♥ n ✉♥❦♥♦✇♥s x✶ , x✷ , · · · , xn ✐s ❝♦♥s✐st❡♥t✱
t❤❛t ✐s✱ ❤❛s s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s✱ ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢ t❤❡ ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥t ♠❛tr✐① ❆ ❛♥❞ t❤❡
❛✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♠❛tr✐① ❆ ⑦ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ r❛♥❦✳
❯♥✐q✉❡♥❡ss
❚❤❡ s②st❡♠ ❤❛s ♣r❡❝✐s❡❧② ♦♥❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢ t❤✐s ❝♦♠♠♦♥ r❛♥❦ r ♦❢
❆ ❛♥❞ ❆⑦ ❡q✉❛❧s n✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✷✸ ✴ ✷✺✶

❙♦❧✉t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ▲✐♥❡❛r ❙②st❡♠s✿ ❊①✐st❡♥❝❡✱
❯♥✐q✉❡♥❡ss

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✭❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥t❛❧ ❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢♦r ▲✐♥❡❛r ❙②st❡♠s✮

❊①✐st❡♥❝❡
❆ ❧✐♥❡❛r s②st❡♠ ♦❢ m ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ✐♥ n ✉♥❦♥♦✇♥s x✶ , x✷ , · · · , xn ✐s ❝♦♥s✐st❡♥t✱
t❤❛t ✐s✱ ❤❛s s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s✱ ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢ t❤❡ ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥t ♠❛tr✐① ❆ ❛♥❞ t❤❡
❛✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♠❛tr✐① ❆ ⑦ ❤❛✈❡ t❤❡ s❛♠❡ r❛♥❦✳
❯♥✐q✉❡♥❡ss
❚❤❡ s②st❡♠ ❤❛s ♣r❡❝✐s❡❧② ♦♥❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢ t❤✐s ❝♦♠♠♦♥ r❛♥❦ r ♦❢
❆ ❛♥❞ ❆⑦ ❡q✉❛❧s n✳
■♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥② s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s
■❢ t❤✐s ❝♦♠♠♦♥ r❛♥❦ r ✐s ❧❡ss t❤❛♥ n✱ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ❤❛s ✐♥✜♥✐t❡❧② ♠❛♥②
s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s✳ ❆❧❧ ♦❢ t❤❡s❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ♦❜t❛✐♥❡❞ ❜② ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥✐♥❣ r s✉✐t❛❜❧❡
✉♥❦♥♦✇♥s ✭✇❤♦s❡ s✉❜♠❛tr✐① ♦❢ ❝♦❡✣❝✐❡♥ts ♠✉st ❤❛✈❡ r❛♥❦ r ✮ ✐♥ t❡r♠s ♦❢
t❤❡ r❡♠❛✐♥✐♥❣ n − r ✉♥❦♥♦✇♥s✱ t♦ ✇❤✐❝❤ ❛r❜✐tr❛r② ✈❛❧✉❡s ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❛ss✐❣♥❡❞✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✷✸ ✴ ✷✺✶

●❛✉ss ❊❧✐♠✐♥❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❇❛❝❦ ❙✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥
❙t❡♣✲✶ ❈♦♥✈❡rt t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ✐♥t♦ tr✐❛♥❣✉❧❛r ❢♦r♠ ❜② ✉s✐♥❣
❡❧❡♠❡♥t❛r② r♦✇ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s✳
❙t❡♣✲✷ ❙♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ tr✐❛♥❣✉❧❛r s②st❡♠ ❜② ❜❛❝❦ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❙♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s
✷x✶ + ✺x✷ = ✷
−✹x✶ + ✸x✷ = −✸✵

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✷✻ ✴ ✷✺✶

●❛✉ss ❊❧✐♠✐♥❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❇❛❝❦ ❙✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥
❙t❡♣✲✶ ❈♦♥✈❡rt t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ✐♥t♦ tr✐❛♥❣✉❧❛r ❢♦r♠ ❜② ✉s✐♥❣
❡❧❡♠❡♥t❛r② r♦✇ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s✳
❙t❡♣✲✷ ❙♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ tr✐❛♥❣✉❧❛r s②st❡♠ ❜② ❜❛❝❦ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❙♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s
✷x✶ + ✺x✷ = ✷
−✹x✶ + ✸x✷ = −✸✵

 ❆✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♠❛tr✐①
Answer
✷ ✺ ✷
❆ = −✹ ✸ −✸✵ ❘♦✇✷ → ❘♦✇ ✷✰✷ ❘♦✇ ✶ ✷✵ ✶✸✺ ✷
  

−✷✻

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✷✻ ✴ ✷✺✶

●❛✉ss ❊❧✐♠✐♥❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❇❛❝❦ ❙✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥
❙t❡♣✲✶ ❈♦♥✈❡rt t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ✐♥t♦ tr✐❛♥❣✉❧❛r ❢♦r♠ ❜② ✉s✐♥❣
❡❧❡♠❡♥t❛r② r♦✇ ♦♣❡r❛t✐♦♥s✳
❙t❡♣✲✷ ❙♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ tr✐❛♥❣✉❧❛r s②st❡♠ ❜② ❜❛❝❦ s✉❜st✐t✉t✐♦♥✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❙♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s
✷x✶ + ✺x✷ = ✷
−✹x✶ + ✸x✷ = −✸✵

 ❆✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♠❛tr✐①
Answer
✷ ✺ ✷
❆ = −✹ ✸ −✸✵ ❘♦✇✷ → ❘♦✇ ✷✰✷ ❘♦✇ ✶ ✷✵ ✶✸✺ ✷
  

−✷✻
✷x✶ + ✺x✷ = ✷
✶✸x✷ = −✷✻
=⇒ x✷ = −✷ ❛♥❞ x✶ = ✻✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✷✻ ✴ ✷✺✶

●❛✉ss ❊❧✐♠✐♥❛t✐♦♥
❙♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s

✷ x✶ + ✻x✷ + ✽x✸ = ✶✻
x✶ + ✶✺x✷ + ✶✾x✸ = ✸✽
✹

✷x✶ + ✸x✸ = ✻

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✷✼ ✴ ✷✺✶

●❛✉ss ❊❧✐♠✐♥❛t✐♦♥
❙♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s

✷x✶ + ✻x✷ + ✽x✸ = ✶✻

✹ x✶ + ✶✺x✷ + ✶✾x✸ = ✸✽
✷x✶ + ✸x✸ = ✻
 
✷ ✻ ✽ ✶✻

Answer ⑦
❆✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♠❛tr✐① ❆ = ✹ ✶✺ ✶✾ ✸✽ 
✷ ✵ ✸ ✻
 
✷ ✻ ✽ ✶✻
❘✷ − ✷❘ ✶ → ❘✷ 
✵ ✸ ✸ ✻ 
❘✸ − ❘✶ → ❘ ✸
✵ −✻ −✺ −✶✵
 
✷ ✻ ✽ ✶✻

❘✸ + ✷❘✷ → ❘✸  ✵ ✸ ✸ ✻ 
✵ ✵ ✶ ✷

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✷✼ ✴ ✷✺✶

●❛✉ss ❊❧✐♠✐♥❛t✐♦♥
❙♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s

✷x✶ + ✻x✷ + ✽x✸ = ✶✻

✹ x✶ + ✶✺x✷ + ✶✾x✸ = ✸✽
✷x✶ + ✸x✸ = ✻
 
✷ ✻ ✽ ✶✻

Answer ⑦
❆✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♠❛tr✐① ❆ = ✹ ✶✺ ✶✾ ✸✽ 
✷ ✵ ✸ ✻
 
✷ ✻ ✽ ✶✻
❘✷ − ✷❘ ✶ → ❘✷ 
✵ ✸ ✸ ✻ 
❘✸ − ❘✶ → ❘ ✸
✵ −✻ −✺ −✶✵
 
✷ ✻ ✽ ✶✻ r❛♥❦ ❆ ⑦) = n =
( ) = ✸ =r❛♥❦(❆
❘✸ + ✷❘✷ → ❘✸  ✵ ✸ ✸ ✻  ◆✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✳

✵ ✵ ✶ ✷

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✷✼ ✴ ✷✺✶

●❛✉ss ❊❧✐♠✐♥❛t✐♦♥
❙♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s

✷x✶ + ✻x✷ + ✽x✸ = ✶✻

✹ x✶ + ✶✺x✷ + ✶✾x✸ = ✸✽
✷x✶ + ✸x✸ = ✻
 
✷ ✻ ✽ ✶✻

Answer ⑦
❆✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♠❛tr✐① ❆ = ✹ ✶✺ ✶✾ ✸✽ 
✷ ✵ ✸ ✻
 
✷ ✻ ✽ ✶✻
❘✷ − ✷❘ ✶ → ❘✷ 
✵ ✸ ✸ ✻ 
❘✸ − ❘✶ → ❘ ✸
✵ −✻ −✺ −✶✵
 
✷ ✻ ✽ ✶✻ r❛♥❦ ❆ ⑦) = n =
( ) = ✸ =r❛♥❦(❆
❘✸ + ✷❘✷ → ❘✸  ✵ ✸ ✸ ✻  ◆✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s✳

✵ ✵ ✶ ✷ x✸ = ✷, x✷ = ✵, x✶ = ✵.

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✷✼ ✴ ✷✺✶

●❛✉ss ❊❧✐♠✐♥❛t✐♦♥
❙♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s

✸ x✶ + ✷x✷ + x✸ = ✸
✷ x✶ + x ✷ + x✸ = ✵
x✶ + ✷x✷ + ✹x✸ = ✻
✻

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✷✽ ✴ ✷✺✶

●❛✉ss ❊❧✐♠✐♥❛t✐♦♥
❙♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s

✸ x✶ + ✷x✷ + x✸ = ✸
✷ x✶ + x ✷ + x✸ = ✵
✻ x✶ + ✷x✷ + ✹x✸ = ✻
 
✸ ✷ ✶ ✸

Answer ⑦
❆✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♠❛tr✐① ❆ = ✷ ✶ ✶ ✵ 
✻ ✷ ✹ ✻
 
✸ ✷ ✶ ✸
❘✷ − ✷✸ ❘✶ → ❘✷
 ✵ − ✸✶ ✶
✸ −✷  ❘✸ − ✻❘✷ → ❘✸
❘✸ − ✷❘✶ → ❘✸
✵ −✷ ✷ ✵
 
✸ ✷ ✶ ✸
 ✵ − ✸✶ ✶
✸ −✷ 
✵ ✵ ✵ ✶✷

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✷✽ ✴ ✷✺✶

●❛✉ss ❊❧✐♠✐♥❛t✐♦♥
❙♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s

✸ x✶ + ✷x✷ + x✸ = ✸
✷ x✶ + x ✷ + x✸ = ✵
✻ x✶ + ✷x✷ + ✹x✸ = ✻
 
✸ ✷ ✶ ✸

Answer ⑦
❆✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♠❛tr✐① ❆ = ✷ ✶ ✶ ✵ 
✻ ✷ ✹ ✻
 
✸ ✷ ✶ ✸
❘✷ − ✷✸ ❘✶ → ❘✷
 ✵ − ✸✶ ✶
✸ −✷  ❘✸ − ✻❘✷ → ❘✸
❘✸ − ✷❘✶ → ❘✸
✵ −✷ ✷ ✵
 
✸ ✷ ✶ ✸
 ✵ − ✸✶ ✶
✸ −✷  r❛♥❦ ❆ ⑦ )✳
( ) = ✷ ̸= ✸ =r❛♥❦(❆
✵ ✵ ✵ ✶✷

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✷✽ ✴ ✷✺✶

●❛✉ss ❊❧✐♠✐♥❛t✐♦♥
❙♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s

✸ x✶ + ✷x✷ + x✸ = ✸
✷ x✶ + x ✷ + x✸ = ✵
✻ x✶ + ✷x✷ + ✹x✸ = ✻
 
✸ ✷ ✶ ✸

Answer ⑦
❆✉❣♠❡♥t❡❞ ♠❛tr✐① ❆ = ✷ ✶ ✶ ✵ 
✻ ✷ ✹ ✻
 
✸ ✷ ✶ ✸
❘✷ − ✷✸ ❘✶ → ❘✷
 ✵ − ✸✶ ✶
✸ −✷  ❘✸ − ✻❘✷ → ❘✸
❘✸ − ✷❘✶ → ❘✸
✵ −✷ ✷ ✵
 
✸ ✷ ✶ ✸
 ✵ − ✸✶ ✶
✸ −✷  r❛♥❦ ❆ ⑦ )✳
( ) = ✷ ̸= ✸ =r❛♥❦(❆ ◆♦ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥✳

✵ ✵ ✵ ✶✷

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✷✽ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❆❝❡ ◆♦✈❡❧t② ✇✐s❤❡s t♦ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ t❤r❡❡ t②♣❡s ♦❢ s♦✉✈❡♥✐rs t②♣❡s
A, B, ❛♥❞ C✳ ❚♦ ♠❛♥✉❢❛❝t✉r❡ ❛ t②♣❡ −A s♦✉✈❡♥✐r r❡q✉✐r❡s ✷ ♠✐♥✉t❡s ♦♥

♠❛❝❤✐♥❡ ■✱ ✶ ♠✐♥✉t❡ ♦♥ ♠❛❝❤✐♥❡ ■■✱ ❛♥❞ ✷ ♠✐♥✉t❡ ♠❛❝❤✐♥❡ ■■■✳ ❆ t②♣❡ −B

s♦✉✈❡♥✐r r❡q✉✐r❡s ✶ ♠✐♥✉t❡s ♦♥ ♠❛❝❤✐♥❡ ■✱ ✸ ♠✐♥✉t❡ ♦♥ ♠❛❝❤✐♥❡ ■■✱ ❛♥❞ ✶

♠✐♥✉t❡ ♠❛❝❤✐♥❡ ■■■✳ t②♣❡ −C s♦✉✈❡♥✐r r❡q✉✐r❡s ✶ ♠✐♥✉t❡s ♦♥ ♠❛❝❤✐♥❡ ■ ❛♥❞

✷ ♠✐♥✉t❡s ❡❛❝❤ ♦♥ ♠❛❝❤✐♥❡s ■■✱ ■■■✳ ❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❛ ✸ ❤♦✉rs ❛✈❛✐❧❛❜❧❡ ♦♥ ♠❛❝❤✐♥❡

■✱ ✺ ❤♦✉rs ❛✈❛✐❧❛❜❧❡ ♦♥ ♠❛❝❤✐♥❡ ■■✱ ❛♥❞ ✹ ❤♦✉rs ❛✈❛✐❧❛❜❧❡ ♦♥ ♠❛❝❤✐♥❡ ■■■ ❢♦r

♣r♦❝❡ss✐♥❣ t❤❡ ♦r❞❡r✳ ❍♦✇ ♠❛♥② s♦✉✈❡♥✐rs ♦❢ ❡❛❝❤ t②♣❡ s❤♦✉❧❞ ❆❝❡ ◆♦✈❡❧t②

♠❛❦❡ ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ✉s❡ ❛❧❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛✈❛✐❧❛❜❧❡ t✐♠❡ ?

Answer
✷ x✶ + x✷ + x✸ = ✶✽✵
x✶ + ✸x✷ + ✷x✸ = ✸✵✵
✷ x✶ + x✷ + ✷x✸ = ✷✹✵

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✸✷ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❆❝❡ ◆♦✈❡❧t② ✇✐s❤❡s t♦ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ t❤r❡❡ t②♣❡s ♦❢ s♦✉✈❡♥✐rs t②♣❡s
A, B, ❛♥❞ C✳ ❚♦ ♠❛♥✉❢❛❝t✉r❡ ❛ t②♣❡ −A s♦✉✈❡♥✐r r❡q✉✐r❡s ✷ ♠✐♥✉t❡s ♦♥

♠❛❝❤✐♥❡ ■✱ ✶ ♠✐♥✉t❡ ♦♥ ♠❛❝❤✐♥❡ ■■✱ ❛♥❞ ✷ ♠✐♥✉t❡ ♠❛❝❤✐♥❡ ■■■✳ ❆ t②♣❡ −B

s♦✉✈❡♥✐r r❡q✉✐r❡s ✶ ♠✐♥✉t❡s ♦♥ ♠❛❝❤✐♥❡ ■✱ ✸ ♠✐♥✉t❡ ♦♥ ♠❛❝❤✐♥❡ ■■✱ ❛♥❞ ✶

♠✐♥✉t❡ ♠❛❝❤✐♥❡ ■■■✳ t②♣❡ −C s♦✉✈❡♥✐r r❡q✉✐r❡s ✶ ♠✐♥✉t❡s ♦♥ ♠❛❝❤✐♥❡ ■ ❛♥❞

✷ ♠✐♥✉t❡s ❡❛❝❤ ♦♥ ♠❛❝❤✐♥❡s ■■✱ ■■■✳ ❚❤❡r❡ ❛r❛ ✸ ❤♦✉rs ❛✈❛✐❧❛❜❧❡ ♦♥ ♠❛❝❤✐♥❡

■✱ ✺ ❤♦✉rs ❛✈❛✐❧❛❜❧❡ ♦♥ ♠❛❝❤✐♥❡ ■■✱ ❛♥❞ ✹ ❤♦✉rs ❛✈❛✐❧❛❜❧❡ ♦♥ ♠❛❝❤✐♥❡ ■■■ ❢♦r

♣r♦❝❡ss✐♥❣ t❤❡ ♦r❞❡r✳ ❍♦✇ ♠❛♥② s♦✉✈❡♥✐rs ♦❢ ❡❛❝❤ t②♣❡ s❤♦✉❧❞ ❆❝❡ ◆♦✈❡❧t②

♠❛❦❡ ✐♥ ♦r❞❡r t♦ ✉s❡ ❛❧❧ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❛✈❛✐❧❛❜❧❡ t✐♠❡ ?

Answer
✷ x✶ + x✷ + x✸ = ✶✽✵
x✶ + ✸x✷ + ✷x✸ = ✸✵✵
✷ x✶ + x✷ + ✷x✸ = ✷✹✵
x✶ = ✸✻, x✷ = ✹✽ ❛♥❞ x✸ = ✻✵.

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✸✷ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥
❚r❛✣❝ ✢♦✇ ✭s✉♠ ♦❢ ✐♥ ✢♦✇❂s✉♠ ♦❢ ♦✉t ✢♦✇✮

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✸✸ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥
❚r❛✣❝ ✢♦✇ ✭s✉♠ ♦❢ ✐♥ ✢♦✇❂s✉♠ ♦❢ ♦✉t ✢♦✇✮
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ■♥ t❤❡ ❞♦✇♥t♦✇♥ s❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❱✐❥❛②❛✇❛❞❛ t✇♦ s❡ts ♦❢ ♦♥❡✲✇❛②
str❡❡ts ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✳ ❚❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ❤♦✉r❧② ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ♦❢ tr❛✣❝ ❡♥t❡r✐♥❣ ❛♥❞ ❧❡❛✈✐♥❣
t❤✐s s❡❝t✐♦♥ ❞✉r✐♥❣ r✉s❤ ❤♦✉r ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ✐♥ ❞✐❛❣r❛♠✳ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ t❤❡ ❛♠♦✉♥t ♦❢
tr❛✣❝ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦✉r ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✸✸ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥
❚r❛✣❝ ✢♦✇ ✭s✉♠ ♦❢ ✐♥ ✢♦✇❂s✉♠ ♦❢ ♦✉t ✢♦✇✮
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ■♥ t❤❡ ❞♦✇♥t♦✇♥ s❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❱✐❥❛②❛✇❛❞❛ t✇♦ s❡ts ♦❢ ♦♥❡✲✇❛②
str❡❡ts ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✳ ❚❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ❤♦✉r❧② ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ♦❢ tr❛✣❝ ❡♥t❡r✐♥❣ ❛♥❞ ❧❡❛✈✐♥❣
t❤✐s s❡❝t✐♦♥ ❞✉r✐♥❣ r✉s❤ ❤♦✉r ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ✐♥ ❞✐❛❣r❛♠✳ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ t❤❡ ❛♠♦✉♥t ♦❢
tr❛✣❝ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦✉r ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥✳
Answer

x✶ − x✹ = ✶✻✵

x✶ − x✷ = ✷✹✵
−x✷ + x✸ = ✻✵✵
x✸ − x✹ = ✺✷✵

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✸✸ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥
❚r❛✣❝ ✢♦✇ ✭s✉♠ ♦❢ ✐♥ ✢♦✇❂s✉♠ ♦❢ ♦✉t ✢♦✇✮
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ■♥ t❤❡ ❞♦✇♥t♦✇♥ s❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❱✐❥❛②❛✇❛❞❛ t✇♦ s❡ts ♦❢ ♦♥❡✲✇❛②
str❡❡ts ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✳ ❚❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ❤♦✉r❧② ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ♦❢ tr❛✣❝ ❡♥t❡r✐♥❣ ❛♥❞ ❧❡❛✈✐♥❣
t❤✐s s❡❝t✐♦♥ ❞✉r✐♥❣ r✉s❤ ❤♦✉r ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ✐♥ ❞✐❛❣r❛♠✳ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ t❤❡ ❛♠♦✉♥t ♦❢
tr❛✣❝ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦✉r ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥✳
Answer

x✶ − x✹ = ✶✻✵

x✶ − x✷ = ✷✹✵
−x✷ + x✸ = ✻✵✵
x✸ − x✹ = ✺✷✵
x✶ = ✹✻✵, x✷ = ✷✷✵, x✸ = ✽✷✵
❛♥❞ x✹ = ✸✵✵

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✸✸ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ■♥ t❤❡ ❞♦✇♥t♦✇♥ s❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❇❤✉❜❛♥❡s✇❛r t✇♦ s❡ts ♦❢ ♦♥❡✲✇❛②
str❡❡ts ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✳ ❚❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ❤♦✉r❧② ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ♦❢ tr❛✣❝ ❡♥t❡r✐♥❣ ❛♥❞ ❧❡❛✈✐♥❣
t❤✐s s❡❝t✐♦♥ ❞✉r✐♥❣ r✉s❤ ❤♦✉r ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ✐♥ ❞✐❛❣r❛♠✳ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ t❤❡ ❛♠♦✉♥t ♦❢
tr❛✣❝ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦✉r ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✸✹ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ■♥ t❤❡ ❞♦✇♥t♦✇♥ s❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❇❤✉❜❛♥❡s✇❛r t✇♦ s❡ts ♦❢ ♦♥❡✲✇❛②
str❡❡ts ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✳ ❚❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ❤♦✉r❧② ✈♦❧✉♠❡ ♦❢ tr❛✣❝ ❡♥t❡r✐♥❣ ❛♥❞ ❧❡❛✈✐♥❣
t❤✐s s❡❝t✐♦♥ ❞✉r✐♥❣ r✉s❤ ❤♦✉r ✐s ❣✐✈❡♥ ✐♥ ❞✐❛❣r❛♠✳ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ t❤❡ ❛♠♦✉♥t ♦❢
tr❛✣❝ ❜❡t✇❡❡♥ ❡❛❝❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦✉r ✐♥t❡rs❡❝t✐♦♥✳
Answer

x✶ − x ✷ =✶✻✵
−x✷ + x✸ = ✹✵
x✸ − x✹ = ✷✶✵
x✶ − x✹ = ✸✸✵

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✸✹ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥
❇❛❧❛♥❝✐♥❣ ❛ ❝❤❡♠✐❝❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥
❲❤❡♥ ❤②❞r♦❣❡♥ ✭❍✮ ❜✉r♥s ✐♥ ♦①②❣❡♥ ✭❖✮ ✐t ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s ✇❛t❡r✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✸✺ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥
❇❛❧❛♥❝✐♥❣ ❛ ❝❤❡♠✐❝❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥
❲❤❡♥ ❤②❞r♦❣❡♥ ✭❍✮ ❜✉r♥s ✐♥ ♦①②❣❡♥ ✭❖✮ ✐t ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s ✇❛t❡r✳
H ✷ + O✷ → H ✷ O

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✸✺ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥
❇❛❧❛♥❝✐♥❣ ❛ ❝❤❡♠✐❝❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥
❲❤❡♥ ❤②❞r♦❣❡♥ ✭❍✮ ❜✉r♥s ✐♥ ♦①②❣❡♥ ✭❖✮ ✐t ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s ✇❛t❡r✳
H ✷ + O✷ → H ✷ O
◆✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ ❛t♦♠s ♦❢ ❍ ❛♥❞ ❖ ❛r❡ s❛♠❡ ♦♥ ❜♦t❤ s✐❞❡s ♦❢ t❤✐s r❡❛❝t✐♦♥✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✸✺ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥
❇❛❧❛♥❝✐♥❣ ❛ ❝❤❡♠✐❝❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥
❲❤❡♥ ❤②❞r♦❣❡♥ ✭❍✮ ❜✉r♥s ✐♥ ♦①②❣❡♥ ✭❖✮ ✐t ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s ✇❛t❡r✳
H ✷ + O✷ → H ✷ O
◆✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ ❛t♦♠s ♦❢ ❍ ❛♥❞ ❖ ❛r❡ s❛♠❡ ♦♥ ❜♦t❤ s✐❞❡s ♦❢ t❤✐s r❡❛❝t✐♦♥✳
✷H✷ + O✷ → ✷H✷ O

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✸✺ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥
❇❛❧❛♥❝✐♥❣ ❛ ❝❤❡♠✐❝❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥
❲❤❡♥ ❤②❞r♦❣❡♥ ✭❍✮ ❜✉r♥s ✐♥ ♦①②❣❡♥ ✭❖✮ ✐t ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s ✇❛t❡r✳
H ✷ + O✷ → H ✷ O
◆✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ ❛t♦♠s ♦❢ ❍ ❛♥❞ ❖ ❛r❡ s❛♠❡ ♦♥ ❜♦t❤ s✐❞❡s ♦❢ t❤✐s r❡❛❝t✐♦♥✳
✷H✷ + O✷ → ✷H✷ O
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❲❤❡♥ ♣r♦♣❛♥❡ ❜✉r♥s ✐♥ ♦①②❣❡♥✱ ✐t ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s ❝❛r❜♦♥ ❞✐♦①✐❞❡ ❛♥❞
✇❛t❡r✱ ❜❛❧❛♥❝❡ t❤❡ ❝❤❡♠✐❝❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❡ t❤❡ ❜❛❧❛♥❝❡❞ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥
C✷ H✽ + O✷ → CO✷ + H✷ O ✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✸✺ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥
❇❛❧❛♥❝✐♥❣ ❛ ❝❤❡♠✐❝❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥
❲❤❡♥ ❤②❞r♦❣❡♥ ✭❍✮ ❜✉r♥s ✐♥ ♦①②❣❡♥ ✭❖✮ ✐t ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s ✇❛t❡r✳
H ✷ + O✷ → H ✷ O
◆✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ ❛t♦♠s ♦❢ ❍ ❛♥❞ ❖ ❛r❡ s❛♠❡ ♦♥ ❜♦t❤ s✐❞❡s ♦❢ t❤✐s r❡❛❝t✐♦♥✳
✷H✷ + O✷ → ✷H✷ O
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❲❤❡♥ ♣r♦♣❛♥❡ ❜✉r♥s ✐♥ ♦①②❣❡♥✱ ✐t ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s ❝❛r❜♦♥ ❞✐♦①✐❞❡ ❛♥❞
✇❛t❡r✱ ❜❛❧❛♥❝❡ t❤❡ ❝❤❡♠✐❝❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❡ t❤❡ ❜❛❧❛♥❝❡❞ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥
C✷ H✽ + O✷ → CO✷ + H✷ O ✳
Answer x✶ C✷ H✽ + x✷ O✷ → x✸ CO✷ + x✹ H✷ O ✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✸✺ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥
❇❛❧❛♥❝✐♥❣ ❛ ❝❤❡♠✐❝❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥
❲❤❡♥ ❤②❞r♦❣❡♥ ✭❍✮ ❜✉r♥s ✐♥ ♦①②❣❡♥ ✭❖✮ ✐t ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s ✇❛t❡r✳
H ✷ + O✷ → H ✷ O
◆✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ ❛t♦♠s ♦❢ ❍ ❛♥❞ ❖ ❛r❡ s❛♠❡ ♦♥ ❜♦t❤ s✐❞❡s ♦❢ t❤✐s r❡❛❝t✐♦♥✳
✷H✷ + O✷ → ✷H✷ O
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❲❤❡♥ ♣r♦♣❛♥❡ ❜✉r♥s ✐♥ ♦①②❣❡♥✱ ✐t ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s ❝❛r❜♦♥ ❞✐♦①✐❞❡ ❛♥❞
✇❛t❡r✱ ❜❛❧❛♥❝❡ t❤❡ ❝❤❡♠✐❝❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❡ t❤❡ ❜❛❧❛♥❝❡❞ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥
C✷ H✽ + O✷ → CO✷ + H✷ O ✳
Answer x✶ C✷ H✽ + x✷ O✷ → x✸ CO✷ + x✹ H✷ O ✳

✷x✶ − x✸ = ✵

✹x✶ − x✹ = ✵
✷x✷ − ✷x✸ − x✹ = ✵

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✸✺ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥
❇❛❧❛♥❝✐♥❣ ❛ ❝❤❡♠✐❝❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥
❲❤❡♥ ❤②❞r♦❣❡♥ ✭❍✮ ❜✉r♥s ✐♥ ♦①②❣❡♥ ✭❖✮ ✐t ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s ✇❛t❡r✳
H ✷ + O✷ → H ✷ O
◆✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ ❛t♦♠s ♦❢ ❍ ❛♥❞ ❖ ❛r❡ s❛♠❡ ♦♥ ❜♦t❤ s✐❞❡s ♦❢ t❤✐s r❡❛❝t✐♦♥✳
✷H✷ + O✷ → ✷H✷ O
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❲❤❡♥ ♣r♦♣❛♥❡ ❜✉r♥s ✐♥ ♦①②❣❡♥✱ ✐t ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s ❝❛r❜♦♥ ❞✐♦①✐❞❡ ❛♥❞
✇❛t❡r✱ ❜❛❧❛♥❝❡ t❤❡ ❝❤❡♠✐❝❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❡ t❤❡ ❜❛❧❛♥❝❡❞ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥
C✷ H✽ + O✷ → CO✷ + H✷ O ✳
Answer x✶ C✷ H✽ + x✷ O✷ → x✸ CO✷ + x✹ H✷ O ✳

✷x✶ − x✸ = ✵

✹x✶ − x✹ = ✵
✷x✷ − ✷x✸ − x✹ = ✵
x✶ = ✶/✹, x✷ = ✶, x✸ = ✶/✷, x✹ = ✶ ❖❘ x✶ = ✶, x✷ = ✹, x✸ = ✷, x✹ = ✹.

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✸✺ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❇❛❧❛♥❝❡ t❤❡ ❝❤❡♠✐❝❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❡ t❤❡ ❜❛❧❛♥❝❡❞ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥
HCl + Na✸ PO✹ → H✸ PO✹ + NaCl ✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✸✻ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❇❛❧❛♥❝❡ t❤❡ ❝❤❡♠✐❝❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❡ t❤❡ ❜❛❧❛♥❝❡❞ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥
HCl + Na✸ PO✹ → H✸ PO✹ + NaCl ✳
Answer
x✶ HCl + x✷ Na✸ PO✹ → x✸ H✸ PO✹ + x✹ NaCl

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✸✻ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❇❛❧❛♥❝❡ t❤❡ ❝❤❡♠✐❝❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❛♥❞ ❞❡r✐✈❡ t❤❡ ❜❛❧❛♥❝❡❞ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥
HCl + Na✸ PO✹ → H✸ PO✹ + NaCl ✳
Answer
x✶ HCl + x✷ Na✸ PO✹ → x✸ H✸ PO✹ + x✹ NaCl

x✶ − ✸x✸ = ✵
x✶ − x ✹ = ✵
✸x✷ − x✹ = ✵
x✷ − x ✸ = ✵

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✸✻ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥

❊❧❡❝tr✐❝❛❧ ◆❡t✇♦r❦

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✸✼ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥

❊❧❡❝tr✐❝❛❧ ◆❡t✇♦r❦
❑✐r❝❤❤♦✛✬s ❈✉rr❡♥t ▲❛✇
❆t ❛♥② ♣♦✐♥t ♦❢ ❛ ❝✐r❝✉✐t✱ t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥✢♦✇✐♥❣ ❝✉rr❡♥ts ❡q✉❛❧s t❤❡ s✉♠
♦❢ ♦✉t✢♦✇✐♥❣ ❝✉rr❡♥ts✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✸✼ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥

❊❧❡❝tr✐❝❛❧ ◆❡t✇♦r❦
❑✐r❝❤❤♦✛✬s ❈✉rr❡♥t ▲❛✇
❆t ❛♥② ♣♦✐♥t ♦❢ ❛ ❝✐r❝✉✐t✱ t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥✢♦✇✐♥❣ ❝✉rr❡♥ts ❡q✉❛❧s t❤❡ s✉♠
♦❢ ♦✉t✢♦✇✐♥❣ ❝✉rr❡♥ts✳
❑✐r❝❤❤♦✛✬s ❱♦❧t❛❣❡ ▲❛✇
❚❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝ts IR ✭ I ✐s ❝✉rr❡♥t ❛♥❞ R ✐s r❡s✐st❛♥❝❡✮ ❛r♦✉♥❞ ❛
❝❧♦s❡❞ ♣❛t❤ ✐s ❡q✉❛❧ t♦ t❤❡ t♦t❛❧ ✈♦❧t❛❣❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♣❛t❤✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✸✼ ✴ ✷✺✶

■♥ ❛♥ ❡❧❡❝tr✐❝❛❧ ♥❡t✇♦r❦✱ ❝✉rr❡♥t ✐s ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ ❛♠♣❡r❡s✱ ♦r ❛♠♣s ✭❆✮✱
r❡s✐st❛♥❝❡ ✐s ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ ♦❤♠s (Ω)✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ ❝✉rr❡♥t ❛♥❞
r❡s✐st❛♥❝❡ ✐s ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ ✈♦❧ts (V )✳ ❚❤❡ s②♠❜♦❧ ✲ |7−→ r❡♣r❡s❡♥ts ❛
❜❛tt❡r②✳ ❚❤❡ ❧❛r❣❡r ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❜❛r ❞❡♥♦t❡s ✇❤❡r❡ t❤❡ ❝✉rr❡♥t ✢♦✇s ♦✉t ♦❢ t❤❡
t❡r♠✐♥❛❧✳ ❚❤❡ s②♠❜♦❧ −✓ ❞❡♥♦t❡s r❡s✐st❛♥❝❡✳ ❆♥ ❛rr♦✇ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❜r❛♥❝❤
✐♥❞✐❝❛t❡s t❤❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✉rr❡♥t✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✸✽ ✴ ✷✺✶

■♥ ❛♥ ❡❧❡❝tr✐❝❛❧ ♥❡t✇♦r❦✱ ❝✉rr❡♥t ✐s ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ ❛♠♣❡r❡s✱ ♦r ❛♠♣s ✭❆✮✱
r❡s✐st❛♥❝❡ ✐s ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ ♦❤♠s (Ω)✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ ❝✉rr❡♥t ❛♥❞
r❡s✐st❛♥❝❡ ✐s ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ ✈♦❧ts (V )✳ ❚❤❡ s②♠❜♦❧ ✲ |7−→ r❡♣r❡s❡♥ts ❛
❜❛tt❡r②✳ ❚❤❡ ❧❛r❣❡r ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❜❛r ❞❡♥♦t❡s ✇❤❡r❡ t❤❡ ❝✉rr❡♥t ✢♦✇s ♦✉t ♦❢ t❤❡
t❡r♠✐♥❛❧✳ ❚❤❡ s②♠❜♦❧ −✓ ❞❡♥♦t❡s r❡s✐st❛♥❝❡✳ ❆♥ ❛rr♦✇ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❜r❛♥❝❤
✐♥❞✐❝❛t❡s t❤❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✉rr❡♥t✳
❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ t❤❡ ❝✉rr❡♥ts I✶ , I✷ ✱ ❛♥❞ I✸ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❡❧❡❝tr✐❝❛❧ ♥❡t✇♦r❦✳

❆♣♣❧②✐♥❣ ❑✐r❝❤❤♦✛✬s ✜rst ❧❛✇ t♦

❡✐t❤❡r ❥✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s
I✶ +I✸ = I✷ ❏✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✶ ♦r ❏✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✷
❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✸✽ ✴ ✷✺✶
■♥ ❛♥ ❡❧❡❝tr✐❝❛❧ ♥❡t✇♦r❦✱ ❝✉rr❡♥t ✐s ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ ❛♠♣❡r❡s✱ ♦r ❛♠♣s ✭❆✮✱
r❡s✐st❛♥❝❡ ✐s ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ ♦❤♠s (Ω)✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ ❝✉rr❡♥t ❛♥❞
r❡s✐st❛♥❝❡ ✐s ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ✐♥ ✈♦❧ts (V )✳ ❚❤❡ s②♠❜♦❧ ✲ |7−→ r❡♣r❡s❡♥ts ❛
❜❛tt❡r②✳ ❚❤❡ ❧❛r❣❡r ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧ ❜❛r ❞❡♥♦t❡s ✇❤❡r❡ t❤❡ ❝✉rr❡♥t ✢♦✇s ♦✉t ♦❢ t❤❡
t❡r♠✐♥❛❧✳ ❚❤❡ s②♠❜♦❧ −✓ ❞❡♥♦t❡s r❡s✐st❛♥❝❡✳ ❆♥ ❛rr♦✇ ✐♥ t❤❡ ❜r❛♥❝❤
✐♥❞✐❝❛t❡s t❤❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝✉rr❡♥t✳
❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ t❤❡ ❝✉rr❡♥ts I✶ , I✷ ✱ ❛♥❞ I✸ ❢♦r t❤❡ ❡❧❡❝tr✐❝❛❧ ♥❡t✇♦r❦✳
❛♥❞ ❛♣♣❧②✐♥❣ ❑✐r❝❤❤♦✛✬s s❡❝♦♥❞ ❧❛✇
t♦ t❤❡ t✇♦ ♣❛t❤s ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s
R✶ I✶ + R✷ I✷ = ✸I✶ + ✷I✷ = ✼ P❛t❤ ✶
R✷ I✷ + R✸ I✸ = ✷I✷ + ✹I✸ = ✽. P❛t❤ ✷
❙♦ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ❛r❡
❆♣♣❧②✐♥❣ ❑✐r❝❤❤♦✛✬s ✜rst ❧❛✇ t♦ I✶ − I✷ + I✸ = ✵
❡✐t❤❡r ❥✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡s ✸I✶ + ✷I✷ = ✼
✷I✷ + ✹I✸ = ✽
I✶ +I✸ = I✷ ❏✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✶ ♦r ❏✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ✷
❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✸✽ ✴ ✷✺✶
❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❝✉rr❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❡❧❡❝tr✐❝❛❧ ♥❡t✇♦r❦✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✸✾ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❝✉rr❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❡❧❡❝tr✐❝❛❧ ♥❡t✇♦r❦✳

Answer

i✶ − i✷ + i✸ = ✵

−i✶ + i✷ − i✸ = ✵
✶✵ i✷ + ✷✺i✸ = ✾✵
✷✵ i✶ + ✶✵i✷ = ✽✵

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✸✾ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❝✉rr❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❡❧❡❝tr✐❝❛❧ ♥❡t✇♦r❦✳

Answer

i✶ − i✷ + i✸ = ✵

−i✶ + i✷ − i✸ = ✵
✶✵ i✷ + ✷✺i✸ = ✾✵
✷✵ i✶ + ✶✵i✷ = ✽✵
Answer i✸ = ✷, i✷ = ✹, i✶ = ✷
❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✸✾ ✴ ✷✺✶
❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❝✉rr❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❡❧❡❝tr✐❝❛❧ ♥❡t✇♦r❦✳

Answer ❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❝✉rr❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡

❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❡❧❡❝tr✐❝❛❧ ♥❡t✇♦r❦✳
i✶ − i✷ + i✸ = ✵

−i✶ + i✷ − i✸ = ✵
✶✵ i✷ + ✷✺i✸ = ✾✵
✷✵ i✶ + ✶✵i✷ = ✽✵
Answer i✸ = ✷, i✷ = ✹, i✶ = ✷
❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✸✾ ✴ ✷✺✶
❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❧✐♥❡❛r ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❝✉rr❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❡❧❡❝tr✐❝❛❧ ♥❡t✇♦r❦✳

Answer ❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❝✉rr❡♥t ♦❢ t❤❡

❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❡❧❡❝tr✐❝❛❧ ♥❡t✇♦r❦✳
i✶ − i✷ + i✸ = ✵

−i✶ + i✷ − i✸ = ✵
✶✵ i✷ + ✷✺i✸ = ✾✵
✷✵ i✶ + ✶✵i✷ = ✽✵
−i✶ + i✷ + i✸ = ✵✱ ✹i✶ + ✶✷i✷ = ✸✻
Answer i✸ = ✷, i✷ = ✹, i✶ = ✷ ✶✷i✷ − ✽i✸ = ✷✹
❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✸✾ ✴ ✷✺✶
P♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ❈✉r✈❡ ❋✐tt✐♥❣
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ n ♣♦✐♥ts ✐♥ t❤❡ xy ✲♣❧❛♥❡ (x✶ , y✶ ) , (x✷ , y✷ ) , . . . , (xn , yn ) r❡♣r❡s❡♥t ❛
❝♦❧❧❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❞❛t❛ ❛♥❞ ②♦✉ ❛r❡ ❛s❦❡❞ t♦ ✜♥❞ ❛ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❞❡❣r❡❡
n−✶
p(x) = a✵ + a✶ x + a✷ x ✷ + · · · + an−✶ x n−✶
✇❤♦s❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♣❛ss❡s t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ s♣❡❝✐✜❡❞ ♣♦✐♥ts✳ ❚❤✐s ♣r♦❝❡❞✉r❡ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞
♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ❝✉r✈❡ ✜tt✐♥❣✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✹✵ ✴ ✷✺✶

P♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ❈✉r✈❡ ❋✐tt✐♥❣
❙✉♣♣♦s❡ n ♣♦✐♥ts ✐♥ t❤❡ xy ✲♣❧❛♥❡ (x✶ , y✶ ) , (x✷ , y✷ ) , . . . , (xn , yn ) r❡♣r❡s❡♥t ❛
❝♦❧❧❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❞❛t❛ ❛♥❞ ②♦✉ ❛r❡ ❛s❦❡❞ t♦ ✜♥❞ ❛ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❞❡❣r❡❡
n−✶
p(x) = a✵ + a✶ x + a✷ x ✷ + · · · + an−✶ x n−✶
✇❤♦s❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♣❛ss❡s t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ s♣❡❝✐✜❡❞ ♣♦✐♥ts✳ ❚❤✐s ♣r♦❝❡❞✉r❡ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞
♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ❝✉r✈❡ ✜tt✐♥❣✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡✿ ❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ t❤❡ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ p(x) = a✵ + a✶ x + a✷ x ✷ ✇❤♦s❡ ❣r❛♣❤
♣❛ss❡s t❤r♦✉❣❤ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥ts (✶, ✹), (✷, ✵)✱ ❛♥❞ (✸, ✶✷)✳
❙♦❧✉t✐♦♥✿

p(✶) = a✵ + a✶ (✶) + a✷ (✶)✷ = a✵ + a✶ + a✷ = ✹

p(✷) = a✵ + a✶ (✷) + a✷ (✷)✷ = a✵ + ✷a✶ + ✹a✷ = ✵
p(✸) = a✵ + a✶ (✸) + a✷ (✸)✷ = a✵ + ✸a✶ + ✾a✷ = ✶✷

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✹✵ ✴ ✷✺✶

❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ t❤❡ ▼❛tr✐①

✻ ✸ ✺
  
=
✹ ✼ ✶

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✹✶ ✴ ✷✺✶

❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ t❤❡ ▼❛tr✐①

✻ ✸ ✺ ✸✸
    
=
✹ ✼ ✶ ✷✼

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✹✶ ✴ ✷✺✶

❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ t❤❡ ▼❛tr✐①

✻ ✸ ✺ ✸✸ ✻ ✸ ✸
       
= ❛♥❞ =
✹ ✼ ✶ ✷✼ ✹ ✼ ✹

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✹✶ ✴ ✷✺✶

❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ t❤❡ ▼❛tr✐①

✻ ✸ ✺ ✸✸ ✻ ✸ ✸ ✸✵
         
= ❛♥❞ =
✹ ✼ ✶ ✷✼ ✹ ✼ ✹ ✹✵

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✹✶ ✴ ✷✺✶

❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ t❤❡ ▼❛tr✐①

✻ ✸ ✺ ✸✸ ✻ ✸ ✸ ✸✵ ✸
           
= ❛♥❞ = = ✶✵
✹ ✼ ✶ ✷✼ ✹ ✼ ✹ ✹✵ ✹

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✹✶ ✴ ✷✺✶

❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ t❤❡ ▼❛tr✐①

✻ ✸ ✺ ✸✸ ✻ ✸ ✸ ✸✵ ✸
           
= ❛♥❞ = = ✶✵
✹ ✼ ✶ ✷✼ ✹ ✼ ✹ ✹✵ ✹
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥
▲❡t ❆ ❜❡ ❛♥② sq✉❛r❡ ♠❛tr✐①✳ ❆ s❝❛❧❛r λ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛♥ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ ❆ ✐❢
t❤❡r❡ ❡①✐sts ❛ ♥♦♥③❡r♦ ✭❝♦❧✉♠♥✮ ✈❡❝t♦r ① s✉❝❤ t❤❛t ❆① = λ①✳ ❆♥② ✈❡❝t♦r
s❛t✐s❢②✐♥❣ t❤✐s r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛♥ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦r ♦❢ ❆ ❜❡❧♦♥❣✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡
❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡ λ.

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✹✶ ✴ ✷✺✶

❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ t❤❡ ▼❛tr✐①

✻ ✸ ✺ ✸✸ ✻ ✸ ✸ ✸✵ ✸
           
= ❛♥❞ = = ✶✵
✹ ✼ ✶ ✷✼ ✹ ✼ ✹ ✹✵ ✹
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥
▲❡t ❆ ❜❡ ❛♥② sq✉❛r❡ ♠❛tr✐①✳ ❆ s❝❛❧❛r λ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛♥ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ ❆ ✐❢
t❤❡r❡ ❡①✐sts ❛ ♥♦♥③❡r♦ ✭❝♦❧✉♠♥✮ ✈❡❝t♦r ① s✉❝❤ t❤❛t ❆① = λ①✳ ❆♥② ✈❡❝t♦r
s❛t✐s❢②✐♥❣ t❤✐s r❡❧❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛♥ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦r ♦❢ ❆ ❜❡❧♦♥❣✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡
❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡ λ.
◆♦t❡✿ ●❡♦♠❡tr✐❝❛❧❧②✱ ✇❡ ❛r❡ ❧♦♦❦✐♥❣ ❢♦r ✈❡❝t♦rs✱ ① ❢♦r ✇❤✐❝❤ t❤❡
♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ❜② ❆ ❤❛s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❡✛❡❝t ❛s t❤❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ❜② ❛ s❝❛❧❛r λ.
❚❤❡ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ❤❛s t❤❡ ❡✛❡❝t ♦❢ ♣r♦❞✉❝✐♥❣✱ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ✈❡❝t♦r ①✱ ❛
♥❡✇ ✈❡❝t♦r λ① t❤❛t ❤❛s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ♦r ♦♣♣♦s✐t❡ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥ ❛s t❤❡ ♦r✐❣✐♥❛❧ ✈❡❝t♦r✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✹✶ ✴ ✷✺✶

❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ t❤❡ ▼❛tr✐①
❙t❡♣s ❢♦r ✜♥❞✐♥❣ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs
❙✲✶✿ ❙♦❧✈❡ |❆ − λ■| =✵ ❢♦r ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✹✷ ✴ ✷✺✶

❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ t❤❡ ▼❛tr✐①
❙t❡♣s ❢♦r ✜♥❞✐♥❣ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs
❙✲✶✿ ❙♦❧✈❡ |❆ − λ■| =✵ ❢♦r ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s✳
❙✲✷✿ ❙♦❧✈❡ ❆① = λ① ❢♦r ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ✭♥♦♥tr✐✈✐❛❧ ❧✐♥❡❛r ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t
s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s✮✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✹✷ ✴ ✷✺✶

❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ t❤❡ ▼❛tr✐①
❙t❡♣s ❢♦r ✜♥❞✐♥❣ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs
❙✲✶✿ ❙♦❧✈❡ |❆ − λ■| =✵ ❢♦r ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s✳
❙✲✷✿ ❙♦❧✈❡ ❆① = λ① ❢♦r ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ✭♥♦♥tr✐✈✐❛❧ ❧✐♥❡❛r ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t
s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s✮✳
 
−✺ ✷
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ A =
✷ −✷

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✹✷ ✴ ✷✺✶

❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ t❤❡ ▼❛tr✐①
❙t❡♣s ❢♦r ✜♥❞✐♥❣ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs
❙✲✶✿ ❙♦❧✈❡ |❆ − λ■| =✵ ❢♦r ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s✳
❙✲✷✿ ❙♦❧✈❡ ❆① = λ① ❢♦r ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ✭♥♦♥tr✐✈✐❛❧ ❧✐♥❡❛r ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t
s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s✮✳
 
−✺ ✷
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ A =
✷ −✷
−✺ − λ ✷
Answer |A − λI | = =✵
✷ −✷ − λ

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✹✷ ✴ ✷✺✶

❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ t❤❡ ▼❛tr✐①
❙t❡♣s ❢♦r ✜♥❞✐♥❣ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs
❙✲✶✿ ❙♦❧✈❡ |❆ − λ■| =✵ ❢♦r ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s✳
❙✲✷✿ ❙♦❧✈❡ ❆① = λ① ❢♦r ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ✭♥♦♥tr✐✈✐❛❧ ❧✐♥❡❛r ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t
s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s✮✳
 
−✺ ✷
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ A =
✷ −✷
−✺ − λ ✷
Answer |A − λI | = =✵
✷ −✷ − λ
=⇒ λ✷ + ✼λ + ✻ = ✵ =⇒ λ = −✶, −✻.

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✹✷ ✴ ✷✺✶

❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ t❤❡ ▼❛tr✐①
❙t❡♣s ❢♦r ✜♥❞✐♥❣ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs
❙✲✶✿ ❙♦❧✈❡ |❆ − λ■| =✵ ❢♦r ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s✳
❙✲✷✿ ❙♦❧✈❡ ❆① = λ① ❢♦r ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ✭♥♦♥tr✐✈✐❛❧ ❧✐♥❡❛r ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t
s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s✮✳
 
−✺ ✷
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ A =
✷ −✷
−✺ − λ ✷
Answer |A − λI | = =✵
−✷ − λ ✷
=⇒ λ✷ + ✼λ + ✻ = ✵ =⇒ λ =−✶, −✻.
✶ −✷
❚❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ❛r❡ ❛♥❞ ✳
✷ ✶

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✹✷ ✴ ✷✺✶

❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ t❤❡ ▼❛tr✐①
❙t❡♣s ❢♦r ✜♥❞✐♥❣ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs
❙✲✶✿ ❙♦❧✈❡ |❆ − λ■| =✵ ❢♦r ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s✳
❙✲✷✿ ❙♦❧✈❡ ❆① = λ① ❢♦r ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ✭♥♦♥tr✐✈✐❛❧ ❧✐♥❡❛r ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t
s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s✮✳
 
−✺ ✷
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ A =
✷ −✷
−✺ − λ ✷
Answer |A − λI | = =✵
−✷ − λ ✷
=⇒ λ✷ + ✼λ + ✻ = ✵ =⇒ λ =−✶, −✻.
✶ −✷
❚❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ❛r❡ ❛♥❞ ✳
✷ ✶
 
✷ ✷ ✶
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ A =  ✶ ✸ ✶ 
✶ ✷ ✷

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✹✷ ✴ ✷✺✶

❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ t❤❡ ▼❛tr✐①
Answer ❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛r❡ ✺, ✶, ✶.

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✹✸ ✴ ✷✺✶

❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ t❤❡ ▼❛tr✐①
Answer ❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s
 ❛r❡
 ✺, ✶, ✶. 
✶ −✶ −✷
 

❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ❛r❡  ✶ ✱  ✵  ❛♥❞  ✶ ✳

✶ ✶ ✵

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✹✸ ✴ ✷✺✶

❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ t❤❡ ▼❛tr✐①
Answer ❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s
 ❛r❡
 ✺, ✶, ✶. 
✶ −✶ −✷
 

❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ❛r❡  ✶ ✱  ✵  ❛♥❞  ✶ ✳

✶ ✶ ✵
◆♦t❡ ❋♦r r❡♣❡❛t❡❞ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❝❤♦♦s❡ t❤❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ s✉❝❤ t❤❛t
❜♦t❤ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ❛r❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✹✸ ✴ ✷✺✶

❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ t❤❡ ▼❛tr✐①
Answer ❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s
 ❛r❡
 ✺, ✶, ✶. 
✶ −✶ −✷
 

❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ❛r❡  ✶ ✱  ✵  ❛♥❞  ✶ ✳

✶ ✶ ✵
◆♦t❡ ❋♦r r❡♣❡❛t❡❞ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❝❤♦♦s❡ t❤❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ s✉❝❤ t❤❛t
❜♦t❤ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ❛r❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t✳
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥
❚❤❡ ❡①♣❛♥s✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡ ♦❢ ❆ − λ■ ✐s ❛ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ✐♥ λ✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞
t❤❡ ❝❤❛r❛❝t❡r✐st✐❝ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❦♥♦✇♥
❛s ❝❤❛r❛❝t❡r✐st✐❝ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✹✸ ✴ ✷✺✶

❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ t❤❡ ▼❛tr✐①
Answer ❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s
 ❛r❡
 ✺, ✶, ✶. 
✶ −✶ −✷
 

❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ❛r❡  ✶ ✱  ✵  ❛♥❞  ✶ ✳

✶ ✶ ✵
◆♦t❡ ❋♦r r❡♣❡❛t❡❞ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❝❤♦♦s❡ t❤❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ s✉❝❤ t❤❛t
❜♦t❤ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ❛r❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t✳
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥
❚❤❡ ❡①♣❛♥s✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡ ♦❢ ❆ − λ■ ✐s ❛ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ✐♥ λ✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞
t❤❡ ❝❤❛r❛❝t❡r✐st✐❝ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❦♥♦✇♥
❛s ❝❤❛r❛❝t❡r✐st✐❝ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✳
❚❤❡ r♦♦ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❤❛r❛❝t❡r✐st✐❝ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❛r❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✹✸ ✴ ✷✺✶

❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ t❤❡ ▼❛tr✐①
Answer ❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s
 ❛r❡
 ✺, ✶, ✶. 
✶ −✶ −✷
 

❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ❛r❡  ✶ ✱  ✵  ❛♥❞  ✶ ✳

✶ ✶ ✵
◆♦t❡ ❋♦r r❡♣❡❛t❡❞ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❝❤♦♦s❡ t❤❡ ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ s✉❝❤ t❤❛t
❜♦t❤ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ❛r❡ ❧✐♥❡❛r ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t✳
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥
❚❤❡ ❡①♣❛♥s✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛t❡ ♦❢ ❆ − λ■ ✐s ❛ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ✐♥ λ✳ ❚❤✐s ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞
t❤❡ ❝❤❛r❛❝t❡r✐st✐❝ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ❦♥♦✇♥
❛s ❝❤❛r❛❝t❡r✐st✐❝ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✳
❚❤❡ r♦♦ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❤❛r❛❝t❡r✐st✐❝ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ❛r❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s✳
❆♥ n × n ♠❛tr✐① ❤❛s ❛t ❧❡❛st ♦♥❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡ ❛♥❞ ❛t ♠♦st n ♥✉♠❡r✐❝❛❧❧②
❞✐✛❡r❡♥t ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✹✸ ✴ ✷✺✶

❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ t❤❡ ▼❛tr✐①

 
−✷ ✷ −✸
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ A =  ✷ ✶ −✻ 
−✶ −✷ ✵

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✹✹ ✴ ✷✺✶

❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ t❤❡ ▼❛tr✐①

 
−✷ ✷ −✸
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ A =  ✷ ✶ −✻ 
−✶ −✷ ✵

Answer ❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛r❡ ✺ , −✸, −✸.

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✹✹ ✴ ✷✺✶

❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ t❤❡ ▼❛tr✐①

 
−✷ ✷ −✸
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ A =  ✷ ✶ −✻ 
−✶ −✷ ✵

Answer ❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛r❡ ✺

 , −
✸, −✸
.  
✶ −✷ ✸

❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ❛r❡  ✷ ✱  ✶  ❛♥❞  ✵ ✳

−✶ ✵ ✶

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✹✹ ✴ ✷✺✶

❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ t❤❡ ▼❛tr✐①

 
−✷ ✷ −✸
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ A =  ✷ ✶ −✻ 
−✶ −✷ ✵

Answer ❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛r❡ ✺

 , −
✸, −✸
.  
✶ −✷ ✸

❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ❛r❡  ✷ ✱  ✶  ❛♥❞  ✵ ✳

−✶ ✵ ✶

◆♦t❡ ❚❤❡ ♦r❞❡r ♦❢ ❛♥ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡ λ ❛s ❛ r♦♦t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❤❛r❛❝t❡r✐st✐❝

♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝✐t② ♦❢ λ.

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✹✹ ✴ ✷✺✶

❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ t❤❡ ▼❛tr✐①

 
−✷ ✷ −✸
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ A =  ✷ ✶ −✻ 
−✶ −✷ ✵

Answer ❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛r❡ ✺

 , −
✸, −✸
.  
✶ −✷ ✸

❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ❛r❡  ✷ ✱  ✶  ❛♥❞  ✵ ✳

−✶ ✵ ✶

◆♦t❡ ❚❤❡ ♦r❞❡r ♦❢ ❛♥ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡ λ ❛s ❛ r♦♦t ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝❤❛r❛❝t❡r✐st✐❝

♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝✐t② ♦❢ λ.

❚❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ ❧✐♥❡❛r ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ t♦ λ ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞

t❤❡ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝✐t② ♦❢ λ.

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✹✹ ✴ ✷✺✶

❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ t❤❡ ▼❛tr✐①

 
✵ ✶ ✵

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ A =  ✵ ✵ ✶ ✳

✶ −✸ ✸

❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ❛♥❞ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝✐t②✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✹✺ ✴ ✷✺✶

❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ t❤❡ ▼❛tr✐①

 
✵ ✶ ✵

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ A =  ✵ ✵ ✶ ✳

✶ −✸ ✸

❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ❛♥❞ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝✐t②✳

Answer λ = ✶, ✶, ✶ ✐s ❛♥ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝✐t② ✸✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✹✺ ✴ ✷✺✶

❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ t❤❡ ▼❛tr✐①

 
✵ ✶ ✵

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ A =  ✵ ✵ ✶ ✳

✶ −✸ ✸

❉❡t❡r♠✐♥❡ t❤❡ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ❛♥❞ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝✐t②✳

Answer λ = ✶, ✶, ✶ ✐s ❛♥ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ ❛❧❣❡❜r❛✐❝ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝✐t② ✸✳


✶

❚❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦r ✐s  ✶ ✱ s♦ ❣❡♦♠❡tr✐❝ ♠✉❧t✐♣❧✐❝✐t② ✐s ♦♥❡✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✹✺ ✴ ✷✺✶

Pr♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs
P✶ : ❆ sq✉❛r❡ ♠❛tr✐① ❆ ❛♥❞ ❆T ❤❛s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✹✻ ✴ ✷✺✶

Pr♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs
P✶ : ❆ sq✉❛r❡ ♠❛tr✐① ❆ ❛♥❞ ❆T ❤❛s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s✳
P✷ : ❙✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ❡❧❡♠❡♥ts ♦❢ ❆ ✭tr❛❝❡ ♦❢ ❆✮ =s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡
❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ ❆.

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✹✻ ✴ ✷✺✶

Pr♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs
P✶ : ❆ sq✉❛r❡ ♠❛tr✐① ❆ ❛♥❞ ❆T ❤❛s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s✳
P✷ : ❙✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ❡❧❡♠❡♥ts ♦❢ ❆ ✭tr❛❝❡ ♦❢ ❆✮ =s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡
❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ ❆.
P✸ : ❚❤❡ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛♥t ♦❢ ❆ = Pr♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ ❆.

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✹✻ ✴ ✷✺✶

Pr♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs
P✶ : ❆ sq✉❛r❡ ♠❛tr✐① ❆ ❛♥❞ ❆T ❤❛s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s✳
P✷ : ❙✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ❡❧❡♠❡♥ts ♦❢ ❆ ✭tr❛❝❡ ♦❢ ❆✮ =s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡
❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ ❆.
P✸ : ❚❤❡ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛♥t ♦❢ ❆ = Pr♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ ❆.
P✹ : ■❢ ❛❧❧ t❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛r❡ ♥♦♥✲③❡r♦✱ t❤❡♥ |A| =
̸ ✵ ✭|A| = ♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ t❤❡
❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s✮✳ ✐✳❡✳ A ✐s ♥♦♥ s✐♥❣✉❧❛r✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✹✻ ✴ ✷✺✶

Pr♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs
P✶ : ❆ sq✉❛r❡ ♠❛tr✐① ❆ ❛♥❞ ❆T ❤❛s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s✳
P✷ : ❙✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ❡❧❡♠❡♥ts ♦❢ ❆ ✭tr❛❝❡ ♦❢ ❆✮ =s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡
❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ ❆.
P✸ : ❚❤❡ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛♥t ♦❢ ❆ = Pr♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ ❆.
P✹ : ■❢ ❛❧❧ t❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛r❡ ♥♦♥✲③❡r♦✱ t❤❡♥ |A| =
̸ ✵ ✭|A| = ♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ t❤❡
❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s✮✳ ✐✳❡✳ A ✐s ♥♦♥ s✐♥❣✉❧❛r✳
P✺ : |A| = ✵✱ ■❢ ❛t ❧❡❛st ♦♥❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡ ✐s ③❡r♦ ✭|A| = ♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ t❤❡
❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s✮✳ ✐✳❡✳ A ✐s s✐♥❣✉❧❛r✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✹✻ ✴ ✷✺✶

Pr♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs
P✶ : ❆ sq✉❛r❡ ♠❛tr✐① ❆ ❛♥❞ ❆T ❤❛s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s✳
P✷ : ❙✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ❡❧❡♠❡♥ts ♦❢ ❆ ✭tr❛❝❡ ♦❢ ❆✮ =s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡
❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ ❆.
P✸ : ❚❤❡ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛♥t ♦❢ ❆ = Pr♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ ❆.
P✹ : ■❢ ❛❧❧ t❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛r❡ ♥♦♥✲③❡r♦✱ t❤❡♥ |A| =
̸ ✵ ✭|A| = ♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ t❤❡
❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s✮✳ ✐✳❡✳ A ✐s ♥♦♥ s✐♥❣✉❧❛r✳
P✺ : |A| = ✵✱ ■❢ ❛t ❧❡❛st ♦♥❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡ ✐s ③❡r♦ ✭|A| = ♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ t❤❡
❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s✮✳ ✐✳❡✳ A ✐s s✐♥❣✉❧❛r✳
P✻ : A−✶ ❡①✐sts ✐✛ ✵ ✐s ♥♦t ❛♥ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ A. ❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ A−✶ ❛r❡ λ✶i ✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✹✻ ✴ ✷✺✶

Pr♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs
P✶ : ❆ sq✉❛r❡ ♠❛tr✐① ❆ ❛♥❞ ❆T ❤❛s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s✳
P✷ : ❙✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ❡❧❡♠❡♥ts ♦❢ ❆ ✭tr❛❝❡ ♦❢ ❆✮ =s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡
❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ ❆.
P✸ : ❚❤❡ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛♥t ♦❢ ❆ = Pr♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ ❆.
P✹ : ■❢ ❛❧❧ t❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛r❡ ♥♦♥✲③❡r♦✱ t❤❡♥ |A| =
̸ ✵ ✭|A| = ♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ t❤❡
❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s✮✳ ✐✳❡✳ A ✐s ♥♦♥ s✐♥❣✉❧❛r✳
P✺ : |A| = ✵✱ ■❢ ❛t ❧❡❛st ♦♥❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡ ✐s ③❡r♦ ✭|A| = ♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ t❤❡
❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s✮✳ ✐✳❡✳ A ✐s s✐♥❣✉❧❛r✳
P✻ : A−✶ ❡①✐sts ✐✛ ✵ ✐s ♥♦t ❛♥ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ A. ❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ A−✶ ❛r❡ λ✶i ✳
P✼ : Am ❤❛s ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s λm .

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✹✻ ✴ ✷✺✶

Pr♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs
P✶ : ❆ sq✉❛r❡ ♠❛tr✐① ❆ ❛♥❞ ❆T ❤❛s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s✳
P✷ : ❙✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ❡❧❡♠❡♥ts ♦❢ ❆ ✭tr❛❝❡ ♦❢ ❆✮ =s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡
❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ ❆.
P✸ : ❚❤❡ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛♥t ♦❢ ❆ = Pr♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ ❆.
P✹ : ■❢ ❛❧❧ t❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛r❡ ♥♦♥✲③❡r♦✱ t❤❡♥ |A| =
̸ ✵ ✭|A| = ♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ t❤❡
❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s✮✳ ✐✳❡✳ A ✐s ♥♦♥ s✐♥❣✉❧❛r✳
P✺ : |A| = ✵✱ ■❢ ❛t ❧❡❛st ♦♥❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡ ✐s ③❡r♦ ✭|A| = ♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ t❤❡
❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s✮✳ ✐✳❡✳ A ✐s s✐♥❣✉❧❛r✳
P✻ : A−✶ ❡①✐sts ✐✛ ✵ ✐s ♥♦t ❛♥ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ A. ❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ A−✶ ❛r❡ λ✶i ✳
P✼ : Am ❤❛s ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s λm .
P✽ : ❈❤❛r❛❝t❡r✐st✐❝ ✈❡❝t♦r ❝❛♥♥♦t ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞ t♦ t✇♦ ❞✐st✐♥❝t ❝❤❛r❛❝t❡r✐st✐❝
✈❛❧✉❡s✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✹✻ ✴ ✷✺✶

Pr♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs
P✶ : ❆ sq✉❛r❡ ♠❛tr✐① ❆ ❛♥❞ ❆T ❤❛s t❤❡ s❛♠❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s✳
P✷ : ❙✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ❡❧❡♠❡♥ts ♦❢ ❆ ✭tr❛❝❡ ♦❢ ❆✮ =s✉♠ ♦❢ t❤❡
❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ ❆.
P✸ : ❚❤❡ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛♥t ♦❢ ❆ = Pr♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ ❆.
P✹ : ■❢ ❛❧❧ t❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛r❡ ♥♦♥✲③❡r♦✱ t❤❡♥ |A| =
̸ ✵ ✭|A| = ♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ t❤❡
❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s✮✳ ✐✳❡✳ A ✐s ♥♦♥ s✐♥❣✉❧❛r✳
P✺ : |A| = ✵✱ ■❢ ❛t ❧❡❛st ♦♥❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡ ✐s ③❡r♦ ✭|A| = ♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ t❤❡
❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s✮✳ ✐✳❡✳ A ✐s s✐♥❣✉❧❛r✳
P✻ : A−✶ ❡①✐sts ✐✛ ✵ ✐s ♥♦t ❛♥ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡ ♦❢ A. ❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ A−✶ ❛r❡ λ✶i ✳
P✼ : Am ❤❛s ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s λm .
P✽ : ❈❤❛r❛❝t❡r✐st✐❝ ✈❡❝t♦r ❝❛♥♥♦t ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞ t♦ t✇♦ ❞✐st✐♥❝t ❝❤❛r❛❝t❡r✐st✐❝
✈❛❧✉❡s✳
P✾ : ❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ✭✉♣♣❡r tr✐❛♥❣✉❧❛r ♦r ❧♦✇❡r tr✐❛♥❣✉❧❛r✮ ♠❛tr✐❝❡s
❛r❡ t❤❡ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣❛❧ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ❡❧❡♠❡♥ts ✭❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛r❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧
❡❧❡♠❡♥ts✮✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✹✻ ✴ ✷✺✶

Pr♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs
 
✽ −✹
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ A = ✷ ✷
❛♥❞

✈❡r✐❢② t❤❡ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ✭P✶ t♦ P✹ ❛♥❞ P✻ t♦ P✽ ✮✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✹✼ ✴ ✷✺✶

Pr♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs
 
✽ −✹
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ A = ✷ ✷
❛♥❞

✈❡r✐❢② t❤❡ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ✭P✶ t♦ P✹ ❛♥❞ P✻ t♦ P✽ ✮✳

Answer λ = ✹, ✻✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✹✼ ✴ ✷✺✶

Pr♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs
 
✽ −✹
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ A = ✷ ✷
❛♥❞

✈❡r✐❢② t❤❡ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ✭P✶ t♦ P✹ ❛♥❞ P✻ t♦ P✽ ✮✳

Answer λ = ✹, ✻✳    
✶ ✶
❚❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ❛r❡ ❛♥❞ ✳
✶ ✷

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✹✼ ✴ ✷✺✶

Pr♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs
 
✽ −✹
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ A = ✷ ✷
❛♥❞

✈❡r✐❢② t❤❡ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ✭P✶ t♦ P✹ ❛♥❞ P✻ t♦ P✽ ✮✳

Answer λ = ✹, ✻✳    
✶ ✶
❚❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ❛r❡ ❛♥❞ ✳
✶ ✷
 
✸ ✶ ✹
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ A =  ✵ ✷ ✻  ❛♥❞
✵ ✵ ✺
✈❡r✐❢② t❤❡ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s P✾ ✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✹✼ ✴ ✷✺✶

Pr♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs
 
✽ −✹
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ A = ✷ ✷
❛♥❞

✈❡r✐❢② t❤❡ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ✭P✶ t♦ P✹ ❛♥❞ P✻ t♦ P✽ ✮✳

Answer λ = ✹, ✻✳    
✶ ✶
❚❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ❛r❡ ❛♥❞ ✳
✶ ✷
 
✸ ✶ ✹
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ A =  ✵ ✷ ✻  ❛♥❞
✵ ✵ ✺
✈❡r✐❢② t❤❡ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s P✾ ✳
Answer λ = ✸, ✷, ✺✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✹✼ ✴ ✷✺✶

Pr♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs
 
✽ −✹
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ A = ✷ ✷
❛♥❞

✈❡r✐❢② t❤❡ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ✭P✶ t♦ P✹ ❛♥❞ P✻ t♦ P✽ ✮✳

Answer λ = ✹, ✻✳    
✶ ✶
❚❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ❛r❡ ❛♥❞ ✳
✶ ✷
 
✸ ✶ ✹
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ A =  ✵ ✷ ✻  ❛♥❞
✵ ✵ ✺
✈❡r✐❢② t❤❡ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s P✾ ✳
Answer λ = ✸, ✷, ✺✳      
✶ ✶ ✸
❚❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ❛r❡  ✵ ✱  − ✶  ❛♥❞  ✷ ✳
✵ ✵ ✶

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✹✼ ✴ ✷✺✶

Pr♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs

 
✶ ✵ −✶
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ A =  ✶ ✷ ✶ 
✷ ✷ ✸
❛♥❞ ✈❡r✐❢② t❤❡ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ✭P✶ t♦ P✹ ❛♥❞ P✻ t♦ P✽ ✮✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✹✽ ✴ ✷✺✶

Pr♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs

 
✶ ✵ −✶
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ A =  ✶ ✷ ✶ 
✷ ✷ ✸
❛♥❞ ✈❡r✐❢② t❤❡ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ✭P✶ t♦ P✹ ❛♥❞ P✻ t♦ P✽ ✮✳
Answer λ = ✶, ✷, ✸✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✹✽ ✴ ✷✺✶

Pr♦♣❡rt✐❡s ♦❢ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs

 
✶ ✵ −✶
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ♦❢ A =  ✶ ✷ ✶ 
✷ ✷ ✸
❛♥❞ ✈❡r✐❢② t❤❡ ♣r♦♣❡rt✐❡s ✭P✶ t♦ P✹ ❛♥❞ P✻ t♦ P✽ ✮✳
Answer λ = ✶, ✷, ✸✳      
✶ ✷ ✶
❚❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ❛r❡  −✶ ✱  −✶  ❛♥❞  ✶ ✳
✵ −✷ −✷

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✹✽ ✴ ✷✺✶

❈❆❨▲❊❨✲❍❆▼■▲❚❖◆ ❚❍❊❖❘❊▼

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✭❈❆❨▲❊❨✲❍❆▼■▲❚❖◆ ❚❍❊❖❘❊▼✮

❊✈❡r② sq✉❛r❡ ♠❛tr✐① s❛t✐s✜❡s ✐ts ♦✇♥ ❝❤❛r❛❝t❡r✐st✐❝ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✳
✶ ✷
 
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❱❡r✐❢② ❈❛②❧❡②✲❍❛♠✐❧t♦♥ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢♦r t❤❡ ♠❛tr✐① A =
✷ −✶
❛♥❞ ❤❡♥❝❡ ✜♥❞ A−✶ ❛♥❞ A✽ ✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✺✾ ✴ ✷✺✶

❈❆❨▲❊❨✲❍❆▼■▲❚❖◆ ❚❍❊❖❘❊▼

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✭❈❆❨▲❊❨✲❍❆▼■▲❚❖◆ ❚❍❊❖❘❊▼✮

❊✈❡r② sq✉❛r❡ ♠❛tr✐① s❛t✐s✜❡s ✐ts ♦✇♥ ❝❤❛r❛❝t❡r✐st✐❝ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✳
✶ ✷
 
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❱❡r✐❢② ❈❛②❧❡②✲❍❛♠✐❧t♦♥ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢♦r t❤❡ ♠❛tr✐① A =
✷ −✶
❛♥❞ ❤❡♥❝❡ ✜♥❞ A−✶ ❛♥❞ A✽ ✳
Answer ❈❤❛r❛❝t❡r✐st✐❝ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ λ✷ − ✺ = ✵✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✺✾ ✴ ✷✺✶

❈❆❨▲❊❨✲❍❆▼■▲❚❖◆ ❚❍❊❖❘❊▼

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✭❈❆❨▲❊❨✲❍❆▼■▲❚❖◆ ❚❍❊❖❘❊▼✮

❊✈❡r② sq✉❛r❡ ♠❛tr✐① s❛t✐s✜❡s ✐ts ♦✇♥ ❝❤❛r❛❝t❡r✐st✐❝ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✳
✶ ✷
 
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❱❡r✐❢② ❈❛②❧❡②✲❍❛♠✐❧t♦♥ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢♦r t❤❡ ♠❛tr✐① A =
✷ −✶
❛♥❞ ❤❡♥❝❡ ✜♥❞ A−✶ ❛♥❞ A✽ ✳
Answer ❈❤❛r❛❝t❡r✐st✐❝ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ λ✷ − ✺ = ✵✳
✶ ✷
 
A−✶ = ✺✶ A = ✶✺
✷ −✶

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✺✾ ✴ ✷✺✶

❈❆❨▲❊❨✲❍❆▼■▲❚❖◆ ❚❍❊❖❘❊▼

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✭❈❆❨▲❊❨✲❍❆▼■▲❚❖◆ ❚❍❊❖❘❊▼✮

❊✈❡r② sq✉❛r❡ ♠❛tr✐① s❛t✐s✜❡s ✐ts ♦✇♥ ❝❤❛r❛❝t❡r✐st✐❝ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✳
✶ ✷
 
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❱❡r✐❢② ❈❛②❧❡②✲❍❛♠✐❧t♦♥ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢♦r t❤❡ ♠❛tr✐① A =
✷ −✶
❛♥❞ ❤❡♥❝❡ ✜♥❞ A−✶ ❛♥❞ A✽ ✳
Answer ❈❤❛r❛❝t❡r✐st✐❝ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ λ✷ − ✺ = ✵✳
✶ ✷
 
A−✶ = ✺✶ A = ✶✺
✷ −✶
A✽ = ✺A✻ = ✺(✺I )(✺I )(✺I ) = ✻✷✺I ✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✺✾ ✴ ✷✺✶

❈❆❨▲❊❨✲❍❆▼■▲❚❖◆ ❚❍❊❖❘❊▼

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✭❈❆❨▲❊❨✲❍❆▼■▲❚❖◆ ❚❍❊❖❘❊▼✮

❊✈❡r② sq✉❛r❡ ♠❛tr✐① s❛t✐s✜❡s ✐ts ♦✇♥ ❝❤❛r❛❝t❡r✐st✐❝ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✳
✶ ✷
 
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❱❡r✐❢② ❈❛②❧❡②✲❍❛♠✐❧t♦♥ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢♦r t❤❡ ♠❛tr✐① A =
✷ −✶
❛♥❞ ❤❡♥❝❡ ✜♥❞ A−✶ ❛♥❞ A✽ ✳
Answer ❈❤❛r❛❝t❡r✐st✐❝ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ λ✷ − ✺ = ✵✳
✶ ✷
 
A−✶ = ✺✶ A = ✶✺
✷ −✶
A✽ = ✺A✻ = ✺(✺I )(✺I )(✺I ) = ✻✷✺I ✳
✶ ✷ ✸
 

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❱❡r✐❢② ❈❛②❧❡②✲❍❛♠✐❧t♦♥ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❢♦r t❤❡ ♠❛tr✐① A =  ✷ ✹ ✺ 

✸ ✺ ✻
✶
❛♥❞ ❤❡♥❝❡ ✜♥❞ A ❛♥❞ A ✳
− ✹

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✺✾ ✴ ✷✺✶

❈❆❨▲❊❨✲❍❆▼■▲❚❖◆ ❚❍❊❖❘❊▼

Answer ❈❤❛r❛❝t❡r✐st✐❝ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ λ✸ − ✶✶λ✷ − ✹λ + ✶ = ✵✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✻✵ ✴ ✷✺✶

❈❆❨▲❊❨✲❍❆▼■▲❚❖◆ ❚❍❊❖❘❊▼

Answer
 ❈❤❛r❛❝t❡r✐st✐❝ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥
 λ✸ − ✶✶λ✷ − ✹λ + ✶ = ✵✳
✶✹ ✷✺ ✸✶

A✷ = ✷✺ ✹✺ ✺✻ 
✸✶ ✺✻ ✼✵

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✻✵ ✴ ✷✺✶

❈❆❨▲❊❨✲❍❆▼■▲❚❖◆ ❚❍❊❖❘❊▼

Answer
 ❈❤❛r❛❝t❡r✐st✐❝ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥
 λ✸ − ✶✶λ✷ −✹λ + ✶ = ✵✳ 
✶✹ ✷✺ ✸✶ ✶✺✼ ✷✽✸ ✸✺✸

A✷ =  ✷✺ ✹✺ ✺✻  A✸ =  ✷✽✸ ✺✶✵ ✻✸✻ 

✸✶ ✺✻ ✼✵ ✸✺✸ ✻✸✻ ✼✾✸

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✻✵ ✴ ✷✺✶

❈❆❨▲❊❨✲❍❆▼■▲❚❖◆ ❚❍❊❖❘❊▼

Answer
 ❈❤❛r❛❝t❡r✐st✐❝ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥
 λ✸ − ✶✶λ✷ −✹λ + ✶ = ✵✳ 
✶✹ ✷✺ ✸✶ ✶✺✼ ✷✽✸ ✸✺✸

A✷ =  ✷✺ ✹✺ ✺✻  A✸ =  ✷✽✸ ✺✶✵ ✻✸✻ 

✸✶ ✺✻ ✼✵ ✸✺✸ ✻✸✻ ✼✾✸
 
✶ −✸ ✷

A−✶ = −A✷ + ✶✶A + ✹I =  −✸ ✸ −✶ 

✷ −✶ ✵

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✻✵ ✴ ✷✺✶

❈❆❨▲❊❨✲❍❆▼■▲❚❖◆ ❚❍❊❖❘❊▼

Answer
 ❈❤❛r❛❝t❡r✐st✐❝ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥
 λ✸ − ✶✶λ✷ −✹λ + ✶ = ✵✳ 
✶✹ ✷✺ ✸✶ ✶✺✼ ✷✽✸ ✸✺✸

A✷ =  ✷✺ ✹✺ ✺✻  A✸ =  ✷✽✸ ✺✶✵ ✻✸✻ 

✸✶ ✺✻ ✼✵ ✸✺✸ ✻✸✻ ✼✾✸
 
✶ −✸ ✷

A−✶ = −A✷ + ✶✶A + ✹I =  −✸ ✸ −✶ 

✷ −✶ ✵

A✹ = A.A✸ = ✶✶A✸ + ✹A✷ − A.

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✻✵ ✴ ✷✺✶

❙②♠♠❡tr✐❝✱ ❙❦❡✇✲❙②♠♠❡tr✐❝ ▼❛tr✐❝❡s

◆♦t❡✿ ❆♥② r❡❛❧ sq✉❛r❡ ♠❛tr✐① ❆ ♠❛② ❜❡ ✇r✐tt❡♥ ❛s t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ ❛ s②♠♠❡tr✐❝
♠❛tr✐① ❘ ❛♥❞ s❦❡✇✲s②♠♠❡tr✐❝ ♠❛tr✐① ❙✱ ✇❤❡r❡ ❘ = ✷✶ (❆ + ❆T ) ❛♥❞
✶
❙ = ✷ (❆ − ❆T )✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✻✶ ✴ ✷✺✶

❙②♠♠❡tr✐❝✱ ❙❦❡✇✲❙②♠♠❡tr✐❝ ▼❛tr✐❝❡s

◆♦t❡✿ ❆♥② r❡❛❧ sq✉❛r❡ ♠❛tr✐① ❆ ♠❛② ❜❡ ✇r✐tt❡♥ ❛s t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ ❛ s②♠♠❡tr✐❝
✶
♠❛tr✐① ❘ ❛♥❞ s❦❡✇✲s②♠♠❡tr✐❝ ♠❛tr✐① ❙✱ ✇❤❡r❡ ❘ = ✷ (❆ + ❆T ) ❛♥❞
✶ T
❙ = ✷ (❆ − ❆ )✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❲r✐t❡ t❤❡ ❙②♠♠❡tr✐❝ ❛♥❞ ❙❦❡✇✲❙②♠♠❡tr✐❝ ♠❛tr✐❝❡s ♦❢
 
✾ ✺ ✷
A= ✷ ✸ −✽ ✳
✺ ✹ ✸

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✻✶ ✴ ✷✺✶

❙②♠♠❡tr✐❝✱ ❙❦❡✇✲❙②♠♠❡tr✐❝ ▼❛tr✐❝❡s

◆♦t❡✿ ❆♥② r❡❛❧ sq✉❛r❡ ♠❛tr✐① ❆ ♠❛② ❜❡ ✇r✐tt❡♥ ❛s t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ ❛ s②♠♠❡tr✐❝
✶
♠❛tr✐① ❘ ❛♥❞ s❦❡✇✲s②♠♠❡tr✐❝ ♠❛tr✐① ❙✱ ✇❤❡r❡ ❘ = ✷ (❆ + ❆T ) ❛♥❞
✶ T
❙ = ✷ (❆ − ❆ )✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❲r✐t❡ t❤❡ ❙②♠♠❡tr✐❝ ❛♥❞ ❙❦❡✇✲❙②♠♠❡tr✐❝ ♠❛tr✐❝❡s ♦❢
 
✾ ✺ ✷
A= ✷ ✸ −✽ ✳
✺ ✹ ✸
◆♦t❡✿

✭❛✮ ❚❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ ❛ s②♠♠❡tr✐❝ ♠❛tr✐① ❛r❡ r❡❛❧✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✻✶ ✴ ✷✺✶

❙②♠♠❡tr✐❝✱ ❙❦❡✇✲❙②♠♠❡tr✐❝ ▼❛tr✐❝❡s

◆♦t❡✿ ❆♥② r❡❛❧ sq✉❛r❡ ♠❛tr✐① ❆ ♠❛② ❜❡ ✇r✐tt❡♥ ❛s t❤❡ s✉♠ ♦❢ ❛ s②♠♠❡tr✐❝
✶
♠❛tr✐① ❘ ❛♥❞ s❦❡✇✲s②♠♠❡tr✐❝ ♠❛tr✐① ❙✱ ✇❤❡r❡ ❘ = ✷ (❆ + ❆T ) ❛♥❞
✶ T
❙ = ✷ (❆ − ❆ )✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❲r✐t❡ t❤❡ ❙②♠♠❡tr✐❝ ❛♥❞ ❙❦❡✇✲❙②♠♠❡tr✐❝ ♠❛tr✐❝❡s ♦❢
 
✾ ✺ ✷
A= ✷ ✸ −✽ ✳
✺ ✹ ✸
◆♦t❡✿

✭❛✮ ❚❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ ❛ s②♠♠❡tr✐❝ ♠❛tr✐① ❛r❡ r❡❛❧✳

✭❜✮ ❚❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ ❛ s❦❡✇✲s②♠♠❡tr✐❝ ♠❛tr✐① ❛r❡ ♣✉r❡ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❛r② ♦r ③❡r♦✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✻✶ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs
✭P♦♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥ ●r♦✇t❤✮

■❢ t❤❡ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ❧✐❢❡ s♣❛♥ ♦❢ ❛h ♠❡♠❜❡r ✐s L ②❡❛rs✱ t❤❡♥ i t❤❡ ❛❣❡ ❝❧❛ss❡s ❛r❡
r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❜② n ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ❛s ✵, Ln , ✷nL , · · · , (n−n✶)L , L

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✻✷ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs
✭P♦♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥ ●r♦✇t❤✮

■❢ t❤❡ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ❧✐❢❡ s♣❛♥ ♦❢ ❛h ♠❡♠❜❡r ✐s L ②❡❛rs✱ t❤❡♥ i t❤❡ ❛❣❡ ❝❧❛ss❡s ❛r❡
r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❜② n ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ❛s ✵, Ln , ✷nL , · · · , (n−n✶)L , L
❚❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r♦❢ ♣♦♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥
 ♠❡♠❜❡rs ✐♥ ❡❛❝❤ ❛❣❡ ❝❧❛ss ✭❛❣❡ ❞✐str✐❜✉t✐♦♥
x✶
 x✷ 
✈❡❝t♦r✮ ① =  ✳✳ 

✳ 


xn

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✻✷ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs
✭P♦♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥ ●r♦✇t❤✮

■❢ t❤❡ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ❧✐❢❡ s♣❛♥ ♦❢ ❛h ♠❡♠❜❡r ✐s L ②❡❛rs✱ t❤❡♥ i t❤❡ ❛❣❡ ❝❧❛ss❡s ❛r❡
r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❜② n ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ❛s ✵, Ln , ✷nL , · · · , (n−n✶)L , L
❚❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r♦❢ ♣♦♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥
 ♠❡♠❜❡rs ✐♥ ❡❛❝❤ ❛❣❡ ❝❧❛ss ✭❛❣❡ ❞✐str✐❜✉t✐♦♥
x✶
 x✷ 
✈❡❝t♦r✮ ① =  ✳✳ 

✳ 


xn
❖✈❡r ❛ ♣❡r✐♦❞ ♦❢ L/n ②❡❛rs✱ t❤❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐t② t❤❛t ❛ ♠❡♠❜❡r ♦❢ t❤❡ i t❤ ❛❣❡
❝❧❛ss ✇✐❧❧ s✉r✈✐✈❡ t♦ ❜❡❝♦♠❡ ❛ ♠❡♠❜❡r ♦❢ t❤❡ (i + ✶)t❤ ❛❣❡ ❝❧❛ss ✐s pi ,
✵ ≤ pi ≤ ✶, i = ✶, ✷, . . . , n − ✶.

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✻✷ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs
✭P♦♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥ ●r♦✇t❤✮

■❢ t❤❡ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ❧✐❢❡ s♣❛♥ ♦❢ ❛h ♠❡♠❜❡r ✐s L ②❡❛rs✱ t❤❡♥ i t❤❡ ❛❣❡ ❝❧❛ss❡s ❛r❡
r❡♣r❡s❡♥t❡❞ ❜② n ✐♥t❡r✈❛❧s ❛s ✵, Ln , ✷nL , · · · , (n−n✶)L , L
❚❤❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r♦❢ ♣♦♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥
 ♠❡♠❜❡rs ✐♥ ❡❛❝❤ ❛❣❡ ❝❧❛ss ✭❛❣❡ ❞✐str✐❜✉t✐♦♥
x✶
 x✷ 
✈❡❝t♦r✮ ① =  ✳✳ 

✳ 


xn
❖✈❡r ❛ ♣❡r✐♦❞ ♦❢ L/n ②❡❛rs✱ t❤❡ ♣r♦❜❛❜✐❧✐t② t❤❛t ❛ ♠❡♠❜❡r ♦❢ t❤❡ i t❤ ❛❣❡
❝❧❛ss ✇✐❧❧ s✉r✈✐✈❡ t♦ ❜❡❝♦♠❡ ❛ ♠❡♠❜❡r ♦❢ t❤❡ (i + ✶)t❤ ❛❣❡ ❝❧❛ss ✐s pi ,
✵ ≤ pi ≤ ✶, i = ✶, ✷, . . . , n − ✶.
❚❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ ♦✛s♣r✐♥❣ ♣r♦❞✉❝❡❞ ❜② ❛ ♠❡♠❜❡r ♦❢ t❤❡ i t❤ ❛❣❡
❝❧❛ss ✐s bi ✱ (bi ≥ ✵) i = ✶, ✷, . . . , n

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✻✷ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs
✭P♦♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥ ●r♦✇t❤✮

 
b✶ b✷ b✸ ··· bn−✶ bn
 p✶ ✵ ✵ ··· ✵ ✵ 
 ✵ p✷ ✵ ✵ ✵
 
❆❣❡ tr❛♥s✐t✐♦♥ ▼❛tr✐①✿ A =  ··· 
 ✳✳ ✳✳ ✳✳ ✳✳ ✳✳

 ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳

··· 
✵ ✵ ✵ · · · pn−✶ ✵

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✻✸ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs
✭P♦♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥ ●r♦✇t❤✮

 
b✶ b✷ b✸ ··· bn−✶ bn
 p✶ ✵ ✵ ··· ✵ ✵ 
 ✵ p✷ ✵ ✵ ✵
 
❆❣❡ tr❛♥s✐t✐♦♥ ▼❛tr✐①✿ A =  ··· 
 ✳✳ ✳✳ ✳✳ ✳✳ ✳✳

 ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳

··· 
✵ ✵ ✵ · · · pn−✶ ✵
❆❣❡ ❞✐str✐❜✉t✐♦♥ ✈❡❝t♦r ❢♦r t❤❡ ♥❡①t t✐♠❡ ♣❡r✐♦❞✿ A①✐ = ①✐+✶

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✻✸ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❊✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs
✭P♦♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥ ●r♦✇t❤✮

 
b✶ b✷ b✸ ··· bn−✶ bn
 p✶ ✵ ✵ ··· ✵ ✵ 
 ✵ p✷ ✵ ✵ ✵
 
❆❣❡ tr❛♥s✐t✐♦♥ ▼❛tr✐①✿ A =  ··· 
 ✳✳ ✳✳ ✳✳ ✳✳ ✳✳

 ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳ ✳

··· 
✵ ✵ ✵ · · · pn−✶ ✵
❆❣❡ ❞✐str✐❜✉t✐♦♥ ✈❡❝t♦r ❢♦r t❤❡ ♥❡①t t✐♠❡ ♣❡r✐♦❞✿ A①✐ = ①✐+✶
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❆ ♣♦♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❝❡rt❛✐♥ ❜✐r❞s r❛✐s❡❞ ✐♥ ❛ r❡s❡❛r❝❤ ❧❛❜♦r❛t♦r② ❤❛s
❤❛❧❢ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜✐r❞s s✉r✈✐✈❡ t❤❡✐r ✜rst ②❡❛r✳ ❚❤❡ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ❧✐❢❡ s♣❛♥ ✐s ✷ ②❡❛rs✳
❉✉r✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✜rst ②❡❛r✱ t❤❡ ❜✐r❞s ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ♥♦ ♦✛s♣r✐♥❣✳ ❚❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡ ♥✉♠❜❡r
♦❢ ♦✛s♣r✐♥❣ ✐s ✷ ❞✉r✐♥❣ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ②❡❛r✳ ❚❤❡ ❧❛❜♦r❛t♦r② ♣♦♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥ ♥♦✇
❝♦♥s✐sts ♦❢ ✶✵ ❜✐r❞s ✐♥ t❤❡ ✜rst ❛❣❡ ❝❧❛ss✱ ❛♥❞ ✶✵ ✐♥ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞✳ ❍♦✇ ♠❛♥②
❜✐r❞s ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ✐♥ ❡❛❝❤ ❛❣❡ ❝❧❛ss ✐♥ ✶ ②❡❛r?

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✻✸ ✴ ✷✺✶

P♦♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥ ●r♦✇t❤

 
✶✵
❚❤❡ ❝✉rr❡♥t ❛❣❡ ❞✐str✐❜✉t✐♦♥ ✈❡❝t♦r ✐s ① = ✱
✶✵

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✻✹ ✴ ✷✺✶

P♦♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥ ●r♦✇t❤

 
✶✵
❚❤❡ ❝✉rr❡♥t ❛❣❡ ❞✐str✐❜✉t✐♦♥ ✈❡❝t♦r ✐s ① = ✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❛❣❡ tr❛♥s✐t✐♦♥
✶✵
 
✵ ✷
♠❛tr✐① ✐s A=
.
✵ ✺ ✵

❆❢t❡r ✶ ②❡❛r✱ t❤❡ ❛❣❡ ❞✐str✐❜✉t✐♦♥ ✈❡❝t♦r ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡

    
✵ ✷ ✶✵ ✷✵
①✶ = A①✵ = =
.
✵ ✺ ✵ ✶✵ ✺

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✻✹ ✴ ✷✺✶

P♦♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥ ●r♦✇t❤

 
✶✵
❚❤❡ ❝✉rr❡♥t ❛❣❡ ❞✐str✐❜✉t✐♦♥ ✈❡❝t♦r ✐s ① = ✱ ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❛❣❡ tr❛♥s✐t✐♦♥
✶✵
 
✵ ✷
♠❛tr✐① ✐s A=
.
✵ ✺ ✵

❆❢t❡r ✶ ②❡❛r✱ t❤❡ ❛❣❡ ❞✐str✐❜✉t✐♦♥ ✈❡❝t♦r ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡

    
✵ ✷ ✶✵ ✷✵
①✶ = A①✵ = =
.
✵ ✺ ✵ ✶✵ ✺

❙t❛❜❧❡ ❛❣❡ ❞✐str✐❜✉t✐♦♥ Ax = λx, x✶ ✐s t❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦r ♦❢ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡✳

❚❤❡♥ xn+✶ = Axn , n = ✶, ✷, · · ·

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✻✹ ✴ ✷✺✶

❊①❛♠♣❧❡
❆ ♣♦♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ r❛❜❜✐ts ❤❛s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❝❤❛r❛❝t❡r✐st✐❝s✳
❛✳ ❍❛❧❢ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❛❜❜✐ts s✉r✈✐✈❡ t❤❡✐r ✜rst ②❡❛r✳ ❖❢ t❤♦s❡✱ ❤❛❧❢ s✉r✈✐✈❡ t❤❡✐r
s❡❝♦♥❞ ②❡❛r✳ ❚❤❡ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ❧✐❢❡ s♣❛♥ ✐s ✸ ②❡❛rs✳
❜✳ ❉✉r✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✜rst ②❡❛r✱ t❤❡ r❛❜❜✐ts ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ♥♦ ♦✛s♣r✐♥❣✳ ❚❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡
♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ ♦✛s♣r✐♥❣ ✐s ✻ ❞✉r✐♥❣ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ②❡❛r ❛♥❞ ✽ ❞✉r✐♥❣ t❤❡ t❤✐r❞ ②❡❛r✳
❚❤❡ ♣♦♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥ ♥♦✇ ❝♦♥s✐sts ♦❢ ✷✹ r❛❜❜✐ts ✐♥ t❤❡ ✜rst ❛❣❡ ❝❧❛ss✱ ✷✹ ✐♥ t❤❡
s❡❝♦♥❞✱ ✷✵ ✐♥ t❤❡ t❤✐r❞✳ ❍♦✇ ♠❛♥② r❛❜❜✐ts ✐♥ ❡❛❝❤ ❛❣❡ ❝❧❛ss ✐♥ ✶ ②❡❛r❄

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✻✺ ✴ ✷✺✶

❊①❛♠♣❧❡
❆ ♣♦♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ r❛❜❜✐ts ❤❛s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❝❤❛r❛❝t❡r✐st✐❝s✳
❛✳ ❍❛❧❢ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❛❜❜✐ts s✉r✈✐✈❡ t❤❡✐r ✜rst ②❡❛r✳ ❖❢ t❤♦s❡✱ ❤❛❧❢ s✉r✈✐✈❡ t❤❡✐r
s❡❝♦♥❞ ②❡❛r✳ ❚❤❡ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ❧✐❢❡ s♣❛♥ ✐s ✸ ②❡❛rs✳
❜✳ ❉✉r✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✜rst ②❡❛r✱ t❤❡ r❛❜❜✐ts ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ♥♦ ♦✛s♣r✐♥❣✳ ❚❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡
♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ ♦✛s♣r✐♥❣ ✐s ✻ ❞✉r✐♥❣ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ②❡❛r ❛♥❞ ✽ ❞✉r✐♥❣ t❤❡ t❤✐r❞ ②❡❛r✳
❚❤❡ ♣♦♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥ ♥♦✇ ❝♦♥s✐sts ♦❢ ✷✹ r❛❜❜✐ts ✐♥ t❤❡ ✜rst ❛❣❡ ❝❧❛ss✱ ✷✹ ✐♥ t❤❡
s❡❝♦♥❞✱ ✷✵ ✐♥ t❤❡ t❤✐r❞✳ ❍♦✇ ♠❛♥② r❛❜❜✐ts ✐♥ ❡❛❝❤  ❛❣❡ ❝❧❛ss
 ✐♥ ✶ ②❡❛r❄
✷✹
❆♥s✇❡r ❚❤❡ ❝✉rr❡♥t ❛❣❡ ❞✐str✐❜✉t✐♦♥ ✈❡❝t♦r ✐s ① =  ✷✹ ✱
✷✵

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✻✺ ✴ ✷✺✶

❊①❛♠♣❧❡
❆ ♣♦♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ r❛❜❜✐ts ❤❛s t❤❡ ❢♦❧❧♦✇✐♥❣ ❝❤❛r❛❝t❡r✐st✐❝s✳
❛✳ ❍❛❧❢ ♦❢ t❤❡ r❛❜❜✐ts s✉r✈✐✈❡ t❤❡✐r ✜rst ②❡❛r✳ ❖❢ t❤♦s❡✱ ❤❛❧❢ s✉r✈✐✈❡ t❤❡✐r
s❡❝♦♥❞ ②❡❛r✳ ❚❤❡ ♠❛①✐♠✉♠ ❧✐❢❡ s♣❛♥ ✐s ✸ ②❡❛rs✳
❜✳ ❉✉r✐♥❣ t❤❡ ✜rst ②❡❛r✱ t❤❡ r❛❜❜✐ts ♣r♦❞✉❝❡ ♥♦ ♦✛s♣r✐♥❣✳ ❚❤❡ ❛✈❡r❛❣❡
♥✉♠❜❡r ♦❢ ♦✛s♣r✐♥❣ ✐s ✻ ❞✉r✐♥❣ t❤❡ s❡❝♦♥❞ ②❡❛r ❛♥❞ ✽ ❞✉r✐♥❣ t❤❡ t❤✐r❞ ②❡❛r✳
❚❤❡ ♣♦♣✉❧❛t✐♦♥ ♥♦✇ ❝♦♥s✐sts ♦❢ ✷✹ r❛❜❜✐ts ✐♥ t❤❡ ✜rst ❛❣❡ ❝❧❛ss✱ ✷✹ ✐♥ t❤❡
s❡❝♦♥❞✱ ✷✵ ✐♥ t❤❡ t❤✐r❞✳ ❍♦✇ ♠❛♥② r❛❜❜✐ts ✐♥ ❡❛❝❤  ❛❣❡ ❝❧❛ss
 ✐♥ ✶ ②❡❛r❄
✷✹
❆♥s✇❡r ❚❤❡ ❝✉rr❡♥t ❛❣❡ ❞✐str✐❜✉t✐♦♥ ✈❡❝t♦r ✐s ① =  ✷✹ ✱
✷✵
✵ ✻ ✽
 

❛♥❞ t❤❡ ❛❣❡ tr❛♥s✐t✐♦♥ ♠❛tr✐① ✐s A =  ✵.✺ ✵ ✵ 

✵ ✵.✺ ✵
❆❢t❡r ✶ ②❡❛r✱ t❤❡ ❛❣❡ ❞✐str✐❜✉t✐♦♥ ✈❡❝t♦r ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡
✵ ✻ ✽ ✷✹ ✸✵✹
    

①✶ = A①✵ =  ✵.✺ ✵ ✵   ✷✹  =  ✶✷ 
❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮
✵ ❆❉❉❊
✵.✺ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮
✵ ✷✵ ✶✷ ✻✺ ✴ ✷✺✶
❆❢t❡r ✷ ②❡❛r✱ t❤❡ ❛❣❡ ❞✐str✐❜✉t✐♦♥ ✈❡❝t♦r ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡

    
✵ ✻ ✽ ✸✵✹ ✶✻✽

①✷ = A①✶ =  ✵.✺ ✵ ✵  ✶✷ = ✶✺✷ 

✵ .
✵ ✺ ✵ ✶✷ ✻

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✻✻ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆❢t❡r ✷ ②❡❛r✱ t❤❡ ❛❣❡ ❞✐str✐❜✉t✐♦♥ ✈❡❝t♦r ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡

    
✵ ✻ ✽ ✸✵✹ ✶✻✽

①✷ = A①✶ =  ✵.✺ ✵ ✵  ✶✷ = ✶✺✷ 

✵ .
✵ ✺ ✵ ✶✷ ✻

❙t❛❜❧❡ ❛❣❡ ❞✐str✐❜✉t✐♦♥ Ax = λx, ❚❤❡ ❝❤❛r❛❝t❡r✐st✐❝ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ♦❢ A ✐s

A − λI = (λ + ✶✷ )(λ − ✷) ❚❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛r❡ −✶✱ −✶ ❛♥❞ ✷✳ ❈❤♦♦s✐♥❣ t❤❡
♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ ✈❛❧✉❡✱ ❧❡t λ = ✷✳ ❚❤❡ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ❛r❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠
   
✶✻ ✸✷

① =s ✹ ✱ ❚❤❡ ❛❣❡ ❞✐str✐❜✉t✐♦♥ ✈❡❝t♦r ✐s ① = ✽ ✳

✶ ✷

❆❢t❡r ✶ ②❡❛r✱ t❤❡ ❛❣❡ ❞✐str✐❜✉t✐♦♥ ✈❡❝t♦r ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡

    
✵ ✻ ✽ ✸✷ ✻✹

①✶ = A①✵ =  ✵.✺ ✵ ✵  ✽ = ✶✻ 

✵ ✵ ✺ . ✵ ✷ ✹

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✻✻ ✴ ✷✺✶

❉✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ▼❛tr✐①

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✭❙✐♠✐❧❛r ▼❛tr✐①✮

❆ ♠❛tr✐① ❆ ✐s s❛✐❞ t♦ ❜❡ s✐♠✐❧❛r t♦ ❇ ✐❢ t❤❡r❡ ❡①✐sts ❛ ♥♦♥✲s✐♥❣✉❧❛r ♠❛tr✐① P
s✉❝❤ t❤❛t
❇ = P−✶ ❆P

❚❤❡♦r❡♠
✭✐✮ ❙✐♠✐❧❛r ♠❛tr✐❝❡s ❤❛✈❡ s❛♠❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✻✼ ✴ ✷✺✶

❉✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ▼❛tr✐①

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✭❙✐♠✐❧❛r ▼❛tr✐①✮

❆ ♠❛tr✐① ❆ ✐s s❛✐❞ t♦ ❜❡ s✐♠✐❧❛r t♦ ❇ ✐❢ t❤❡r❡ ❡①✐sts ❛ ♥♦♥✲s✐♥❣✉❧❛r ♠❛tr✐① P
s✉❝❤ t❤❛t
❇ = P−✶ ❆P

❚❤❡♦r❡♠
✭✐✮ ❙✐♠✐❧❛r ♠❛tr✐❝❡s ❤❛✈❡ s❛♠❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s✳
✭✐✐✮ ■❢ ❳ ✐s ❛♥ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦r ♦❢ ❆ t❤❡♥ ❨ = P −✶ ❳ ✐s ❛♥ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦r ♦❢ t❤❡
♠❛tr✐① ❇✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✻✼ ✴ ✷✺✶

❉✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ▼❛tr✐①

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✭❙✐♠✐❧❛r ▼❛tr✐①✮

❆ ♠❛tr✐① ❆ ✐s s❛✐❞ t♦ ❜❡ s✐♠✐❧❛r t♦ ❇ ✐❢ t❤❡r❡ ❡①✐sts ❛ ♥♦♥✲s✐♥❣✉❧❛r ♠❛tr✐① P
s✉❝❤ t❤❛t
❇ = P−✶ ❆P

❚❤❡♦r❡♠
✭✐✮ ❙✐♠✐❧❛r ♠❛tr✐❝❡s ❤❛✈❡ s❛♠❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s✳
✭✐✐✮ ■❢ ❳ ✐s ❛♥ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦r ♦❢ ❆ t❤❡♥ ❨ = P −✶ ❳ ✐s ❛♥ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦r ♦❢ t❤❡
♠❛tr✐① ❇✳
   
✻ −✸ ✶ ✸
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❱❡r✐❢② t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❜② t❛❦✐♥❣ A = ❛♥❞ P= ✳
✹ −✶ ✶ ✹

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✻✼ ✴ ✷✺✶

❉✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ▼❛tr✐①

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✭❙✐♠✐❧❛r ▼❛tr✐①✮

❆ ♠❛tr✐① ❆ ✐s s❛✐❞ t♦ ❜❡ s✐♠✐❧❛r t♦ ❇ ✐❢ t❤❡r❡ ❡①✐sts ❛ ♥♦♥✲s✐♥❣✉❧❛r ♠❛tr✐① P
s✉❝❤ t❤❛t
❇ = P−✶ ❆P

❚❤❡♦r❡♠
✭✐✮ ❙✐♠✐❧❛r ♠❛tr✐❝❡s ❤❛✈❡ s❛♠❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s✳
✭✐✐✮ ■❢ ❳ ✐s ❛♥ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦r ♦❢ ❆ t❤❡♥ ❨ = P −✶ ❳ ✐s ❛♥ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦r ♦❢ t❤❡
♠❛tr✐① ❇✳
   
✻ −✸ ✶ ✸
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❱❡r✐❢② t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❜② t❛❦✐♥❣ A = ❛♥❞ P= ✳
✹ −✶ ✶ ✹
Answer ❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛r❡ ✸, ✷.

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✻✼ ✴ ✷✺✶

❉✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ▼❛tr✐①
     
✹ −✸ ✻ −✸ ✶ ✸ ✸ ✵
❙✐♠✐❧❛r ♠❛tr✐① B= = ✳
−✶ ✶ ✹ −✶ ✶ ✹ ✵ ✷

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✻✽ ✴ ✷✺✶

❉✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ▼❛tr✐①
     
✹ −✸ ✻ −✸ ✶ ✸ ✸ ✵
❙✐♠✐❧❛r ♠❛tr✐① B= = ✳
−✶ ✶ ✹ −✶ ✶ ✹ ✵ ✷
 
✶
y✶ = P − ✶ x✶ = ✱
✵

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✻✽ ✴ ✷✺✶

❉✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ▼❛tr✐①
     
✹ −✸ ✻ −✸ ✶ ✸ ✸ ✵
❙✐♠✐❧❛r ♠❛tr✐① B= = ✳
−✶ ✶ ✹ −✶ ✶ ✹ ✵ ✷
   
✶ ✵
y✶ = P − ✶ x✶ = ✱ y✷ = P
−✶ x =
✷ ✳
✵ ✶

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✻✽ ✴ ✷✺✶

❉✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ▼❛tr✐①
     
✹ −✸ ✻ −✸ ✶ ✸ ✸ ✵
❙✐♠✐❧❛r ♠❛tr✐① B= = ✳
−✶ ✶ ✹ −✶ ✶ ✹ ✵ ✷
   
✶ ✵
y✶ = P − ✶ x✶ = ✱ y✷ = P
−✶ x =
✷ ✳
✵ ✶
 
✸ ✹
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❱❡r✐❢② t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❜② t❛❦✐♥❣ A = ❛♥❞
✹ −✸
 
−✹ ✷
P= ✳
✸ −✶

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✻✽ ✴ ✷✺✶

❉✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ▼❛tr✐①
     
✹ −✸ ✻ −✸ ✶ ✸ ✸ ✵
❙✐♠✐❧❛r ♠❛tr✐① B= = ✳
−✶ ✶ ✹ −✶ ✶ ✹ ✵ ✷
   
✶ ✵
y✶ = P − ✶ x✶ = ✱ y✷ = P
−✶ x =
✷ ✳
✵ ✶
 
✸ ✹
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❱❡r✐❢② t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❜② t❛❦✐♥❣ A = ❛♥❞
✹ −✸
 
−✹ ✷
P= ✳
✸ −✶

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✭❉✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ▼❛tr✐①✮

❆ n−sq✉❛r❡ ♠❛tr✐① A ✇✐t❤ n ❧✐♥❡❛r❧② ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ✐s s✐♠✐❧❛r t♦

❛ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ♠❛tr✐① D ✇❤♦s❡ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ❡❧❡♠❡♥ts ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ A.

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✻✽ ✴ ✷✺✶

❉✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ▼❛tr✐①
     
✹ −✸ ✻ −✸ ✶ ✸ ✸ ✵
❙✐♠✐❧❛r ♠❛tr✐① B= = ✳
−✶ ✶ ✹ −✶ ✶ ✹ ✵ ✷
   
✶ ✵
y✶ = P − ✶ x✶ = ✱ y✷ = P
−✶ x =
✷ ✳
✵ ✶
 
✸ ✹
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❱❡r✐❢② t❤❡ t❤❡♦r❡♠ ❜② t❛❦✐♥❣ A = ❛♥❞
✹ −✸
 
−✹ ✷
P= ✳
✸ −✶

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✭❉✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ▼❛tr✐①✮

❆ n−sq✉❛r❡ ♠❛tr✐① A ✇✐t❤ n ❧✐♥❡❛r❧② ✐♥❞❡♣❡♥❞❡♥t ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ✐s s✐♠✐❧❛r t♦

❛ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ♠❛tr✐① D ✇❤♦s❡ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ❡❧❡♠❡♥ts ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ A.

◆♦t❡✿ P♦✇❡r ♦❢ ♠❛tr✐① ❆ ✐❢ D = P −✶ AP t❤❡♥ An = PD n P −✶ ✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✻✽ ✴ ✷✺✶

❉✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ▼❛tr✐①
✹ ✶
 
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ ❛ ♠❛tr✐① P ✇❤✐❝❤ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❡s t❤❡ ♠❛tr✐① A = ✳
✷ ✸
❱❡r✐❢② t❤❛t P −✶ AP = D ✇❤❡r❡ D ✐s t❤❡ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ♠❛tr✐①✳ ❍❡♥❝❡ ✜♥❞ A✷ .

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✻✾ ✴ ✷✺✶

❉✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ▼❛tr✐①
✹ ✶
 
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ ❛ ♠❛tr✐① P ✇❤✐❝❤ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❡s t❤❡ ♠❛tr✐① A = ✳
✷ ✸
❱❡r✐❢② t❤❛t P −✶ AP = D ✇❤❡r❡ D ✐s t❤❡ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ♠❛tr✐①✳ ❍❡♥❝❡ ✜♥❞ A✷ .
 λ = ✷, ✺.
Answer
✶ ✶
P= ✱
−✷ ✶

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✻✾ ✴ ✷✺✶

❉✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ▼❛tr✐①
✹ ✶
 
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ ❛ ♠❛tr✐① P ✇❤✐❝❤ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❡s t❤❡ ♠❛tr✐① A = ✳
✷ ✸
❱❡r✐❢② t❤❛t P −✶ AP = D ✇❤❡r❡ D ✐s t❤❡ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ♠❛tr✐①✳ ❍❡♥❝❡ ✜♥❞ A✷ .
 λ = ✷, ✺.
Answer
✶ ✶ ✶ −✶
 
✶ ✶
P= ✱P =✸
− ✱
−✷ ✶ ✷ ✶

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✻✾ ✴ ✷✺✶

❉✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ▼❛tr✐①
✹ ✶
 
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ ❛ ♠❛tr✐① P ✇❤✐❝❤ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❡s t❤❡ ♠❛tr✐① A = ✳
✷ ✸
❱❡r✐❢② t❤❛t P −✶ AP = D ✇❤❡r❡ D ✐s t❤❡ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ♠❛tr✐①✳ ❍❡♥❝❡ ✜♥❞ A✷ .
 λ = ✷, ✺.
Answer
✶ ✶ ✶ −✶ ✷ ✵
   
✶ ✶ ✶
P= ✱P =✸
− ✱ P AP =
−
−✷ ✶ ✷ ✶ ✵ ✺

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✻✾ ✴ ✷✺✶

❉✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ▼❛tr✐①
✹ ✶
 
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ ❛ ♠❛tr✐① P ✇❤✐❝❤ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❡s t❤❡ ♠❛tr✐① A = ✳
✷ ✸
❱❡r✐❢② t❤❛t P −✶ AP = D ✇❤❡r❡ D ✐s t❤❡ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ♠❛tr✐①✳ ❍❡♥❝❡ ✜♥❞ A✷ .
 λ = ✷, ✺.
Answer
✶ ✶ ✶ −✶ ✷ ✵
   
✶ ✶ ✶
P= ✱P =✸
− ✱ P AP =
−
−✷ ✶ ✷ ✶ ✵ ✺
A✷ = PD ✷ P −✶ .

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✻✾ ✴ ✷✺✶

❉✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ▼❛tr✐①
✹ ✶
 
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ ❛ ♠❛tr✐① P ✇❤✐❝❤ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❡s t❤❡ ♠❛tr✐① A = ✳
✷ ✸
❱❡r✐❢② t❤❛t P −✶ AP = D ✇❤❡r❡ D ✐s t❤❡ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ♠❛tr✐①✳ ❍❡♥❝❡ ✜♥❞ A✷ .
 λ = ✷, ✺.
Answer
✶ ✶ ✶ −✶ ✷ ✵
   
✶ ✶ ✶
P= ✱P =✸
− ✱ P AP =
−
−✷ ✶ ✷ ✶ ✵ ✺
A✷ = PD ✷ P −✶ .
✺ ✸
 
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❉✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❡s t❤❡ ♠❛tr✐① A = ✳ ❍❡♥❝❡ ✜♥❞ A✷ .
✸ ✺

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✻✾ ✴ ✷✺✶

❉✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ▼❛tr✐①
✹ ✶
 
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ ❛ ♠❛tr✐① P ✇❤✐❝❤ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❡s t❤❡ ♠❛tr✐① A = ✳
✷ ✸
❱❡r✐❢② t❤❛t P −✶ AP = D ✇❤❡r❡ D ✐s t❤❡ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ♠❛tr✐①✳ ❍❡♥❝❡ ✜♥❞ A✷ .
 λ = ✷, ✺.
Answer
✶ ✶ ✶ −✶ ✷ ✵
   
✶ ✶ ✶
P= ✱P =✸
− ✱ P AP =
−
−✷ ✶ ✷ ✶ ✵ ✺
A✷ = PD ✷ P −✶ .
✺ ✸
 
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❉✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❡s t❤❡ ♠❛tr✐① A = ✳ ❍❡♥❝❡ ✜♥❞ A✷ .
✸ ✺
✶ ✶
 
P= ✱
−✷ ✶

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✻✾ ✴ ✷✺✶

❉✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ▼❛tr✐①
✹ ✶
 
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ ❛ ♠❛tr✐① P ✇❤✐❝❤ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❡s t❤❡ ♠❛tr✐① A = ✳
✷ ✸
❱❡r✐❢② t❤❛t P −✶ AP = D ✇❤❡r❡ D ✐s t❤❡ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ♠❛tr✐①✳ ❍❡♥❝❡ ✜♥❞ A✷ .
 λ = ✷, ✺.
Answer
✶ ✶ ✶ −✶ ✷ ✵
   
✶ ✶ ✶
P= ✱P =✸
− ✱ P AP =
−
−✷ ✶ ✷ ✶ ✵ ✺
A✷ = PD ✷ P −✶ .
✺ ✸
 
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❉✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❡s t❤❡ ♠❛tr✐① A = ✳ ❍❡♥❝❡ ✜♥❞ A✷ .
✸ ✺
✶ ✶ ✽ ✵
   
P= ✱D= ✳
−✷ ✶ ✵ ✷

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✻✾ ✴ ✷✺✶

❉✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ▼❛tr✐①
✹ ✶
 
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ ❛ ♠❛tr✐① P ✇❤✐❝❤ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❡s t❤❡ ♠❛tr✐① A = ✳
✷ ✸
❱❡r✐❢② t❤❛t P −✶ AP = D ✇❤❡r❡ D ✐s t❤❡ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ♠❛tr✐①✳ ❍❡♥❝❡ ✜♥❞ A✷ .
 λ = ✷, ✺.
Answer
✶ ✶ ✶ −✶ ✷ ✵
   
✶ ✶ ✶
P= ✱P =✸
− ✱ P AP =
−
−✷ ✶ ✷ ✶ ✵ ✺
A✷ = PD ✷ P −✶ .
✺ ✸
 
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❉✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❡s t❤❡ ♠❛tr✐① A = ✳ ❍❡♥❝❡ ✜♥❞ A✷ .
✸ ✺
✶ ✶ ✽ ✵
   
P= ✱D= ✳
−✷ ✶ ✵ ✷
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥ ✭❖rt❤♦❣♦♥❛❧ ▼❛tr✐①✮
❆ sq✉❛r❡ ♠❛tr✐① ✐s s❛✐❞ t♦ ❜❡ ❖rt❤♦❣♦♥❛❧ ✐❢ AT = A−✶ ✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✻✾ ✴ ✷✺✶

❉✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ▼❛tr✐①
 
cos θ − sin θ
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ A = ✳
sin θ cos θ

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✼✵ ✴ ✷✺✶

❉✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ▼❛tr✐①
 
cos θ − sin θ
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ A = ✳
sin θ cos θ
◆♦t❡✿ ❚❤❡ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛♥t ♦❢ ❛♥ ♦rt❤♦❣♦♥❛❧ ♠❛tr✐① ❤❛s t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ✶ ♦r −✶✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✼✵ ✴ ✷✺✶

❉✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ▼❛tr✐①
 
cos θ − sin θ
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ A = ✳
sin θ cos θ
◆♦t❡✿ ❚❤❡ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛♥t ♦❢ ❛♥ ♦rt❤♦❣♦♥❛❧ ♠❛tr✐① ❤❛s t❤❡ ✈❛❧✉❡ ✶ ♦r −✶✳
❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥
❆ r❡❛❧ sq✉❛r❡ ♠❛tr✐① ✐s ♦rt❤♦❣♦♥❛❧ ✐❢ ❛♥❞ ♦♥❧② ✐❢ ✐ts ❝♦❧✉♠♥ ✈❡❝t♦rs
❛✶ , ❛✷ , · · · , ❛♥ ✭❛♥❞ ❛❧s♦ ✐ts r♦✇ ✈❡❝t♦rs✮ ❢r♦♠ ❛♥ ♦rt❤♦♥♦r♠❛❧ s②st❡♠✱ t❤❛t
✐s✱ (
✵, ✐❢ j≠ k
❛❥ .❛❦ = ❛❚
❥ .❛❦ =
✶, ✐❢ j =k

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✼✵ ✴ ✷✺✶

◗✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❋♦r♠s

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥
▲❡t Q ❜❡ ❛ r❡❛❧ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ✐♥ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s x✶ , x✷ , · · · , xn s✉❝❤ t❤❛t ❡✈❡r② t❡r♠
✐♥ Q ❤❛s ❞❡❣r❡❡ t✇♦✱ t❤❛t ✐s

ci xi✷ +
X X
Q(x✶ , x✷ , · · · , xn ) = dij xi xj ✇❤❡r❡ ci , dij ∈ ❘.
i i<j

❚❤❡♥ Q ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❢♦r♠✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✼✶ ✴ ✷✺✶

◗✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❋♦r♠s

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥
▲❡t Q ❜❡ ❛ r❡❛❧ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ✐♥ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s x✶ , x✷ , · · · , xn s✉❝❤ t❤❛t ❡✈❡r② t❡r♠
✐♥ Q ❤❛s ❞❡❣r❡❡ t✇♦✱ t❤❛t ✐s

ci xi✷ +
X X
Q(x✶ , x✷ , · · · , xn ) = dij xi xj ✇❤❡r❡ ci , dij ∈ ❘.
i i<j

❚❤❡♥ Q ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❢♦r♠✳

◆♦t❡✿ ■❢ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ❝r♦ss✲♣r♦❞✉❝t t❡r♠s xi x j ✭✐✳❡✳✱ ❛❧❧ dij = ✵✱✮ t❤❡♥ Q ✐s
s❛✐❞ t♦ ❜❡ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✼✶ ✴ ✷✺✶

◗✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❋♦r♠s

❉❡✜♥✐t✐♦♥
▲❡t Q ❜❡ ❛ r❡❛❧ ♣♦❧②♥♦♠✐❛❧ ✐♥ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡s x✶ , x✷ , · · · , xn s✉❝❤ t❤❛t ❡✈❡r② t❡r♠
✐♥ Q ❤❛s ❞❡❣r❡❡ t✇♦✱ t❤❛t ✐s

ci xi✷ +
X X
Q(x✶ , x✷ , · · · , xn ) = dij xi xj ✇❤❡r❡ ci , dij ∈ ❘.
i i<j

❚❤❡♥ Q ✐s ❝❛❧❧❡❞ ❛ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❢♦r♠✳

◆♦t❡✿ ■❢ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ♥♦ ❝r♦ss✲♣r♦❞✉❝t t❡r♠s xi x j ✭✐✳❡✳✱ ❛❧❧ dij = ✵✱✮ t❤❡♥ Q ✐s
s❛✐❞ t♦ ❜❡ ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✳
❚❤❡ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❢♦r♠ ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❡s ❛ r❡❛❧ s②♠♠❡tr✐❝ ♠❛tr✐① A✳ ✇❤❡r❡
A = [aij ], aii = ci ❛♥❞ aij = aji = ✶✷ dij .

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✼✶ ✴ ✷✺✶

❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ♠❛tr✐① ♦❢ t❤❡ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❢♦r♠ ❛ss♦❝✐❛t❡❞ ✇✐t❤ ❡❛❝❤ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝
❡q✉❛t✐♦♥✳ ✭❛✮ ✹x ✷ + ✾y ✷ − ✸✻ = ✵ ✭❜✮ ✶✸x ✷ − ✶✵xy + ✶✸y ✷ − ✼✷ = ✵
 
✹ ✵
✭❛✮ ❚❤❡ ♠❛tr✐① ✐s A= ✳ ❉✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ♠❛tr✐① ✭♥♦ xy − term ✮
✵ ✾

■♥ st❛♥❞❛r❞ ❢♦r♠✱ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥

x✷ y✷
✹x ✷ + ✾y ✷ − ✸✻ = ✵ ✐s ✸✷ + ✷✷ = ✶
✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡❧❧✐♣s❡✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✼✷ ✴ ✷✺✶

  
✶✸ −✺
✭❜✮ ❚❤❡ ♠❛tr✐① ✐s A= ◆♦♥❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧ ♠❛tr✐① ✭ xy ✲t❡r♠✮
−✺ ✶✸

❆❧t❤♦✉❣❤ ✐t ✐s ♥♦t ❛♣♣❛r❡♥t ❜② s✐♠♣❧❡

✐♥s♣❡❝t✐♦♥✱ t❤❡ ❣r❛♣❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥
✶✸x ✷ − ✶✵xy + ✶✸y ✷ − ✼✷ = ✵ ✐s
s✐♠✐❧❛r✳ ■♥ ❢❛❝t✱ ✐❢ ②♦✉ r♦t❛t❡ t❤❡ x ✲
❛♥❞ y ✲❛①❡s ❝♦✉♥t❡r❝❧♦❝❦✇✐s❡ ✹✺◦ t♦
❢♦r♠ ❛ ♥❡✇ x ′ y ′ ✲❝♦♦r❞✐♥❛t❡ s②st❡♠✱
t❤✐s ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ t❛❦❡s t❤❡ ❢♦r♠

(x ′ )✷ (y ′ )✷
+ = ✶,
✸✷ ✷✷
✇❤✐❝❤ ✐s t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❡❧❧✐♣s❡✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✼✸ ✴ ✷✺✶

❚♦ s❡❡ ❤♦✇ t❤❡ ♠❛tr✐① ♦❢ ❛ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❢♦r♠ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ✉s❡❞ t♦ ♣❡r❢♦r♠ ❛
 
x✶
r♦t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛①❡s✱ ❧❡t X = ❆s A ✐s s②♠♠❡tr✐❝✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡r❡ ❡①✐sts ❛♥
x✷
♦rt❤♦❣♦♥❛❧ ♠❛tr✐①
 P s✉❝❤ t❤❛t P T AP = D ✐s ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✳ ❙♦✱ ✐❢ ✇❡ t❛❦❡

y✶
PT X = Y =
y✷
✐t ❢♦❧❧♦✇s t❤❛t X = PY ✱ ❛♥❞ ✇❡ ❤❛✈❡

X T AX = (PY )T A (PY )
= Y T P T APY
= Y T DY .
❇❡❝❛✉s❡ P ✐s ♦rt❤♦❣♦♥❛❧✱ ✐ts ❞❡t❡r♠✐♥❛♥t ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ±✶✳ ■❢ P ✐s ❝❤♦s❡♥ s♦

|P| = ✶✱ t❤❡♥ P ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❢♦r♠

 
cos θ − sin θ
P= ,
sin θ cos θ
✇❤❡r❡ θ ❣✐✈❡s t❤❡ ❛♥❣❧❡ ♦❢ r♦t❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ❝♦♥✐❝ ♠❡❛s✉r❡❞ ❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡

x✶ ✲❛①✐s t♦ t❤❡ ♣♦s✐t✐✈❡ y✶ ✲❛①✐s✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✼✹ ✴ ✷✺✶
❚❤❡ Pr✐♥❝✐♣❛❧ ❆①❡s ❚❤❡♦r❡♠
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❊①♣r❡ss t❤❡ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❢♦r♠ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♠❛tr✐① ❢♦r♠ x T Ax ✱ ✇❤❡r❡ A ✐s
s②♠♠❡tr✐❝ ♠❛tr✐①✳
✭✐✮ ✸x✶✷ + ✶✵x✶ x✷ + ✷x✷✷ .

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✼✺ ✴ ✷✺✶

❚❤❡ Pr✐♥❝✐♣❛❧ ❆①❡s ❚❤❡♦r❡♠
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❊①♣r❡ss t❤❡ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❢♦r♠ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♠❛tr✐① ❢♦r♠ x T Ax ✱ ✇❤❡r❡ A ✐s
s②♠♠❡tr✐❝ ♠❛tr✐①✳
✭✐✮ ✸x✶✷ + ✶✵x✶ x✷ + ✷x✷✷ .
✭✐✐✮ x✶✷ + ✼x✷✷ − ✸x✸✷ + ✹x✶ x✷ − ✷x✶ x✸ + ✽x✷ x✸ .

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✼✺ ✴ ✷✺✶

❚❤❡ Pr✐♥❝✐♣❛❧ ❆①❡s ❚❤❡♦r❡♠
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❊①♣r❡ss t❤❡ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❢♦r♠ ✐♥ t❤❡ ♠❛tr✐① ❢♦r♠ x T Ax ✱ ✇❤❡r❡ A ✐s
s②♠♠❡tr✐❝ ♠❛tr✐①✳
✭✐✮ ✸x✶✷ + ✶✵x✶ x✷ + ✷x✷✷ .
✭✐✐✮ x✶✷ + ✼x✷✷ − ✸x✸✷ + ✹x✶ x✷ − ✷x✶ x✸ + ✽x✷ x✸ .

❚❤❡♦r❡♠ ✭❚❤❡ Pr✐♥❝✐♣❛❧ ❆①❡s ❚❤❡♦r❡♠✮

■❢ A ✐s ❛ s②♠♠❡tr✐❝ n×n ♠❛tr✐①✱ t❤❡♥ t❤❡r❡ ✐s ❛♥ ♦rt❤♦❣♦♥❛❧ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢

✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ t❤❛t tr❛♥s❢♦r♠s t❤❡ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❢♦r♠ ①T ❆① ✐♥ t♦ ❛ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❢♦r♠

②T ❆② ✇✐t❤ ♥♦ ❝r♦ss ♣r♦❞✉❝t t❡r♠s✳ ❙♣❡❝✐❛❧❧②✱ ✐❢ P ♦rt❤♦❣♦♥❛❧❧② ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❡s

❆✱ t❤❡♥ ♠❛❦✐♥❣ t❤❡ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ♦❢ ✈❛r✐❛❜❧❡ ① = P② ✐♥ t❤❡ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❢♦r♠ ①T ❆①

②✐❡❧❞s t❤❡ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❢♦r♠

T
① ❆① = ②T ❉② = λ✶ y✶✷ + λ✷ y✷✷ + · · · λn yn✷

✐♥ ✇❤✐❝❤ λ✶ , λ✷ , · · · , λn ❛r❡ t❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ♦❢ ❆ ❝♦rr❡s♣♦♥❞✐♥❣ t♦ t❤❡

❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs t❤❛t ❢♦r♠ t❤❡ s✉❝❝❡ss✐✈❡ ❝♦❧✉♠♥s ♦❢ P✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✼✺ ✴ ✷✺✶

❚❤❡ Pr✐♥❝✐♣❛❧ ❆①❡s ❚❤❡♦r❡♠

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ♦rt❤♦❣♦♥❛❧ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ ✇❤✐❝❤ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠s t❤❡

q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❢♦r♠ ✷ x✶✷ + ✷x✷✷ + ✷x✶ x✷ t♦ ❝❛♥♦♥✐❝❛❧ ❢♦r♠✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✼✻ ✴ ✷✺✶

❚❤❡ Pr✐♥❝✐♣❛❧ ❆①❡s ❚❤❡♦r❡♠

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ♦rt❤♦❣♦♥❛❧ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ ✇❤✐❝❤ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠s t❤❡

q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❢♦r♠ ✷ x✶✷ + ✷x✷✷ + ✷x✶ x✷ t♦ ❝❛♥♦♥✐❝❛❧ ❢♦r♠✳

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ♦rt❤♦❣♦♥❛❧ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ ✇❤✐❝❤ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠s t❤❡

q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❢♦r♠ x✶✷ + ✸x✷✷ + ✸x✸✷ − ✷x✷ x✸ t♦ ❝❛♥♦♥✐❝❛❧ ❢♦r♠✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✼✻ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❆♥ ❡❧❛st✐❝ ♠❡♠❜r❛♥❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ x✶ x✷ −♣❧❛♥❡ ✇✐t❤ ❜♦✉♥❞❛r② ❝✐r❝❧❡
x✶✷ + x✷✷ = ✶ ✐s str❡t❝❤❡❞ s♦ t❤❛t ❛ ♣♦✐♥t P(x✶ , x✷ ) ❣♦❡s ♦✈❡r ✐♥t♦ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t
Q(y✶ , y✷ ) ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② y✶ = ✺x✶ + ✸x✷ ✱ y✷ = ✸x✶ + ✺x✷ ✳ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣❛❧
❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥s✳ ❲❤❛t s❤❛♣❡ ❞♦❡s t❤❡ ❜♦✉♥❞❛r② ❝✐r❝❧❡ t❛❦❡ ✉♥❞❡r t❤✐s

❞❡❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥ ?

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✼✼ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❆♥ ❡❧❛st✐❝ ♠❡♠❜r❛♥❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ x✶ x✷ −♣❧❛♥❡ ✇✐t❤ ❜♦✉♥❞❛r② ❝✐r❝❧❡
x✶✷ + x✷✷ = ✶ ✐s str❡t❝❤❡❞ s♦ t❤❛t ❛ ♣♦✐♥t P(x✶ , x✷ ) ❣♦❡s ♦✈❡r ✐♥t♦ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t
Q(y✶ , y✷ ) ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② y✶ = ✺x✶ + ✸x✷ ✱ y✷ = ✸x✶ + ✺x✷ ✳ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣❛❧
❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥s✳ ❲❤❛t s❤❛♣❡ ❞♦❡s t❤❡ ❜♦✉♥❞❛r② ❝✐r❝❧❡ t❛❦❡ ✉♥❞❡r t❤✐s

?
❞❡❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥

Answer λ = ✽, ✷.

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✼✼ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❆♥ ❡❧❛st✐❝ ♠❡♠❜r❛♥❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ x✶ x✷ −♣❧❛♥❡ ✇✐t❤ ❜♦✉♥❞❛r② ❝✐r❝❧❡
x✶✷ + x✷✷ = ✶ ✐s str❡t❝❤❡❞ s♦ t❤❛t ❛ ♣♦✐♥t P(x✶ , x✷ ) ❣♦❡s ♦✈❡r ✐♥t♦ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t
Q(y✶ , y✷ ) ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② y✶ = ✺x✶ + ✸x✷ ✱ y✷ = ✸x✶ + ✺x✷ ✳ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣❛❧
❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥s✳ ❲❤❛t s❤❛♣❡ ❞♦❡s t❤❡ ❜♦✉♥❞❛r② ❝✐r❝❧❡ t❛❦❡ ✉♥❞❡r t❤✐s

?
❞❡❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥

Answer λ = ✽, ✷.    
✶ ✶
❚❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ❛r❡ ❛♥❞ ✳
✶ −✶

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✼✼ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❆♥ ❡❧❛st✐❝ ♠❡♠❜r❛♥❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ x✶ x✷ −♣❧❛♥❡ ✇✐t❤ ❜♦✉♥❞❛r② ❝✐r❝❧❡
x✶✷ + x✷✷ = ✶ ✐s str❡t❝❤❡❞ s♦ t❤❛t ❛ ♣♦✐♥t P(x✶ , x✷ ) ❣♦❡s ♦✈❡r ✐♥t♦ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t
Q(y✶ , y✷ ) ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② y✶ = ✺x✶ + ✸x✷ ✱ y✷ = ✸x✶ + ✺x✷ ✳ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣❛❧
❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥s✳ ❲❤❛t s❤❛♣❡ ❞♦❡s t❤❡ ❜♦✉♥❞❛r② ❝✐r❝❧❡ t❛❦❡ ✉♥❞❡r t❤✐s

?
❞❡❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥

Answer λ = ✽, ✷.    
✶ ✶
❚❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ❛r❡ ❛♥❞ ✳
✶ −✶
❚❤❡ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣❛❧ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ✹✺
o ❛♥❞ ✶✸✺
o.

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✼✼ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❆♥ ❡❧❛st✐❝ ♠❡♠❜r❛♥❡ ✐♥ t❤❡ x✶ x✷ −♣❧❛♥❡ ✇✐t❤ ❜♦✉♥❞❛r② ❝✐r❝❧❡
x✶✷ + x✷✷ = ✶ ✐s str❡t❝❤❡❞ s♦ t❤❛t ❛ ♣♦✐♥t P(x✶ , x✷ ) ❣♦❡s ♦✈❡r ✐♥t♦ t❤❡ ♣♦✐♥t
Q(y✶ , y✷ ) ❣✐✈❡♥ ❜② y✶ = ✺x✶ + ✸x✷ ✱ y✷ = ✸x✶ + ✺x✷ ✳ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣❛❧
❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥s✳ ❲❤❛t s❤❛♣❡ ❞♦❡s t❤❡ ❜♦✉♥❞❛r② ❝✐r❝❧❡ t❛❦❡ ✉♥❞❡r t❤✐s

?
❞❡❢♦r♠❛t✐♦♥

Answer λ = ✽, ✷.    
✶ ✶
❚❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ❛r❡ ❛♥❞ ✳
✶ −✶
❚❤❡ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣❛❧ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ ✹✺
o ❛♥❞ ✶✸✺
o.

❚❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s s❤♦✇ t❤❛t ✐♥ t❤❡ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣❛❧ ❞✐r❡❝t✐♦♥s t❤❡ ♠❡♠❜r❛♥❡ ✐s

str❡t❝❤❡❞ ❜② ❢❛❝t♦rs ✽ ❛♥❞ ✷ r❡s♣❡❝t✐✈❡❧②✳

z✶ = ✽ cos θ, z✷ = ✷ sin θ.
z✶✷ z✷✷
✽✷ + ✷✷ = ✶

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✼✼ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s ❛♥❞ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✼✽ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❢♦r♠s
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ ♦✉t ✇❤❛t t②♣❡ ♦❢ ❝♦♥✐❝ s❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❢♦r♠
Q = ✶✼x✶✷ − ✸✵x✶ x✷ + ✶✼x✷✷ = ✶✷✽ r❡♣r❡s❡♥ts ❛♥❞ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠ ✐t t♦ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣❛❧
❛①❡s✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✼✾ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❢♦r♠s
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ ♦✉t ✇❤❛t t②♣❡ ♦❢ ❝♦♥✐❝ s❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❢♦r♠
Q = ✶✼x✶✷ − ✸✵x✶ x✷ + ✶✼x✷✷ = ✶✷✽ r❡♣r❡s❡♥ts ❛♥❞ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠ ✐t t♦ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣❛❧
❛①❡s✳
Answer λ = ✷, ✸✷.✱ Q = ✷y✶✷ + ✸✷y✷✷ .

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✼✾ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❢♦r♠s
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ ♦✉t ✇❤❛t t②♣❡ ♦❢ ❝♦♥✐❝ s❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❢♦r♠
Q = ✶✼x✶✷ − ✸✵x✶ x✷ + ✶✼x✷✷ = ✶✷✽ r❡♣r❡s❡♥ts ❛♥❞ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠ ✐t t♦ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣❛❧
❛①❡s✳
Answer λ = ✷, ✸✷.✱ Q = ✷y✶✷ + ✸✷y✷✷ .
y✶✷ y✷✷
Q = ✶✷✽ =⇒ ✽✷ + ✷✷ = ✶.

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✼✾ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❢♦r♠s
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ ♦✉t ✇❤❛t t②♣❡ ♦❢ ❝♦♥✐❝ s❡❝t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ q✉❛❞r❛t✐❝ ❢♦r♠
Q = ✶✼x✶✷ − ✸✵x✶ x✷ + ✶✼x✷✷ = ✶✷✽ r❡♣r❡s❡♥ts ❛♥❞ tr❛♥s❢♦r♠ ✐t t♦ ♣r✐♥❝✐♣❛❧
❛①❡s✳
Answer λ = ✷, ✸✷.✱ Q = ✷y✶✷ + ✸✷y✷✷ .
y✶✷ y✷✷
Q = ✶✷✽ =⇒ ✽✷ + ✷✷ = ✶.
  
✶ −✶
❚❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ❛r❡ ❛♥❞ ✳
✶ ✶
❲❤✐❝❤ ✇❡ ❝❛♥ ♥♦r♠❛❧✐③❡ t♦ ❢♦r♠ t❤❡ ♠❛tr✐①

√✶ − √✶✷
" #  
✷ cos θ − sin θ
P= √✶ √✶
= ,
✷ ✷
sin θ cos θ

❚❤❡ ❛♥❣❧❡ ♦❢ r♦t❛t✐♦♥ ✐s ✹✺o ✭❖rt❤♦❣♦♥❛❧✐③❡❞ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs✮✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✼✾ ✴ ✷✺✶

❙②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✷✹ ✴ ✷✺✶

❙♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s

x✶ = −✸e ✷t
x✶ = −e ✹t
( (
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t ❛♥❞ ❛r❡ t❤❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥
x✷ = e ✷t x✷ = e ✹t
♦❢ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ x✶ = x✶ − ✸x✷ ✱ x✷ = x✶ + ✺x✷ ✳
′ ′

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✷✺ ✴ ✷✺✶

❙♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s

x✶ = −✸e ✷t
x✶ = −e ✹t
( (
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t ❛♥❞ ❛r❡ t❤❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥
x✷ = e ✷t x✷ = e ✹t
♦❢ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ x✶ = x✶ − ✸x✷ ✱ x✷ = x✶ + ✺x✷ ✳
′ ′

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❙♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s

x✶ = x✶ − ✸x✷
′

x✷ = x✶ + ✺x✷
′

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✷✺ ✴ ✷✺✶

❙♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s

x✶ = −✸e ✷t
x✶ = −e ✹t
( (
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t ❛♥❞ ❛r❡ t❤❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥
x✷ = e ✷t x✷ = e ✹t
♦❢ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ x✶ = x✶ − ✸x✷ ✱ x✷ = x✶ + ✺x✷ ✳
′ ′

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❙♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s

x✶ = x✶ − ✸x✷
′

x✷ = x✶ + ✺x✷
′

✶ −✸
   
x✶
Answer ① = ❆①✱ ✇❤❡r❡ ❆ = ✱①=
′

✶ ✺ x✷

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✷✺ ✴ ✷✺✶

❙♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s

x✶ = −✸e ✷t
x✶ = −e ✹t
( (
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t ❛♥❞ ❛r❡ t❤❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥
x✷ = e ✷t x✷ = e ✹t
♦❢ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ x✶ = x✶ − ✸x✷ ✱ x✷ = x✶ + ✺x✷ ✳
′ ′

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❙♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s

x✶ = x✶ − ✸x✷
′

x✷ = x✶ + ✺x✷
′

✶ −✸
   
x✶
Answer ① = ❆①✱ ✇❤❡r❡ ❆ = ✱①=
′

✶ ✺ x✷
λ = ✷, ✹.

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✷✺ ✴ ✷✺✶

❙♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s

x✶ = −✸e ✷t
x✶ = −e ✹t
( (
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❙❤♦✇ t❤❛t ❛♥❞ ❛r❡ t❤❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥
x✷ = e ✷t x✷ = e ✹t
♦❢ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ x✶ = x✶ − ✸x✷ ✱ x✷ = x✶ + ✺x✷ ✳
′ ′

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❙♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s

x✶ = x✶ − ✸x✷
′

x✷ = x✶ + ✺x✷
′

✶ −✸
   
x✶
Answer ① = ❆①✱ ✇❤❡r❡ ❆ = ✱①=
′

✶ ✺ x✷
λ = ✷, ✹.
−✸ −✶
   
❚❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ❛r❡ ❛♥❞ ✳
✶ ✶

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✷✺ ✴ ✷✺✶

❙♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s

−✸ −✶
     
x✶
❚❤❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ = c✶ e ✷t + c✷ e ✹t
x✷ ✶ ✶

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✷✻ ✴ ✷✺✶

❙♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s

−✸ −✶
     
x✶
❚❤❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ = c✶ ✷ e ✷t +c e ✹t
x✷✶ ✶
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❙♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s
x✶ = −x✶ − x✷ + ✸x✸
′

′
x ✷ = x ✶ + x ✷ − x✸
x✸ = −x✶ − x✷ + ✸x✸
′

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✷✻ ✴ ✷✺✶

❙♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s

−✸ −✶
     
x✶
❚❤❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ = c✶ ✷ e ✷t +c e ✹t
x✷✶ ✶
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❙♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s
x✶ = −x✶ − x✷ + ✸x✸
′

′
x ✷ = x ✶ + x ✷ − x✸
x✸ = −x✶ − x✷ + ✸x✸
′

Answer λ = ✵, ✶, ✷.

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✷✻ ✴ ✷✺✶

❙♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s

−✸ −✶
     
x✶
❚❤❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥s ❛r❡ = c✶ ✷ e ✷t +c e ✹t
x✷✶ ✶
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❙♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s
x✶ = −x✶ − x✷ + ✸x✸
′

′
x ✷ = x ✶ + x ✷ − x✸
x✸ = −x✶ − x✷ + ✸x✸
′

Answer λ = ✵, ✶, ✷. 
✶ ✶ ✶
    

❚❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ❛r❡  −✶ ✱  ✶  ❛♥❞  ✵ ✳

✵ ✶ ✶

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✷✻ ✴ ✷✺✶

❙♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ❞✐✛✳ ❡q✉✳s ❜② ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥
♠❡t❤♦❞
① = ❆① ❛♥❞ ❆ = P❉P−✶ =⇒ ① = P❉P−✶ ①
′ ′

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✷✼ ✴ ✷✺✶

❙♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ❞✐✛✳ ❡q✉✳s ❜② ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥
♠❡t❤♦❞
① = ❆① ❛♥❞ ❆ = P❉P−✶ =⇒ ① = P❉P−✶ ①
′ ′

▲❡t ② = P−✶ ① =⇒ ① = P②✳

❙♦ (P−✶ ①) = ❉② =⇒ ② = ❉②.
′ ′

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✷✼ ✴ ✷✺✶

❙♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ❞✐✛✳ ❡q✉✳s ❜② ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥
♠❡t❤♦❞
① = ❆① ❛♥❞ ❆ = P❉P−✶ =⇒ ① = P❉P−✶ ①
′ ′

▲❡t ② = P−✶ ① =⇒ ① = P②✳

❙♦ (P−✶ ①) = ❉② =⇒ ② = ❉②.
′ ′

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❙♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ❜② ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥

♠❡t❤♦❞
x✶ = x✶ − ✸x✷
′

x✷ = x✶ + ✺x✷
′

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✷✼ ✴ ✷✺✶

❙♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ❞✐✛✳ ❡q✉✳s ❜② ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥
♠❡t❤♦❞
① = ❆① ❛♥❞ ❆ = P❉P−✶ =⇒ ① = P❉P−✶ ①
′ ′

▲❡t ② = P−✶ ① =⇒ ① = P②✳

❙♦ (P−✶ ①) = ❉② =⇒ ② = ❉②.
′ ′

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❙♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ❜② ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥

♠❡t❤♦❞
x✶ = x✶ − ✸x✷
′

x✷ = x✶ + ✺x✷
′

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❙♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ❜② ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥

♠❡t❤♦❞
x✶ = ✷x✶ + ✷x✷ + x✸
′

x✷ = x✶ + ✸x✷ + x✸
′

x✸ = x✶ + ✷x✷ + ✷x✸
′

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✷✼ ✴ ✷✺✶

❙♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ❞✐✛✳ ❡q✉✳s ❜② ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥
♠❡t❤♦❞
① = ❆① ❛♥❞ ❆ = P❉P−✶ =⇒ ① = P❉P−✶ ①
′ ′

▲❡t ② = P−✶ ① =⇒ ① = P②✳

❙♦ (P−✶ ①) = ❉② =⇒ ② = ❉②.
′ ′

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❙♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ❜② ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥

♠❡t❤♦❞
x✶ = x✶ − ✸x✷
′

x✷ = x✶ + ✺x✷
′

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❙♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ❜② ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥

♠❡t❤♦❞
x✶ = ✷x✶ + ✷x✷ + x✸
′

x✷ = x✶ + ✸x✷ + x✸
′

x✸ = x✶ + ✷x✷ + ✷x✸
′

Answer λ = ✺, ✶, ✶.
❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✷✼ ✴ ✷✺✶
❙♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ❞✐✛✳ ❡q✉✳s ❜② ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥
♠❡t❤♦❞

−✷ −✶
✶
     

① = c✶  ✶  e t + c✷  ✵  e t + c✸  ✶  e ✺t
✵ ✶ ✶

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✷✽ ✴ ✷✺✶

❙♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ❞✐✛✳ ❡q✉✳s ❜② ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥
♠❡t❤♦❞

−✷ −✶ ✶
     

① = c✶  ✶  e t + c✷  ✵  e t + c✸  ✶  e ✺t
✵ ✶ ✶
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❙♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ❜② ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥
♠❡t❤♦❞
x✶ = ✻x✶ − x✷
′

x✷ = ✺x✶ + ✹x✷ .
′

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✷✽ ✴ ✷✺✶

❙♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ❞✐✛✳ ❡q✉✳s ❜② ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥
♠❡t❤♦❞

−✷ −✶ ✶
     

① = c✶  ✶  e t + c✷  ✵  e t + c✸  ✶  e ✺t
✵ ✶ ✶
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❙♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ❜② ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥
♠❡t❤♦❞
x✶ = ✻x✶ − x✷
′

x✷ = ✺x✶ + ✹x✷ .
′

✶ −✶
   
Answer ① = c✶ e ( ✺+ ✷i)t + c✷ e (✺−✷i)t
✶ − ✷i ✶ + ✷i

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✷✽ ✴ ✷✺✶

❈♦♥✈❡rs✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛♥ ♥t❤ ♦r❞❡r ❖❉❊ t♦ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ✜rst
♦r❞❡r ❖❉❊

❆♥ ♥t❤ ♦r❞❡r ❖❉❊ ❝❛♥ ❜❡ ❝♦♥✈❡rt❡❞

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✷✾ ✴ ✷✺✶

❙②st❡♠ ♦❢ s❡❝♦♥❞ ♦r❞❡r ❖❉❊
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❈♦♥✈❡rt t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ t♦ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ✜rst ♦r❞❡r
❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ s♦❧✈❡✳
✭✐✮ x + ✸x ′ + ✷x = ✵.
′′

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✸✵ ✴ ✷✺✶

❙②st❡♠ ♦❢ s❡❝♦♥❞ ♦r❞❡r ❖❉❊
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❈♦♥✈❡rt t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ t♦ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ✜rst ♦r❞❡r
❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ s♦❧✈❡✳
✭✐✮ x + ✸x ′ + ✷x = ✵.
′′

✭✐✐✮ ✹x − ✶✺x ′ − ✹x = ✵.
′′

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✸✵ ✴ ✷✺✶

❙②st❡♠ ♦❢ s❡❝♦♥❞ ♦r❞❡r ❖❉❊
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❈♦♥✈❡rt t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ t♦ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ✜rst ♦r❞❡r
❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ s♦❧✈❡✳
✭✐✮ x + ✸x ′ + ✷x = ✵.
′′

✭✐✐✮ ✹x − ✶✺x ′ − ✹x = ✵.
′′

① = A①.
′′

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✸✵ ✴ ✷✺✶

❙②st❡♠ ♦❢ s❡❝♦♥❞ ♦r❞❡r ❖❉❊
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❈♦♥✈❡rt t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ t♦ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ✜rst ♦r❞❡r
❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ s♦❧✈❡✳
✭✐✮ x + ✸x ′ + ✷x = ✵.
′′

✭✐✐✮ ✹x − ✶✺x ′ − ✹x = ✵.
′′

① = A①.
′′

❆ = P❉P−✶ =⇒ ① = P❉P−✶ ①
′′

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✸✵ ✴ ✷✺✶

❙②st❡♠ ♦❢ s❡❝♦♥❞ ♦r❞❡r ❖❉❊
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❈♦♥✈❡rt t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ t♦ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ✜rst ♦r❞❡r
❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ s♦❧✈❡✳
✭✐✮ x + ✸x ′ + ✷x = ✵.
′′

✭✐✐✮ ✹x − ✶✺x ′ − ✹x = ✵.
′′

① = A①.
′′

❆ = P❉P−✶ =⇒ ① = P❉P−✶ ①
′′

▲❡t ② = P−✶ ① =⇒ ① = P②✳

❙♦ (P−✶ ①) = ❉② =⇒ ② = ❉② t❤❡♥ ① = P②.
′′ ′′

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✸✵ ✴ ✷✺✶

❙②st❡♠ ♦❢ s❡❝♦♥❞ ♦r❞❡r ❖❉❊
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❈♦♥✈❡rt t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ t♦ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ✜rst ♦r❞❡r
❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ s♦❧✈❡✳
✭✐✮ x + ✸x ′ + ✷x = ✵.
′′

✭✐✐✮ ✹x − ✶✺x ′ − ✹x = ✵.
′′

① = A①.
′′

❆ = P❉P−✶ =⇒ ① = P❉P−✶ ①
′′

▲❡t ② = P−✶ ① =⇒ ① = P②✳

❙♦ (P−✶ ①) = ❉② =⇒ ② = ❉② t❤❡♥① = P②. 
′′ ′′

−✺ ✷
 
x✶
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❙♦❧✈❡ ① = ❆①✱ ✇❤❡r❡ ❆ = ✷ −✷ ✱ ① = x
′′

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✸✵ ✴ ✷✺✶

❙②st❡♠ ♦❢ s❡❝♦♥❞ ♦r❞❡r ❖❉❊
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❈♦♥✈❡rt t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ t♦ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ✜rst ♦r❞❡r
❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ s♦❧✈❡✳
✭✐✮ x + ✸x ′ + ✷x = ✵.
′′

✭✐✐✮ ✹x − ✶✺x ′ − ✹x = ✵.
′′

① = A①.
′′

❆ = P❉P−✶ =⇒ ① = P❉P−✶ ①
′′

▲❡t ② = P−✶ ① =⇒ ① = P②✳

❙♦ (P−✶ ①) = ❉② =⇒ ② = ❉② t❤❡♥① = P②. 
′′ ′′

−✺ ✷
 
x✶
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❙♦❧✈❡ ① = ❆①✱ ✇❤❡r❡ ❆ = ✷ −✷ ✱ ① = x
′′

✷
λ = −✶, −✻.

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✸✵ ✴ ✷✺✶

❙②st❡♠ ♦❢ s❡❝♦♥❞ ♦r❞❡r ❖❉❊
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❈♦♥✈❡rt t❤❡ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ t♦ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ✜rst ♦r❞❡r
❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ❛♥❞ s♦❧✈❡✳
✭✐✮ x + ✸x ′ + ✷x = ✵.
′′

✭✐✐✮ ✹x − ✶✺x ′ − ✹x = ✵.
′′

① = A①.
′′

❆ = P❉P−✶ =⇒ ① = P❉P−✶ ①
′′

▲❡t ② = P−✶ ① =⇒ ① = P②✳

❙♦ (P−✶ ①) = ❉② =⇒ ② = ❉② t❤❡♥① = P②. 
′′ ′′

−✺ ✷
 
x✶
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❙♦❧✈❡ ① = ❆①✱ ✇❤❡r❡ ❆ = ✷ −✷ ✱ ① = x
′′

✷
λ = −✶, −✻.
✶ ✷
 
√ √
①= (a✶ cos t + b✶ sin t) + (a✷ cos ✻t + b✶ sin ✻t)✳
✷ −✶

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✸✵ ✴ ✷✺✶

▼❛ss✲s♣r✐♥❣ s②st❡♠

L: t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ s♣r✐♥❣✳ m : ▼❛ss ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜♦❞②✳ x(t) : ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t ♦❢

❜♦❞②✳ c: ❞❛♠♣✐♥❣ ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳ k : s♣r✐♥❣ ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳ F (t) : ❊①t❡r♥❛❧ ❢♦r❝❡✳

d ✷x dx d ✷x c dx k F (t)
m ✷
+ c + kx = F (t) =⇒ ✷
+ + x= .
dt dt dt m dt m m

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✸✶ ✴ ✷✺✶

▼❛ss✲s♣r✐♥❣ s②st❡♠

L: t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ s♣r✐♥❣✳ m : ▼❛ss ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜♦❞②✳ x(t) : ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t ♦❢

❜♦❞②✳ c: ❞❛♠♣✐♥❣ ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳ k : s♣r✐♥❣ ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳ F (t) : ❊①t❡r♥❛❧ ❢♦r❝❡✳

d ✷x dx d ✷x c dx k F (t)
m ✷
+ c + kx = F (t) =⇒ ✷
+ + x= .
dt dt dt m dt m m
❋r❡❡✱ ❯♥❞❛♠♣❡❞ ❖s❝✐❧❧❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❛ ❙♣r✐♥❣ F (t) = ✵ ❛♥❞ c = ✵.

d ✷x k
✷
+ x = ✵.
dt m

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✸✶ ✴ ✷✺✶

▼❛ss✲s♣r✐♥❣ s②st❡♠

L: t❤❡ ❧❡♥❣t❤ ♦❢ t❤❡ s♣r✐♥❣✳ m : ▼❛ss ♦❢ t❤❡ ❜♦❞②✳ x(t) : ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t ♦❢

❜♦❞②✳ c: ❞❛♠♣✐♥❣ ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳ k : s♣r✐♥❣ ❝♦♥st❛♥t✳ F (t) : ❊①t❡r♥❛❧ ❢♦r❝❡✳

d ✷x dx d ✷x c dx k F (t)
m ✷
+ c + kx = F (t) =⇒ ✷
+ + x= .
dt dt dt m dt m m
❋r❡❡✱ ❯♥❞❛♠♣❡❞ ❖s❝✐❧❧❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ ❛ ❙♣r✐♥❣ F (t) = ✵ ❛♥❞ c = ✵.

d ✷x k
✷
+ x = ✵.
dt m
❋r❡❡✱ ❉❛♠♣❡❞ ▼♦t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ❛ ▼❛ss F (t) = ✵

d ✷x c dx k
+ + x = ✵.
dt ✷ m dt m

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✸✶ ✴ ✷✺✶

▼❛ss✲s♣r✐♥❣ s②st❡♠

❈❛s❡✲✶ ✐❢ c ✷ > ✹mk, ❚❤❡ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ✐s s❛✐❞ t♦ ❜❡ ♦✈❡r ❝r✐t✐❝❛❧❧② ❞❛♠♣❡❞

✭s✐♠♣❧② ♦✈❡r ❞❛♠♣❡❞✮✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✸✷ ✴ ✷✺✶

▼❛ss✲s♣r✐♥❣ s②st❡♠

❈❛s❡✲✶ ✐❢ c ✷ > ✹mk, ❚❤❡ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ✐s s❛✐❞ t♦ ❜❡ ♦✈❡r ❝r✐t✐❝❛❧❧② ❞❛♠♣❡❞

✭s✐♠♣❧② ♦✈❡r ❞❛♠♣❡❞✮✳
❈❛s❡✲✷ ✐❢ c ✷ = ✹mk, ❚❤❡ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ✐s s❛✐❞ t♦ ❜❡ ❝r✐t✐❝❛❧❧② ❞❛♠♣❡❞✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✸✷ ✴ ✷✺✶

▼❛ss✲s♣r✐♥❣ s②st❡♠

❈❛s❡✲✶ ✐❢ c ✷ > ✹mk, ❚❤❡ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ✐s s❛✐❞ t♦ ❜❡ ♦✈❡r ❝r✐t✐❝❛❧❧② ❞❛♠♣❡❞

✭s✐♠♣❧② ♦✈❡r ❞❛♠♣❡❞✮✳
❈❛s❡✲✷ ✐❢ c ✷ = ✹mk, ❚❤❡ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ✐s s❛✐❞ t♦ ❜❡ ❝r✐t✐❝❛❧❧② ❞❛♠♣❡❞✳
❈❛s❡✲✸ ✐❢ c ✷ < ✹mk, ❚❤❡ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ✐s s❛✐❞ t♦ ❜❡ ✉♥❞❡r ❞❛♠♣❡❞✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✸✷ ✴ ✷✺✶

▼❛ss✲s♣r✐♥❣ s②st❡♠

❈❛s❡✲✶ ✐❢ c ✷ > ✹mk, ❚❤❡ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ✐s s❛✐❞ t♦ ❜❡ ♦✈❡r ❝r✐t✐❝❛❧❧② ❞❛♠♣❡❞

✭s✐♠♣❧② ♦✈❡r ❞❛♠♣❡❞✮✳
❈❛s❡✲✷ ✐❢ c ✷ = ✹mk, ❚❤❡ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ✐s s❛✐❞ t♦ ❜❡ ❝r✐t✐❝❛❧❧② ❞❛♠♣❡❞✳
❈❛s❡✲✸ ✐❢ c ✷ < ✹mk, ❚❤❡ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ✐s s❛✐❞ t♦ ❜❡ ✉♥❞❡r ❞❛♠♣❡❞✳
❋♦r❝❡❞ ❖s❝✐❧❧❛t✐♦♥s
❈❛s❡✲✶ ❉❛♠♣❡❞ ❋♦r❝❡❞ ❖s❝✐❧❧❛t✐♦♥s

d ✷x c dx k F (t)
✷
+ + x= .
dt m dt m m

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✸✷ ✴ ✷✺✶

▼❛ss✲s♣r✐♥❣ s②st❡♠

❈❛s❡✲✶ ✐❢ c ✷ > ✹mk, ❚❤❡ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ✐s s❛✐❞ t♦ ❜❡ ♦✈❡r ❝r✐t✐❝❛❧❧② ❞❛♠♣❡❞

✭s✐♠♣❧② ♦✈❡r ❞❛♠♣❡❞✮✳
❈❛s❡✲✷ ✐❢ c ✷ = ✹mk, ❚❤❡ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ✐s s❛✐❞ t♦ ❜❡ ❝r✐t✐❝❛❧❧② ❞❛♠♣❡❞✳
❈❛s❡✲✸ ✐❢ c ✷ < ✹mk, ❚❤❡ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ✐s s❛✐❞ t♦ ❜❡ ✉♥❞❡r ❞❛♠♣❡❞✳
❋♦r❝❡❞ ❖s❝✐❧❧❛t✐♦♥s
❈❛s❡✲✶ ❉❛♠♣❡❞ ❋♦r❝❡❞ ❖s❝✐❧❧❛t✐♦♥s

d ✷x c dx k F (t)
✷
+ + x= .
dt m dt m m
❈❛s❡✲✷ ❯♥❞❛♠♣❡❞ ❋♦r❝❡❞ ❖s❝✐❧❧❛t✐♦♥s✿ ❘❡s♦♥❛♥❝❡

d ✷x k F (t)
+ x= .
dt ✷ m m

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✸✷ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❉❊ ✭▼❛ss✲s♣r✐♥❣
s②st❡♠✮

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❆ s♣r✐♥❣ ❢♦r ✇❤✐❝❤ st✐✛♥❡ss k = ✼✵✵ ◆✴♠ ❤❛♥❣s ✐♥ ❛ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧

♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ ✐ts ✉♣♣❡r ❡♥❞ ✜①❡❞✳ ❆ ♠❛ss ♦❢ ✼ ❦❣ ✐s ❛tt❛❝❤❡❞ t♦ t❤❡ ❧♦✇❡r
❡♥❞✳ ❆❢t❡r ❝♦♠✐♥❣ t♦ r❡st✱ t❤❡ ♠❛ss ✐s ♣✉❧❧❡❞ ❞♦✇♥ ✵.✵✺♠ ❛♥❞ r❡❧❡❛s❡❞✳
❉✐s❝✉ss t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t✐♥❣ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠❛ss✱ ♥❡❣❧❡❝t✐♥❣ ❛✐r r❡s✐st❛♥❝❡✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✸✸ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❉❊ ✭▼❛ss✲s♣r✐♥❣
s②st❡♠✮

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❆ s♣r✐♥❣ ❢♦r ✇❤✐❝❤ st✐✛♥❡ss k = ✼✵✵ ◆✴♠ ❤❛♥❣s ✐♥ ❛ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧

♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ ✐ts ✉♣♣❡r ❡♥❞ ✜①❡❞✳ ❆ ♠❛ss ♦❢ ✼ ❦❣ ✐s ❛tt❛❝❤❡❞ t♦ t❤❡ ❧♦✇❡r
❡♥❞✳ ❆❢t❡r ❝♦♠✐♥❣ t♦ r❡st✱ t❤❡ ♠❛ss ✐s ♣✉❧❧❡❞ ❞♦✇♥ ✵.✵✺♠ ❛♥❞ r❡❧❡❛s❡❞✳
❉✐s❝✉ss t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t✐♥❣ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠❛ss✱ ♥❡❣❧❡❝t✐♥❣ ❛✐r r❡s✐st❛♥❝❡✳
Answer ●✐✈❡♥ m = ✼, k = ✼✵✵.
d ✷x ✷
dt ✷
+mk
x = ✵ =⇒ ddt ✷x + ✶✵✵x = ✵

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✸✸ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❉❊ ✭▼❛ss✲s♣r✐♥❣
s②st❡♠✮

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❆ s♣r✐♥❣ ❢♦r ✇❤✐❝❤ st✐✛♥❡ss k = ✼✵✵ ◆✴♠ ❤❛♥❣s ✐♥ ❛ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧

♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ ✐ts ✉♣♣❡r ❡♥❞ ✜①❡❞✳ ❆ ♠❛ss ♦❢ ✼ ❦❣ ✐s ❛tt❛❝❤❡❞ t♦ t❤❡ ❧♦✇❡r
❡♥❞✳ ❆❢t❡r ❝♦♠✐♥❣ t♦ r❡st✱ t❤❡ ♠❛ss ✐s ♣✉❧❧❡❞ ❞♦✇♥ ✵.✵✺♠ ❛♥❞ r❡❧❡❛s❡❞✳
❉✐s❝✉ss t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t✐♥❣ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠❛ss✱ ♥❡❣❧❡❝t✐♥❣ ❛✐r r❡s✐st❛♥❝❡✳
Answer ●✐✈❡♥ m = ✼, k = ✼✵✵.
d ✷x ✷
dt ✷
+mk
x = ✵ =⇒ ddt ✷x + ✶✵✵x = ✵
✶ ✶
   
① = c✶ e ✶✵it + c✷ e −✶✵it
✶✵i −✶✵i

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✸✸ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❉❊ ✭▼❛ss✲s♣r✐♥❣
s②st❡♠✮

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❆ s♣r✐♥❣ ❢♦r ✇❤✐❝❤ st✐✛♥❡ss k = ✼✵✵ ◆✴♠ ❤❛♥❣s ✐♥ ❛ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧

♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ ✐ts ✉♣♣❡r ❡♥❞ ✜①❡❞✳ ❆ ♠❛ss ♦❢ ✼ ❦❣ ✐s ❛tt❛❝❤❡❞ t♦ t❤❡ ❧♦✇❡r
❡♥❞✳ ❆❢t❡r ❝♦♠✐♥❣ t♦ r❡st✱ t❤❡ ♠❛ss ✐s ♣✉❧❧❡❞ ❞♦✇♥ ✵.✵✺♠ ❛♥❞ r❡❧❡❛s❡❞✳
❉✐s❝✉ss t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t✐♥❣ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠❛ss✱ ♥❡❣❧❡❝t✐♥❣ ❛✐r r❡s✐st❛♥❝❡✳
Answer ●✐✈❡♥ m = ✼, k = ✼✵✵.
d ✷x ✷
dt ✷
+mk
x = ✵ =⇒ ddt ✷x + ✶✵✵x = ✵
✶ ✶
   
① = c✶ e ✶✵it + c✷ e −✶✵it
✶✵ i −✶✵i
✶ ✶
   
① = ✵.✷✺ e ✶✵it + ✵.✷✺ e −✶✵it
✶✵i −✶✵i

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✸✸ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❉❊ ✭▼❛ss✲s♣r✐♥❣
s②st❡♠✮

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❆ s♣r✐♥❣ ❢♦r ✇❤✐❝❤ st✐✛♥❡ss k = ✼✵✵ ◆✴♠ ❤❛♥❣s ✐♥ ❛ ✈❡rt✐❝❛❧

♣♦s✐t✐♦♥ ✇✐t❤ ✐ts ✉♣♣❡r ❡♥❞ ✜①❡❞✳ ❆ ♠❛ss ♦❢ ✼ ❦❣ ✐s ❛tt❛❝❤❡❞ t♦ t❤❡ ❧♦✇❡r
❡♥❞✳ ❆❢t❡r ❝♦♠✐♥❣ t♦ r❡st✱ t❤❡ ♠❛ss ✐s ♣✉❧❧❡❞ ❞♦✇♥ ✵.✵✺♠ ❛♥❞ r❡❧❡❛s❡❞✳
❉✐s❝✉ss t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t✐♥❣ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠❛ss✱ ♥❡❣❧❡❝t✐♥❣ ❛✐r r❡s✐st❛♥❝❡✳
Answer ●✐✈❡♥ m = ✼, k = ✼✵✵.
d ✷x ✷
dt ✷
+mk
x = ✵ =⇒ ddt ✷x + ✶✵✵x = ✵
✶ ✶
   
① = c✶ e ✶✵it + c✷ e −✶✵it
✶✵ i −✶✵i
✶ ✶
   
① = ✵.✷✺ e ✶✵it + ✵.✷✺ e −✶✵it
✶✵i −✶✵i
◗✉❡st✐♦♥ ❆♥ ✽ ❧❜ ✇❡✐❣❤t ✐s ♣❧❛❝❡❞ ❛t ♦♥❡ ❡♥❞ ♦❢ ❛ s♣r✐♥❣ s✉s♣❡♥❞❡❞ ❢r♦♠
t❤❡ ❝❡✐❧✐♥❣✳ ❆ss✉♠✐♥❣ t❤❡ s♣r✐♥❣ ❝♦♥st❛♥t ✶✷ ❧❜✴❢t✳✱ ✜♥❞ t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢
t❤❡ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ ♠♦t✐♦♥✱ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥t ❢✉♥❝t✐♦♥ x(t).

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✸✸ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❉❊ ✭▼✐①✐♥❣ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠✮

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✸✹ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❉❊ ✭▼✐①✐♥❣ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠✮

■♥✢♦✇ ✭❖✉t✢♦✇✮ ✐s t❤❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥✢♦✇ ✭❖✉t✢♦✇✮ ❝♦♥❝❡♥tr❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢

s❛❧t ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥✢♦✇ ✭❖✉t✢♦✇✮ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ✢✉✐❞✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✸✹ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❉❊ ✭▼✐①✐♥❣ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠✮

■♥✢♦✇ ✭❖✉t✢♦✇✮ ✐s t❤❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥✢♦✇ ✭❖✉t✢♦✇✮ ❝♦♥❝❡♥tr❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢

s❛❧t ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥✢♦✇ ✭❖✉t✢♦✇✮ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ✢✉✐❞✳
y✶ =■♥✢♦✇✴♠✐♥ − ❖✉t✢♦✇✴♠✐♥✳
′

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✸✹ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❉❊ ✭▼✐①✐♥❣ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠✮

■♥✢♦✇ ✭❖✉t✢♦✇✮ ✐s t❤❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥✢♦✇ ✭❖✉t✢♦✇✮ ❝♦♥❝❡♥tr❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢

s❛❧t ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥✢♦✇ ✭❖✉t✢♦✇✮ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ✢✉✐❞✳
y✶ =■♥✢♦✇✴♠✐♥ − ❖✉t✢♦✇✴♠✐♥✳
′

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❚✇♦ t❛♥❦s T✶ ❛♥❞ T✷ ❡❛❝❤ ❝♦♥t❛✐♥ ✶✵✵ ❣❛❧ ♦❢ ✇❛t❡r ❡❛❝❤✳ ■♥ T✶
t❤❡ ✇❛t❡r ✐s ♣✉r❡✱ ✇❤❡r❡❛s ✶✺✵ ❧❜ ♦❢ ❢❡rt✐❧✐③❡r ❛r❡ ❞✐ss♦❧✈❡❞ ✐♥ T✷ . ❇②
❝✐r❝✉❧❛t✐♥❣ ❧✐q✉✐❞ ❛t ❛ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ✷ ❣❛❧✴♠✐♥ ❛♥❞ st✐rr✐♥❣ ✭t♦ ❦❡❡♣ t❤❡ ♠✐①t✉r❡
✉♥✐❢♦r♠✮ t❤❡ ❛♠♦✉♥ts ♦❢ ❢❡rt✐❧✐③❡r y✶ (t) ✐♥ T✶ ❛♥❞ y✷ (t) ✐♥ T✷ ❝❤❛♥❣❡ ✇✐t❤
t✐♠❡ t. ❍♦✇ ❧♦♥❣ s❤♦✉❧❞ ✇❡ ❧❡t t❤❡ ❧✐q✉✐❞ ❝✐r❝✉❧❛t❡✱ s♦ t❤❛t T✶ ✇✐❧❧ ❝♦♥t❛✐♥
❛t ❧❡❛st ❤❛❧❢ ❛s ♠✉❝❤ ❢❡rt✐❧✐③❡r ❛s t❤❡r❡ ✇✐❧❧ ❜❡ ❧❡❢t ✐♥ T✷ ?

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✸✹ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❉❊ ✭▼✐①✐♥❣ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠✮

Answer y✶ =■♥✢♦✇✴♠✐♥ − ❖✉t✢♦✇✴♠✐♥✳

′

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✸✺ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❉❊ ✭▼✐①✐♥❣ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠✮

Answer y✶ =■♥✢♦✇✴♠✐♥ − ❖✉t✢♦✇✴♠✐♥✳

′

■♥✢♦✇ ✭❖✉t✢♦✇✮ ✐s t❤❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥✢♦✇ ✭❖✉t✢♦✇✮ ❝♦♥❝❡♥tr❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢

s❛❧t ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥✢♦✇ ✭❖✉t✢♦✇✮ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ✢✉✐❞✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✸✺ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❉❊ ✭▼✐①✐♥❣ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠✮

Answer y✶ =■♥✢♦✇✴♠✐♥ − ❖✉t✢♦✇✴♠✐♥✳

′

■♥✢♦✇ ✭❖✉t✢♦✇✮ ✐s t❤❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥✢♦✇ ✭❖✉t✢♦✇✮ ❝♦♥❝❡♥tr❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢

s❛❧t ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥✢♦✇ ✭❖✉t✢♦✇✮ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ✢✉✐❞✳
y✶ = ✷ × ✶✵✵
y✷
− ✷ × ✶✵✵
y✶
′

y✷ = ✷ × ✶✵✵ − ✷ × ✶✵✵
y✶ y✷
′

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✸✺ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❉❊ ✭▼✐①✐♥❣ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠✮

Answer y✶ =■♥✢♦✇✴♠✐♥ − ❖✉t✢♦✇✴♠✐♥✳

′

■♥✢♦✇ ✭❖✉t✢♦✇✮ ✐s t❤❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥✢♦✇ ✭❖✉t✢♦✇✮ ❝♦♥❝❡♥tr❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢

s❛❧t ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥✢♦✇ ✭❖✉t✢♦✇✮ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ✢✉✐❞✳
y✶ = ✷ × ✶✵✵
y✷
− ✷ × ✶✵✵
y✶
′

y✷ = ✷ × ✶✵✵ − ✷ × ✶✵✵
y✶ y✷
′

■♥✐t✐❛❧ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s✿ y✶ (✵) = ✵ ❛♥❞ y✷ (✵) = ✶✺✵.

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✸✺ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❉❊ ✭▼✐①✐♥❣ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠✮

Answer y✶ =■♥✢♦✇✴♠✐♥ − ❖✉t✢♦✇✴♠✐♥✳

′

■♥✢♦✇ ✭❖✉t✢♦✇✮ ✐s t❤❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥✢♦✇ ✭❖✉t✢♦✇✮ ❝♦♥❝❡♥tr❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢

s❛❧t ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥✢♦✇ ✭❖✉t✢♦✇✮ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ✢✉✐❞✳
y✶ = ✷ × ✶✵✵
y✷
− ✷ × ✶✵✵
y✶
′

y✷ = ✷ × ✶✵✵ − ✷ × ✶✵✵
y✶ y✷
′

■♥✐t✐❛❧ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s✿ y✶ (✵) = ✵ ❛♥❞ y✷ (✵) = ✶✺✵.

✶
❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s λ = ✵, − ✷✺ (= −✵.✵✹).
✶ ✶
   
② = c✶ + c✷ e −✵.✵✹t
✶ −✶

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✸✺ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❉❊ ✭▼✐①✐♥❣ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠✮

Answer y✶ =■♥✢♦✇✴♠✐♥ − ❖✉t✢♦✇✴♠✐♥✳

′

■♥✢♦✇ ✭❖✉t✢♦✇✮ ✐s t❤❡ ♣r♦❞✉❝t ♦❢ t❤❡ ✐♥✢♦✇ ✭❖✉t✢♦✇✮ ❝♦♥❝❡♥tr❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢

s❛❧t ❛♥❞ t❤❡ ✐♥✢♦✇ ✭❖✉t✢♦✇✮ r❛t❡ ♦❢ ✢✉✐❞✳
y✶ = ✷ × ✶✵✵
y✷
− ✷ × ✶✵✵
y✶
′

y✷ = ✷ × ✶✵✵ − ✷ × ✶✵✵
y✶ y✷
′

■♥✐t✐❛❧ ❝♦♥❞✐t✐♦♥s✿ y✶ (✵) = ✵ ❛♥❞ y✷ (✵) = ✶✺✵.

✶
❊✐❣❡♥✈❛❧✉❡s λ = ✵, − ✷✺ (= −✵.✵✹).
✶ ✶
   
② = c✶ + c✷ e −✵.✵✹t
✶ −✶
✶ ✶
   
② = ✼✺ − ✼✺ e −✵.✵✹t
✶ −✶

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✸✺ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥s ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❉❊ ✭▼✐①✐♥❣ ♣r♦❜❧❡♠✮

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❚✇♦ ✈❡r② ❧❛r❣❡ t❛♥❦s A ❛♥❞ B ❛r❡ ❡❛❝❤ ♣❛rt✐❛❧❧② ✜❧❧❡❞ ✇✐t❤ ✶✵✵
❣❛❧❧♦♥s ♦❢ ✇❛t❡r✳ ■♥✐t✐❛❧❧②✱ ✶✵✵ ♣♦✉♥❞s ♦❢ s❛❧ts ✐s ❞✐ss♦❧✈❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ✐♥
t❛♥❦ A ❛♥❞ ✺✵ ♣♦✉♥❞s ♦❢ s❛❧t ✐s ❞✐ss♦❧✈❡❞ ✐♥ t❤❡ s♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ✐♥ t❛♥❦ B. ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡

❛♠♦✉♥t ♦❢ s❛❧t ✐♥ t❛♥❦ B ❛t t = ✸✵ ♠✐♥s✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✸✻ ✴ ✷✺✶

❱✐❜r❛t✐♥❣ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ t✇♦ ♠❛ss❡s ♦♥ t✇♦ s♣r✐♥❣s

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✸✼ ✴ ✷✺✶

❱✐❜r❛t✐♥❣ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ t✇♦ ♠❛ss❡s ♦♥ t✇♦ s♣r✐♥❣s

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✸✼ ✴ ✷✺✶

❱✐❜r❛t✐♥❣ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ t✇♦ ♠❛ss❡s ♦♥ t✇♦ s♣r✐♥❣s

m✶ , m✷ : ▼❛ss❡s✳
k✶ , k✷ : ❙♣r✐♥❣ ❝♦♥st❛♥ts✳
x✶ , x✷ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠❛ss❡s

❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❡q✉✐❧✐❜r✐✉♠ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✸✽ ✴ ✷✺✶

❱✐❜r❛t✐♥❣ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ t✇♦ ♠❛ss❡s ♦♥ t✇♦ s♣r✐♥❣s

m✶ , m✷ : ▼❛ss❡s✳
k✶ , k✷ : ❙♣r✐♥❣ ❝♦♥st❛♥ts✳
x✶ , x✷ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠❛ss❡s

❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❡q✉✐❧✐❜r✐✉♠ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥✳

◆❡✇t♦♥✬s s❡❝♦♥❞ ❧❛✇ ❢♦r❝❡❂❙✉♠ ♦❢

t❤❡ ❍♦♦❦❡✬s ❢♦r❝❡s✳

′′
m✶ x✶ (t) =
−k✶ x✶ (t) + k✷ [x✷ (t) − x✶ (t)]

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✸✽ ✴ ✷✺✶

❱✐❜r❛t✐♥❣ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ t✇♦ ♠❛ss❡s ♦♥ t✇♦ s♣r✐♥❣s

m✶ , m✷ : ▼❛ss❡s✳
k✶ , k✷ : ❙♣r✐♥❣ ❝♦♥st❛♥ts✳
x✶ , x✷ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠❛ss❡s

❢r♦♠ t❤❡ ❡q✉✐❧✐❜r✐✉♠ ♣♦s✐t✐♦♥✳

◆❡✇t♦♥✬s s❡❝♦♥❞ ❧❛✇ ❢♦r❝❡❂❙✉♠ ♦❢

t❤❡ ❍♦♦❦❡✬s ❢♦r❝❡s✳

′′
m✶ x✶ (t) =
−k✶ x✶ (t) + k✷ [x✷ (t) − x✶ (t)]
′′
m✷ x✷ (t) = −k✷ [x✷ (t) − x✶ (t)]

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✸✽ ✴ ✷✺✶

❱✐❜r❛t✐♥❣ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ t✇♦ ♠❛ss❡s ♦♥ t✇♦ s♣r✐♥❣s

❚❤r❡❡ s♣r✐♥❣s ✇✐t❤ t❤r❡❡ ♠❛ss❡s

′′
m✶ x✶ (t) = −k✶ x✶ (t) + k✷ [x✷ (t) − x✶ (t)]
′′
m✷ x✷ (t) = −k✷ [x✷ (t) − x✶ (t)] + k✸ [x✸ (t) − x✷ (t)]
′′
m✸ x✸ (t) = −k✸ [x✸ (t) − x✷ (t)]

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✸✾ ✴ ✷✺✶

❱✐❜r❛t✐♥❣ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ t✇♦ ♠❛ss❡s ♦♥ t✇♦ s♣r✐♥❣s

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✹✵ ✴ ✷✺✶

❱✐❜r❛t✐♥❣ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ t✇♦ ♠❛ss❡s ♦♥ t✇♦ s♣r✐♥❣s

◗✉❡st✐♦♥ ❋✐♥❞

t❤❡ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥ts

♦❢ t❤❡ ✈✐❜r❛t✐♥❣

s②st❡♠ ♦❢ t✇♦

♠❛ss❡s ♦♥ t✇♦

s♣r✐♥❣s✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✹✵ ✴ ✷✺✶

❱✐❜r❛t✐♥❣ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ t✇♦ ♠❛ss❡s ♦♥ t✇♦ s♣r✐♥❣s

◗✉❡st✐♦♥ ❋✐♥❞

t❤❡ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥ts

♦❢ t❤❡ ✈✐❜r❛t✐♥❣

s②st❡♠ ♦❢ t✇♦

♠❛ss❡s ♦♥ t✇♦

s♣r✐♥❣s✳

Answer
′′
x✶ (t) =
−✸x✶ + ✷(x✷ − x✶
′′
x✷ (t) =
−✷(x✷ − x✶ )

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✹✵ ✴ ✷✺✶

❱✐❜r❛t✐♥❣ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ t✇♦ ♠❛ss❡s ♦♥ t✇♦ s♣r✐♥❣s
   
′′ −✺ ✷ x✶
① = ❆①✱ ✇❤❡r❡ ❆ = ✱ ① =
✷ −✷ x✷

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✹✶ ✴ ✷✺✶

❱✐❜r❛t✐♥❣ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ t✇♦ ♠❛ss❡s ♦♥ t✇♦ s♣r✐♥❣s
   
′′ −✺ ✷ x✶
① = ❆①✱ ✇❤❡r❡ ❆ = ✱ ① =
✷ −✷ x✷
λ = −✶, −✻.

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✹✶ ✴ ✷✺✶

❱✐❜r❛t✐♥❣ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ t✇♦ ♠❛ss❡s ♦♥ t✇♦ s♣r✐♥❣s
   
′′ −✺ ✷ x✶
① = ❆①✱ ✇❤❡r❡ ❆ = ✱ ① =
✷ −✷ x✷
λ = −✶, −✻.    
✶ ✷
❚❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ❛r❡ ❛♥❞ ✳
✷ −✶

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✹✶ ✴ ✷✺✶

❱✐❜r❛t✐♥❣ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ t✇♦ ♠❛ss❡s ♦♥ t✇♦ s♣r✐♥❣s
   
′′ −✺ ✷ x✶
① = ❆①✱ ✇❤❡r❡ ❆ = ✱ ① =
✷ −✷ x✷
λ = −✶, −✻.    
✶ ✷
❚❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ❛r❡ ❛♥❞ ✳
✷ −✶
 ′′     
y✶ −✶ ✵ y✶ −y✶
= = ✳
y✷ ✵ −✻ y✷ −✻y✷

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✹✶ ✴ ✷✺✶

❱✐❜r❛t✐♥❣ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ t✇♦ ♠❛ss❡s ♦♥ t✇♦ s♣r✐♥❣s
   
′′ −✺ ✷ x✶
① = ❆①✱ ✇❤❡r❡ ❆ = ✱ ① =
✷ −✷ x✷
λ = −✶, −✻.    
✶ ✷
❚❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ❛r❡ ❛♥❞ ✳
✷ −✶
 ′′     
y✶ −✶ ✵ y✶ −y✶
= = ✳
y y✷ −✻y
 ✷  ✷
✵ −✻
 
y✶ a✶ cos
√ t + b✶ sin t√
=
y✷ a✷ cos ✻t + b✷ sin ✻t

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✹✶ ✴ ✷✺✶

❱✐❜r❛t✐♥❣ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ t✇♦ ♠❛ss❡s ♦♥ t✇♦ s♣r✐♥❣s
   
′′ −✺ ✷ x✶
① = ❆①✱ ✇❤❡r❡ ❆ = ✱ ① =
✷ −✷ x✷
λ = −✶, −✻.    
✶ ✷
❚❤❡ ❡✐❣❡♥✈❡❝t♦rs ❛r❡ ❛♥❞ ✳
✷ −✶
 ′′     
y✶ −✶ ✵ y✶ −y✶
= = ✳
y y✷ −✻y
 ✷    ✷
✵ −✻
y✶ a✶ cos
√ t + b✶ sin t√
=
y✷ a✷ cos ✻t + b✷ sin ✻t
   
✶ ✷ √ √
① = (a✶ cos t + b✶ sin t) + (a✷ cos ✻t + b✶ sin ✻t)✳
✷ −✶

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✹✶ ✴ ✷✺✶

❱✐❜r❛t✐♥❣ ▼❛ss✲s♣r✐♥❣ s②st❡♠

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈✐❜r❛t✐♥❣ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ t❤r❡❡ ♠❛ss❡s

♦♥ ❢♦✉r s♣r✐♥❣s✳ ■❢ m✶ = m✷ = m✸ = ✶ ❛♥❞ k✶ = k✹ = ✷ ❛♥❞ k✷ = k✸ = ✶.

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✹✷ ✴ ✷✺✶

❱✐❜r❛t✐♥❣ ▼❛ss✲s♣r✐♥❣ s②st❡♠

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈✐❜r❛t✐♥❣ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ t❤r❡❡ ♠❛ss❡s

♦♥ ❢♦✉r s♣r✐♥❣s✳ ■❢ m✶ = m✷ = m✸ = ✶ ❛♥❞ k✶ = k✹ = ✷ ❛♥❞ k✷ = k✸ = ✶.

′′
x✶ (t) = −✷x✶ + (x✷ − x✶ ) = −✸x✶ + x✷
′′
x✷ (t) = −(x✷ − x✶ ) + (x✸ − x✷ ) = x✶ − ✷x✷ + x✸
′′
x✸ (t) = −(x✸ − x✷ ) − ✷x✸ = x✷ − ✸x✸

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✹✷ ✴ ✷✺✶

❱✐❜r❛t✐♥❣ ▼❛ss✲s♣r✐♥❣ s②st❡♠

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❋✐♥❞ t❤❡ ❞✐s♣❧❛❝❡♠❡♥ts ♦❢ t❤❡ ✈✐❜r❛t✐♥❣ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ t❤r❡❡ ♠❛ss❡s

♦♥ ❢♦✉r s♣r✐♥❣s✳ ■❢ m✶ = m✷ = m✸ = ✶ ❛♥❞ k✶ = k✹ = ✷ ❛♥❞ k✷ = k✸ = ✶.

′′
x✶ (t) = −✷x✶ + (x✷ − x✶ ) = −✸x✶ + x✷
′′
x✷ (t) = −(x✷ − x✶ ) + (x✸ − x✷ ) = x✶ − ✷x✷ + x✸
′′
x✸ (t) = −(x✸ − x✷ ) − ✷x✸ = x✷ − ✸x✸
λ = ✶, ✸, ✹.

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✹✷ ✴ ✷✺✶

❙♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ✜rst ♦r❞❡r ◆♦♥✲❤♦♠♦❣❡♥❡♦✉s
❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ❜② ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♠❡t❤♦❞
① = ❆① + ●(t) ❛♥❞ ❆ = P❉P−✶ =⇒ ① = P❉P−✶ ① + ●(t)
′ ′

=⇒ P−✶ ① = ❉P−✶ ① + P−✶ ●(t)

′

=⇒ (P−✶ ①) = ❉P−✶ ① + P−✶ ●(t)

′

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✹✸ ✴ ✷✺✶

❙♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ✜rst ♦r❞❡r ◆♦♥✲❤♦♠♦❣❡♥❡♦✉s
❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ❜② ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♠❡t❤♦❞
① = ❆① + ●(t) ❛♥❞ ❆ = P❉P−✶ =⇒ ① = P❉P−✶ ① + ●(t)
′ ′

=⇒ P−✶ ① = ❉P−✶ ① + P−✶ ●(t)

′

=⇒ (P−✶ ①) = ❉P−✶ ① + P−✶ ●(t)

′

▲❡t ② = P−✶ ①
❙♦ ② = ❉② + P−✶ ●(t).
′

=⇒ ① = P②✳

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✹✸ ✴ ✷✺✶

❙♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ✜rst ♦r❞❡r ◆♦♥✲❤♦♠♦❣❡♥❡♦✉s
❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ❜② ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♠❡t❤♦❞
① = ❆① + ●(t) ❛♥❞ ❆ = P❉P−✶ =⇒ ① = P❉P−✶ ① + ●(t)
′ ′

=⇒ P−✶ ① = ❉P−✶ ① + P−✶ ●(t)

′

=⇒ (P−✶ ①) = ❉P−✶ ① + P−✶ ●(t)

′

▲❡t ② = P−✶ ①
❙♦ ② = ❉② + P−✶ ●(t).
′

=⇒ ① = P②✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❙♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ❜② ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥
♠❡t❤♦❞
x✶ = ✸x✶ + ✸x✷ + ✽
′

x✷ = x✶ + ✺x✷ + ✹e ✸t
′

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✹✸ ✴ ✷✺✶

❙♦❧✉t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ✜rst ♦r❞❡r ◆♦♥✲❤♦♠♦❣❡♥❡♦✉s
❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ❜② ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥ ♠❡t❤♦❞
① = ❆① + ●(t) ❛♥❞ ❆ = P❉P−✶ =⇒ ① = P❉P−✶ ① + ●(t)
′ ′

=⇒ P−✶ ① = ❉P−✶ ① + P−✶ ●(t)

′

=⇒ (P−✶ ①) = ❉P−✶ ① + P−✶ ●(t)

′

▲❡t ② = P−✶ ①
❙♦ ② = ❉② + P−✶ ●(t).
′

=⇒ ① = P②✳
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❙♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ❜② ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥
♠❡t❤♦❞
x✶ = ✸x✶ + ✸x✷ + ✽
′

x✷ = x✶ + ✺x✷ + ✹e ✸t
′

′ 
✸ ✸ ✽
    
x✶ x✶
Answer = +
x✷ ✶ ✺ x✷ ✹e ✸t

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✹✸ ✴ ✷✺✶

◆♦♥✲❤♦♠♦❣❡♥❡♦✉s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s
−✸ ✶ −✶/✹ ✶/✹
   
λ = ✷, ✻. ❛♥❞ P = , P −✶ =
✶ ✶ ✶/✹ ✸/✹

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✹✹ ✴ ✷✺✶

◆♦♥✲❤♦♠♦❣❡♥❡♦✉s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s
−✸ ✶ −✶/✹ ✶/✹
   
λ = ✷, ✻. ❛♥❞ P = , P −✶ =
✶ ✶ ✶/✹ ✸/✹
② = ❉② + P−✶ ●(t).
′

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✹✹ ✴ ✷✺✶

◆♦♥✲❤♦♠♦❣❡♥❡♦✉s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s
−✸ ✶ −✶/✹ ✶/✹
   
λ = ✷, ✻. ❛♥❞ P = , P −✶ =
✶ ✶ ✶/✹ ✸/✹
② = ❉② + P−✶ ●(t).
′

y✶ = c✶ e ✷t + e ✸t + ✶ ❛♥❞ y✷ = c✷ e ✻t − e ✸t − ✸✶

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✹✹ ✴ ✷✺✶

◆♦♥✲❤♦♠♦❣❡♥❡♦✉s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s
−✸ ✶ −✶/✹ ✶/✹
   
λ = ✷, ✻. ❛♥❞ P = , P −✶ =
✶ ✶ ✶/✹ ✸/✹
② = ❉② + P−✶ ●(t).
′

y✶ = c✶ e ✷t + e ✸t + ✶ ❛♥❞ y✷ = c✷ e ✻t − e ✸t − ✸✶

① = P②

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✹✹ ✴ ✷✺✶

◆♦♥✲❤♦♠♦❣❡♥❡♦✉s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s
−✸ ✶ −✶/✹ ✶/✹
   
λ = ✷, ✻. ❛♥❞ P = , P −✶ =
✶ ✶ ✶/✹ ✸/✹
② = ❉② + P−✶ ●(t).
′

y✶ = c✶ e ✷t + e ✸t + ✶ ❛♥❞ y✷ = c✷ e ✻t − e ✸t − ✸✶

① = P②
−✸ ✶
     
x✶
✳ = (c✶ e ✷t + e ✸t + ✶) + (c✷ e ✻t − e ✸t − ✶✸ ).
x✷ ✶ ✶

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✹✹ ✴ ✷✺✶

◆♦♥✲❤♦♠♦❣❡♥❡♦✉s ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s
−✸ ✶ −✶/✹ ✶/✹
   
λ = ✷, ✻. ❛♥❞ P = , P −✶ =
✶ ✶ ✶/✹ ✸/✹
② = ❉② + P−✶ ●(t).
′

y✶ = c✶ e ✷t + e ✸t + ✶ ❛♥❞ y✷ = c✷ e ✻t − e ✸t − ✸✶

① = P②
−✸ ✶
     
x✶
✳ = (c✶ + ✶) +e ✷t (c✷ e ✻t − e ✸t − ✶✸ ).
+ e ✸t
x✷ ✶ ✶
❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❙♦❧✈❡ t❤❡ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s ❜② ❞✐❛❣♦♥❛❧✐③❛t✐♦♥
♠❡t❤♦❞
x✶ = ✸x✶ − ✷x✷ + ✸e ✷t
′

x✷ = ✾x✶ − ✸x✷ + e ✷t
′

✇✐t❤ x✶ (✵) = ✶✵, x✷ (✵) = ✺.

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✹✹ ✴ ✷✺✶

❆♣♣❧✐❝❛t✐♦♥ ♦❢ s②st❡♠ ♦❢ ◆♦♥✲❤♦♠♦❣❡♥❡♦✉s
❞✐✛❡r❡♥t✐❛❧ ❡q✉❛t✐♦♥s

❊①❛♠♣❧❡ ❆ ✶ ❦❣ ♠❛ss ✐s s✉s♣❡♥❞❡❞ ❢r♦♠ ❛ s♣r✐♥❣ ❤❛✈✐♥❣ ❛ s♣r✐♥❣ ❝♦♥st❛♥t

✻N/m. ❆ss✉♠❡ t❤❛t t❤❡ ❞❛♠♣✐♥❣ ❢♦r❝❡ ✺ v ✐s ❛❝t✐♥❣ ♦♥ t❤❡ s♣r✐♥❣ ✳ ❉✐s❝✉ss

t❤❡ r❡s✉❧t✐♥❣ ♠♦t✐♦♥ ♦❢ t❤❡ ♠❛ss✱ ✐❢ ✶✵◆ ❢♦r❝❡ ❛❝t✐♥❣ ♦♥ t❤❡ ❜♦❞②✳
′′ ′
Solution x + x + x =
✺ ✻ ✶✵ s♦ s②st❡♠ ✐s

′
x✶ = x ✷
′
x✷ = −✻x✶ − ✺x✷ + ✶✵
 ′     
x✶ ✵ ✶ x✶ ✵
= + .
x✷ −✻ −✺ x✷ ✶✵

❉r✳ ❇ ❙❛❤♦♦ ✭❱■❚✲❆P ❯♥✐✈❡rs✐t②✮ ❆❉❉❊ ✭▼❆❚✶✵✵✷✮ ✶✹✺ ✴ ✷✺✶