❯♥✐✈❡%&✐❞❛❞❡ ❞❡ ❇%❛&*❧✐❛

❉❡♣❛%.❛♠❡♥.♦ ❞❡ ▼❛.❡♠2.✐❝❛
▼❡&.%❛❞♦ 4%♦✜&&✐♦♥❛❧ ❡♠ ▼❛.❡♠2.✐❝❛ ❡♠ ❘❡❞❡ ◆❛❝✐♦♥❛❧

◆♦"❛$ ❞❡ ❆✉❧❛
❋✉♥❞❛♠❡♥"♦$ ❞❡ ❈.❧❝✉❧♦

!♦❢❛✳ ❉!❛✳ ▼❛②!❛ ❙♦❛!❡+ ❈♦+-❛ ❘♦❞!✐❣✉❡+

!♦❢❡%%♦!❛ ❆❞❥✉♥,❛ ❞♦ ▼❛❣✐%,0!✐♦ ❙✉♣❡!✐♦! ✲ ■❊ ✲ ▼❆❚✴❯♥❇
❊✲♠❛✐❧✿ ♠❛②!❛✳%♦❛!❡%❅✉♥❜✳❜!

▼❛"#♦✱ ✷✵✷✹
❙✉♠#$✐♦
✶ ◆!♠❡$♦& ❘❡❛✐&✱ ❙✉♣$❡♠♦ ❡ ❮♥✜♠♦ ✶

✷ ❙❡1✉2♥❝✐❛& ◆✉♠4$✐❝❛& ✺

✸ ❙4$✐❡& ◆✉♠4$✐❝❛& ✾

✹ ❈♦♥❥✉♥7♦& ❆❜❡$7♦&✱ ❋❡❝❤❛❞♦& ❡ ❈♦♠♣❛❝7♦& ✶✸

✺ ▲✐♠✐7❡& ❞❡ ❋✉♥>?❡& ✶✼

✻ ❈♦♥7✐♥✉✐❞❛❞❡ ✷✶

✼ ❋✉♥>?❡& ❈♦♥7@♥✉❛& ❡♠ ❈♦♠♣❛❝7♦& ❡ ❈♦♥7✐♥✉✐❞❛❞❡ ❯♥✐❢♦$♠❡ ✷✺

✽ ❉❡$✐✈❛>E♦ ✷✾

✾ ▼G①✐♠♦& ❡ ▼@♥✐♠♦&✱ ❚❡♦$❡♠❛ ❞♦ ❱❛❧♦$ ▼4❞✐♦ ✸✸

✶✵ ❋✉♥>?❡& ❈♦♥✈❡①❛& ❡ ❈L♥❝❛✈❛& ✸✼

✶✶ ■♥7❡❣$❛>E♦ ✹✵

✶✷ ❚❡♦$❡♠❛& ❈❧G&&✐❝♦& ❞♦ ❈G❧❝✉❧♦ ■♥7❡❣$❛❧ ✹✹

✶✸ ■♥7❡❣$❛✐& ❝♦♠♦ ▲✐♠✐7❡ ❞❡ ❙♦♠❛&✱ ■♥7❡❣$❛✐& ■♠♣$O♣$✐❛& ✹✼

✶✹ ❊①❡$❝@❝✐♦& ✺✵
▼!❞✉❧♦ ■
✶

✶ ◆!♠❡$♦& ❘❡❛✐&✱ ❙✉♣$❡♠♦ ❡ ❮♥✜♠♦

❈♦♠❡%❛♠♦' ♥♦''♦ ❝✉+'♦ ❡',✉❞❛♥❞♦ ♣+♦♣+✐❡❞❛❞❡' ❞♦' ♥0♠❡+♦' +❡❛✐'✳

❉❡✜♥✐%&♦ ✶✳✶✳ ❛✮ ❉✐③❡♠♦( )✉❡ R + ✉♠ ❝♦"♣♦

♦"❞❡♥❛❞♦ ♣♦-)✉❡ ❡①✐(/❡ ✉♠ (✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥/♦
R+ ⊂ R✱ ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥*♦ ❞♦+ ♥,♠❡"♦+ "❡❛✐+ ♣♦+✐*✐✈♦+ ✱ )✉❡ ❝✉♠♣-❡ ❛( (❡❣✉✐♥/❡(
❝♦♥❞✐89❡(✿
(P1 )✳ ❆ "♦♠❛ ❡ ♦ ♣(♦❞✉+♦ ❞❡ (❡❛✐" ♣♦"✐+✐✈♦" ".♦ ♣♦"✐+✐✈♦"✿ x, y ∈ R+ ⇒ x + y ∈ R+ ❡ x · y ∈ R+ ✳
(P2 ). ❊①❛+❛♠❡♥+❡ ✉♠❛ ❞❛" ❛❧+❡(♥❛+✐✈❛" ♦❝♦((❡ ♣❛(❛ +♦❞♦ x ∈ R✿ ♦✉ x = 0, ♦✉ x ∈ R+ ♦✉ −x ∈ R+ ✳
❜✮ ❙❡ ❞❡♥♦/❛-♠♦( ♣♦- R− ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥/♦ ❞♦( ♥<♠❡-♦( −x✱ ♦♥❞❡ x ∈ R+ ✱ ❛ ❝♦♥❞✐8=♦ (P2 ) ❞✐③
)✉❡ R = R+ ∪ R− ∪ {0} ❡ ♦( ❝♦♥❥✉♥/♦( R+ , R− ❡ {0} (=♦ ❞♦✐( ❛ ❞♦✐( ❞✐(❥✉♥/♦(✳ ❖( ♥<♠❡-♦(
y ∈ R− (=♦ ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦( ♥❡❣❛*✐✈♦+✳ ❊(❝-❡✈❡♠♦( x < y ❡ ❞✐③❡♠♦( )✉❡ x 1 ♠❡♥♦" ❞♦ 2✉❡ y
)✉❛♥❞♦ y − x ∈ R+ , ✐(/♦ +✱ y = x + z ✱ ♦♥❞❡ z + ♣♦(✐/✐✈♦✳ ◆❡(/❡ ❝❛(♦✱ ❡(❝-❡✈❡♠♦( /❛♠❜+♠
y > x ❡ ❞✐③❡♠♦( )✉❡ y 1 ♠❛✐♦" ❞♦ 2✉❡ x✳ ❊♠ ♣❛-/✐❝✉❧❛-✱ x > 0 ⇒ x ∈ R+ ✱ ✐(/♦ +✱ )✉❡ x
+ ♣♦(✐/✐✈♦✱ ❡♥)✉❛♥/♦ x < 0 ⇒ x ∈ R− ✱ ✐(/♦ +✱ x + ♥❡❣❛/✐✈♦✳

*+♦♣+✐❡❞❛❞❡/ ✶✳✶✳ ❱❛❧❡♠ ❛( (❡❣✉✐♥/❡( ♣-♦♣-✐❡❞❛❞❡( ❞❛ -❡❧❛8=♦ ❞❡ ♦-❞❡♠ x < y ❡♠ R✿

✵✶✳ ❚"❛♥+✐*✐✈✐❞❛❞❡✿ (❡ x < y ❡ y < z ✱ ❡♥/=♦ x < z.
✵✷✳ ❚"✐❝♦*♦♠✐❛✿ (❡ x, y ∈ R✱ ♦❝♦--❡ ❛♣❡♥❛( ✉♠❛ ❞❛( ❛❧/❡-♥❛/✐✈❛( x = y, x < y ♦✉ y < x.
✵✸✳ ▼♦♥♦*♦♥✐❝✐❞❛❞❡ ❞❛ ❛❞✐78♦ ✿ (❡ x < y ❡♥/=♦✱ ♣❛-❛ /♦❞♦ z ∈ R, /❡♠♦( x + z < y + z.
✵✹✳ ▼♦♥♦*♦♥✐❝✐❞❛❞❡ ❞❛ ♠✉❧*✐♣❧✐❝❛78♦✿ (❡ x < y ❡♥/=♦✱ ♣❛-❛ /♦❞♦ z > 0 /❡♠♦( xz < yz ✳
❙❡✱ ♣♦-+♠✱ z < 0✱ ❡♥/=♦ x < y ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ yz < xz ✳

*+♦✈❛✳ ✵✶✳ x < y ❡ y < z '✐❣♥✐✜❝❛♠ y − x ∈ R+ ❡ z − y ∈ R+ . 5♦+ Pl '❡❣✉❡✲'❡ 7✉❡

(y − x) + (z − y) ∈ R+ ✱ ✐',♦ 9✱ z − x ∈ R+ ✱ ♦✉ '❡❥❛✱ x < z ✳
✵✷✳ ❉❛❞♦' x, y ∈ R✱ ♦✉ y − x ∈ R+ ✱ ♦✉ y − x = 0 ♦✉ y − x ∈ R− ✱ ✐',♦ 9✱ x − y ∈ R+ ✳ ◆♦
♣+✐♠❡✐+♦ ❝❛'♦ ,❡♠♦' x < y ✱ ♥♦ '❡❣✉♥❞♦ x = y ❡ ♥♦ ,❡+❝❡✐+♦ y < x✳ ❊',❛' ❛❧,❡+♥❛,✐✈❛' '❡
❡①❝❧✉❡♠ ♠✉,✉❛♠❡♥,❡✱ ♣♦+ P2 ✳
✵✸✳ ❙❡ x < y ❡♥,D♦ y − x ∈ R+ ✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ (y + z) − (x + z) = y − x ∈ R+ ✱ ✐',♦ 9✱ x + z < y + z ✳
✵✹✳ ❙❡ x < y ❡ z > 0✱ ❡♥,D♦ y − x, z ∈ R+ ✱ ❧♦❣♦ (y − x) · z ∈ R+ ✱ ♦✉ '❡❥❛✱ yz − xz ∈ R+ ,
♦ 7✉❡ '✐❣♥✐✜❝❛ xz < yz ✳ ❙❡ x < y ❡ z < 0✱ ❡♥,D♦ y − x ∈ R+ ❡ −z ∈ R+ ✱ ❞♦♥❞❡ xz − yz =
(y − x)(−z) ∈ R+ ✱ ♦ 7✉❡ '✐❣♥✐✜❝❛ yz < xz ✳

❖❜/❡+✈❛%&♦ ✶✳✶✳ ▼❛✐( ❣❡-❛❧♠❡♥/❡✱ x < y ❡ x ′

< y ′ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛♠ x + x′ < y + y ′ ✳ ❈♦♠ ❡❢❡✐/♦✱
(y + y ′ ) − (x + x′ ) = (y − x) + (y ′ − x′ ) ∈ R+ . ❆♥❛❧♦❣❛♠❡♥/❡✱ 0 < x < y ❡ 0 < x′ < y ′ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛♠
xx′ < yy ′ ✱ ♣♦✐( yy ′ − xx′ = yy ′ − yx′ + yx′ − xx′ = y(y ′ − x′ ) + (y − x)x′ > 0✳ ❙❡ 0 < x < y ✱
❡♥/=♦ y −1 < x−1 ✳ N❛-❛ ♣-♦✈❛-✱ ♥♦/❡ ♣-✐♠❡✐-♦ )✉❡ x > 0 ⇒ x−1 = x · (x−1 )2 > 0. ❊♠ (❡❣✉✐❞❛✱
♠✉❧/✐♣❧✐❝❛♥❞♦ ❛♠❜♦( ♦( ♠❡♠❜-♦( ❞❛ ❞❡(✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡ x < y ♣♦- x−1 y −1 ✈❡♠ y −1 < x−1 ✳ ❈♦♠♦
1 ∈ R + ♣♦(✐/✐✈♦✱ (❡❣✉❡ )✉❡ 1 < 1 + 1 < 1 + 1 + 1 < · · · N♦❞❡♠♦( ❡♥/=♦ ❝♦♥(✐❞❡-❛- N ⊂ R✳
❉❛O (❡❣✉❡ )✉❡ Z ⊂ R, ♣♦✐( 0 ∈ R ❡ n ∈ R ⇒ −n ∈ R. ❆❧+♠ ❞✐((♦✱ (❡ m, n ∈ Z ❝♦♠ n 6= 0✱
❡♥/=♦ m/n = m · n−1 ∈ R✱ ♦ )✉❡ ♥♦( ♣❡-♠✐/❡ ❝♦♥❝❧✉✐- )✉❡ Q ⊂ R✳ ❆((✐♠✱ N ⊂ Z ⊂ Q ⊂ R.
 ✷
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✶✳✶ ✭❉❡$✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡ ❞❡ ❇❡,♥♦✉❧❧✐✮ ✳ ❛"❛ #♦❞♦ ♥'♠❡"♦ "❡❛❧ x ≥ −1 ❡ #♦❞♦ n ∈ N✱
#❡♠♦, (1 + x) ≥ 1 + nx✳ ■,#♦ ,❡ ♣"♦✈❛ ♣♦" ✐♥❞✉34♦ ❡♠ n✱ ,❡♥❞♦ 5❜✈✐♦ ♣❛"❛ n = 1✳ ❙✉♣♦♥❞♦ ❛
n

❞❡,✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡ ✈9❧✐❞❛ ♣❛"❛ n✱ ♠✉❧#✐♣❧✐❝❛♠♦, ❛♠❜♦, ♦, ♠❡♠❜"♦, ♣❡❧♦ ♥'♠❡"♦ 1+x ≥ 0 ❡ ♦❜#❡♠♦,
(1 + x)n+1 = (1 + x)n (1 + x) ≥ (1 + nx)(1 + x) = 1 + nx + x + nx2 = 1 + (n + 1)x + nx2 ≥
1 + (n + 1)x. ❆♥❛❧♦❣❛♠❡♥#❡✱ ✈❡♠♦, <✉❡ (1 + x)n > 1 + nx <✉❛♥❞♦ n > 1✱ x > −1 ❡ x 6= 0.
❆ ,❡❧❛12♦ ❞❡ ♦,❞❡♠ ❡♠ R ♣❡,♠✐5❡ ❞❡✜♥✐, ♦ ✈❛❧♦+ ❛❜-♦❧✉/♦✱ ♦✉ ♠8❞✉❧♦✱ ❞❡ ✉♠ ♥9♠❡,♦
,❡❛❧ x ∈ ❞❛❞♦ ♣♦, |x| = x $❡ x > 0✱ |0| = 0 ❡ |x| = −x $❡ x < 0✳ ◆♦✉5,❛$ ♣❛❧❛✈,❛$✱
|x| = max{x, −x} = ♦ ♠❛✐♦, ❞❡♥5,❡ ♦$ ♥9♠❡,♦$ ,❡❛✐$ x ❡ −x. ◆♦5❡ >✉❡ −|x| ≤ x ≤ |x| ♣❛,❛
5♦❞♦ x ∈ R. ❈♦♠ ❡❢❡✐5♦✱ ♣♦, ❞❡✜♥✐12♦✱ 5❡♠♦$ −x, x ≤ |x|✱ ❡♥>✉❛♥5♦ −|x| ≤ x ,❡$✉❧5❛ ❞❡
♠✉❧5✐♣❧✐❝❛, ♣♦, −1 ❛♠❜♦$ ♦$ ♠❡♠❜,♦$ ❞❛ ❞❡$✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡ −x ≤ |x|✳ C♦❞❡♠♦$ ❝❛,❛❝5❡,✐③❛, |x|
❝♦♠♦ ♦ 9♥✐❝♦ ♥9♠❡,♦ ♣♦$✐5✐✈♦ ❝✉❥♦ >✉❛❞,❛❞♦ = x2 .

❚❡♦+❡♠❛ ✶✳✶ ✭❉❡$✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡ ❚,✐❛♥❣✉❧❛,✮✳ ❙❡ x, y ∈ R✱ ❡♥#4♦ |x + y| ≤ |x| + |y|✳ ❆❧=♠ ❞✐,,♦✱

✈❛❧❡ |x · y| = |x| · |y|.
1+♦✈❛✳ ❙♦♠❛♥❞♦ ♠❡♠❜,♦ ❛ ♠❡♠❜,♦ ❛$ ❞❡$✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡$ |x| ≥ x ❡ |y| ≥ y ✈❡♠ |x|+|y| ≥ x+y ✳
❆♥❛❧♦❣❛♠❡♥5❡✱ ❞❡ |x| ≥ −x ❡ |y| ≥ −y ,❡$✉❧5❛ |x| + |y| ≥ −(x + y)✳ ▲♦❣♦ |x| + |y| ≥ |x + y| =
max{x + y, −(x + y)}✳ C❛,❛ ♣,♦✈❛, >✉❡ |x · y| = |x| · |y|, ❜❛$5❛ ♠♦$5,❛, >✉❡ ❡$5❡$ ❞♦✐$ ♥9♠❡,♦$
5I♠ ♦ ♠❡$♠♦ >✉❛❞,❛❞♦✱ ❥J >✉❡ ❛♠❜♦$ $2♦ > 0✳ ❈♦♠♦ ♦ >✉❛❞,❛❞♦ ❞❡ |x · y| = (x · y)2 = x2 · y 2 ✱
❡♥>✉❛♥5♦ (|x| · |y|)2 = |x|2 |y|2 = x2 · y 2

❚❡♦+❡♠❛ ✶✳✷✳ ❙❡❥❛♠ a, x, δ ∈ R. ❚❡♠♦, <✉❡ |x − a| < δ ,❡✱ ❡ ,♦♠❡♥#❡ ,❡✱ a − δ < x < a + δ✳
1+♦✈❛✳ ❈♦♠♦ |x − a| = max{x − a, −(x − a)}✱ ❛✜,♠❛, >✉❡ |x − a| < δ ❡>✉✐✈❛❧❡ ❛ ❞✐③❡,
>✉❡ $❡ 5❡♠ x − a < δ ❡ −(x − a) < δ ✱ ♦✉ $❡❥❛✱ x − a < δ ❡ x − a > δ ✳ ❙♦♠❛♥❞♦ a✱ 5❡♠♦$
|x − a| < δ ⇐⇒ x < a + δ ❡ x > a − δ ⇐⇒ a − δ < x < a + δ. ❉❡ ♠♦❞♦ ❛♥J❧♦❣♦✱ ♦❜5❡♠♦$
>✉❡ |x − a| ≤ δ ⇐⇒ a − δ ≤ x ≤ a + δ.

❖❜-❡+✈❛45♦ ✶✳✷✳ ❊♠ #❡"♠♦, ❞❡ ✐♥#❡"✈❛❧♦,✱ ♦ ❚❡♦"❡♠❛ ✶✳✷ ❞✐③ <✉❡ |x − a| < δ ,❡✱ ❡ ,♦♠❡♥#❡
,❡✱ x ♣❡"#❡♥❝❡ ❛♦ ✐♥#❡"✈❛❧♦ ❛❜❡"#♦ (a − δ, a + δ)✳ ❆♥❛❧♦❣❛♠❡♥#❡✱ |x − a| ≤ δ ⇐⇒ x ∈
[a − δ, a + δ]. ➱ ♠✉✐#♦ ❝♦♥✈❡♥✐❡♥#❡ ✐♠❛❣✐♥❛" ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥#♦ R ❝♦♠♦ ✉♠❛ "❡#❛ ✭❛ ✧"❡#❛ "❡❛❧✧✮ ❡ ♦,
♥'♠❡"♦, "❡❛✐, ❝♦♠♦ ♣♦♥#♦, ❞❡,,❛ "❡#❛✳ ❊♥#4♦ ❛ "❡❧❛34♦ x < y ,✐❣♥✐✜❝❛ <✉❡ ♦ ♣♦♥#♦ x ❡,#9 I
❡,<✉❡"❞❛ ❞❡ y ✭❡ y I ❞✐"❡✐#❛ ❞❡ x✮✱ ♦, ✐♥#❡"✈❛❧♦, ,4♦ ,❡❣♠❡♥#♦, ❞❡ "❡#❛ ❡ |x−y| = ❛ ❞✐,#J♥❝✐❛ ❞♦
♣♦♥#♦ x ❛♦ ♣♦♥#♦ y✳ ❖ ,✐❣♥✐✜❝❛❞♦ ❞♦ ❚❡♦"❡♠❛ ✶✳✷ = ❞❡ <✉❡ ♦ ✐♥#❡"✈❛❧♦ (a−δ, a+δ) = ❢♦"♠❛❞♦
♣❡❧♦, ♣♦♥#♦, <✉❡ ❞✐"#❛♠ ♠❡♥♦" ❞❡ δ ❞♦ ♣♦♥#♦ a✳ ❊,#❛, ✐♥#❡"♣"❡#❛3M❡, ❣❡♦♠=#"✐❝❛, ,4♦
✉♠ ✈❛❧✐♦,♦ ❛✉①O❧✐♦ ♣❛"❛ ❛ ❝♦♠♣"❡❡♥,4♦ ❞♦, ❝♦♥❝❡✐#♦, ❡ #❡♦"❡♠❛, ❞❛ ❆♥9❧✐,❡✳
❉❡ ❛❣♦,❛ ❡♠ ❞✐❛♥5❡✱ ✈❡,❡♠♦$ ♦✉5,❛$ ♣,♦♣,✐❡❞❛❞❡$ ❞❡ R >✉❡ ♦ ❝❛,❛❝5❡,✐③❛♠ ❝♦♠♦ ✉♠
❝♦,♣♦ ♦,❞❡♥❛❞♦ ❝♦♠♣❧❡/♦✳
❉❡✜♥✐45♦ ✶✳✷✳ ❛✮ ❯♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥#♦ X ⊂ R = ❧✐♠✐#❛❞♦ "✉♣❡,✐♦,♠❡♥#❡ <✉❛♥❞♦ ❡①✐,#❡ b ∈ R
#❛❧ <✉❡ x ≤ b ♣❛"❛ #♦❞♦ x ∈ X ✳ ❉✐③❡♠♦, ❡♥#4♦ <✉❡ b = ✉♠❛ ❝♦#❛ "✉♣❡,✐♦, ❞❡ X ❀
❜✮ ❖ ❝♦♥❥✉♥#♦ X ⊂ R = ❧✐♠✐#❛❞♦ ✐♥❢❡,✐♦,♠❡♥#❡ <✉❛♥❞♦ ❡①✐,#❡ a ∈ R #❛❧ <✉❡ a ≤ x ♣❛"❛
#♦❞♦ x ∈ X ✳ ❖ ♥'♠❡"♦ a = ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦ ✉♠❛ ❝♦#❛ ✐♥❢❡,✐♦, ❞❡ X ❀
❝✮ ❙❡ X = ❧✐♠✐#❛❞♦ ,✉♣❡"✐♦" ❡ ✐♥❢❡"✐♦"♠❡♥#❡✱ ❞✐③❡♠♦, <✉❡ X = ✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥#♦ ❧✐♠✐#❛❞♦✳ ■,#♦
 ✸
✐❣♥✐✜❝❛ '✉❡ X ❡ *+ ❝♦♥*✐❞♦ ❡♠ ❛❧❣✉♠ ✐♥*❡0✈❛❧♦ ❧✐♠✐*❛❞♦ [a, b] ♦✉✱ ❡'✉✐✈❛❧❡♥*❡♠❡♥*❡✱ '✉❡
❡①✐ *❡ k>0 *❛❧ '✉❡ x∈X ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ |x| ≤ k ❀
❞✮ ❉✐③❡♠♦ '✉❡ ✉♠ ♥9♠❡0♦ ♠❛✐♦$ ❡❧❡♠❡♥*♦ ✭♦✉ ❡❧❡♠❡♥*♦ ♠+①✐♠♦✮ ❞❡ X '✉❛♥❞♦
b∈X :♦
b ≥ x ♣❛0❛ *♦❞♦ x ∈ X ✳ ❉✐③❡♠♦ '✉❡ ✉♠ ♥9♠❡0♦ a ∈ X : ♦ ♠❡♥♦$ ❡❧❡♠❡♥*♦ ✭♦✉ ❡❧❡♠❡♥*♦
♠=♥✐♠♦✮ ❞❡ X '✉❛♥❞♦ a ≤ x ♣❛0❛ *♦❞♦ x ∈ X ❀
❡✮ ❙❡❥❛ ∅ 6= X ⊂ R ❧✐♠✐*❛❞♦ ✉♣❡0✐♦0♠❡♥*❡✳ ❯♠ ♥9♠❡0♦ b ∈ R : ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦ ♦ '✉♣$❡♠♦ ❞♦
❝♦♥❥✉♥*♦ X ✱ ❡ ❡ ❝0❡✈❡♠♦ b = sup X ✱ '✉❛♥❞♦ : ❛ ♠❡♥♦$ ❞❛' ❝♦,❛' '✉♣❡$✐♦$❡' ❞❡ X ❀
6 X ⊂ R ❧✐♠✐*❛❞♦ ✐♥❢❡0✐♦0♠❡♥*❡✱ ✉♠ ♥9♠❡0♦ a ∈ R : ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦ ♦ -♥✜♠♦ ❞♦
❢ ✮ ❙❡❥❛ ∅ =
❝♦♥❥✉♥*♦ X ✱ ❡ ❡ ❝0❡✈❡♠♦ a = inf X ✱ '✉❛♥❞♦ : ❛ ♠❛✐♦$ ❞❛' ❝♦,❛' ✐♥❢❡$✐♦$❡' ❞❡ X ✳

❖❜"❡$✈❛'(♦ ✶✳✸✳ ❛✮ ◆♦*❡ '✉❡ b : ♦ ✉♣0❡♠♦ ❞❡

X ❡ a : =♥✜♠♦ ❞❡ X '✉❛♥❞♦ ❝✉♠♣0❡♠✿
(S1 ) : E❛0❛ *♦❞♦ x ∈ X, *❡♠♦ x ≤ b; (S2 ) : ❙❡ c ∈ R : *❛❧ '✉❡ x ≤ c ♣❛0❛ *♦❞♦ x ∈ X ✱ ❡♥*F♦
b ≤ c✱ ❡'✉✐✈❛❧❡♥*❡♠❡♥*❡✱ ❡ c < b ❡①✐ *❡ x ∈ X ❝♦♠ c < x ≤ b✱ ♣♦✐ ♥❡♥❤✉♠ 0❡❛❧ ♠❡♥♦0 '✉❡
b : ❝♦*❛ ✉♣❡0✐♦0 ❞❡ X ✳ (I1 ) : E❛0❛ *♦❞♦ x ∈ X ✱ *❡♠♦ a ≤ x❀ (I2 ) : ❙❡ c ∈ R : *❛❧ '✉❡ c ≤ x
♣❛0❛ *♦❞♦ x ∈ X ❡♥*F♦ c ≤ a✱ ❡'✉✐✈❛❧❡♥*❡♠❡♥*❡✱ ❡ a < c ❡♥*F♦ ❡①✐ *❡ x ∈ X ❝♦♠ a ≤ x < c✱
♣♦✐ ♥❡♥❤✉♠ 0❡❛❧ ♠❛✐♦0 '✉❡ a : ❝♦*❛ ✐♥❢❡0✐♦0 ❞❡ X ❀
❜✮ ❙❡ b : ♦ ♠❛✐♦0 ❡❧❡♠❡♥*♦ ❞❡ X ✱ ❡♥*F♦ b : ✉♠❛ ❝♦*❛ ✉♣❡0✐♦0 ❞❡ X ✱ ♣❡0*❡♥❝❡♥*❡ ❛ X ❡✱
♣♦0*❛♥*♦ ❡✉ ✉♣0❡♠♦✳ ❆♥❛❧♦❣❛♠❡♥*❡✱ ❡ a : ♦ ♠❡♥♦0 ❡❧❡♠❡♥*♦ ❞❡ X ✱ ❡♥*F♦ a : ✉♠❛ ❝♦*❛
✐♥❢❡0✐♦0 ❞❡ X ✱ ♣❡0*❡♥❝❡♥*❡ ❛ X ❡✱ ♣♦0*❛♥*♦ ❡✉ =♥✜♠♦ ✭E♦0 '✉I❄✮❀
❝✮ ◆❡♠ *♦❞♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥*♦ ♣♦ ✉✐ ♠❛✐♦0 ❡✴♦✉ ♠❡♥♦0 ❡❧❡♠❡♥*♦ ✱ ✭♦ ✐♥*❡0✈❛❧♦ (a, b) ♥F♦ ♣♦ ✉✐
♠❛✐♦0 ♥❡♠ ♠❡♥♦0 ❡❧❡♠❡♥*♦ ✮✱ ❡♥*F♦ ❛ ♥♦LM❡ ❞❡ ✉♣0❡♠♦ ❡ =♥✜♠♦ ❡0✈❡♠ ♣0❡❝✐ ❛♠❡♥*❡ ♣❛0❛
✉❜ *✐*✉✐0 ❛ ✐❞❡✐❛ ❞❡ ♠❛✐♦0 ❡ ♠❡♥♦0 ❡❧❡♠❡♥*♦ ✱ 0❡ ♣❡❝*✐✈❛♠❡♥*❡✱ '✉❛♥❞♦ ❡❧❡ ♥F♦ ❡①✐ *❡♠❀
❞✮ R : ✉♠ ❝♦0♣♦ ❝♦♠♣❧❡,♦
♣♦0'✉❡ ❛*✐ ❢❛③ ♦ ❆①✐♦♠❛ ❞♦ ❙✉♣$❡♠♦
✿ ✧*♦❞♦ ✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥*♦
∅=6 X ⊂ R✱ ❧✐♠✐*❛❞♦ ✉♣❡0✐♦0♠❡♥*❡✱ ♣♦ ✉✐ ✉♣0❡♠♦ b = sup X ∈ R✧✳ ❆♥❛❧♦❣❛♠❡♥*❡✱ *♦❞♦
∅=
6 Y ⊂ R✱ ❧✐♠✐*❛❞♦ ✐♥❢❡0✐♦0♠❡♥*❡✱ ♣♦ ✉✐ =♥✜♠♦✱ ♣❛0❛ ✈❡0 ✐ ♦✱ ❜❛ *❛ ❝♦♥ ✐❞❡0❛0 X = −Y ✳

❚❡♦$❡♠❛ ✶✳✸ ✭R " ✉♠ ❈♦'♣♦ ❆'*✉✐♠❡❞✐❛♥♦✮✳ i) ❖ ❝♦♥❥✉♥*♦ N ⊂ R ❞♦ ♥9♠❡0♦ ♥❛*✉0❛✐

♥F♦ : ❧✐♠✐*❛❞♦ ✉♣❡0✐♦0♠❡♥*❡❀ ii) ❖ =♥✜♠♦ ❞♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥*♦ X = {1/n; n ∈ N} : ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ 0❀
+
iii) ❉❛❞♦ a, b ∈ R ✱ ❡①✐ *❡ n ∈ N *❛❧ '✉❡ na > b✳
/$♦✈❛✳ ✭✐✮✿ ❙❡ N ❢♦44❡ ❧✐♠✐6❛❞♦ 4✉♣❡'✐♦'♠❡♥6❡✱ ❡①✐46✐'✐❛ c = sup N. ❊♥6:♦ c − 1 ♥:♦ 4❡'✐❛
❝♦6❛ 4✉♣❡'✐♦' ❞❡ N✱ ✐46♦ "✱ ❡①✐46✐'✐❛ n ∈ N ❝♦♠ c − 1 < n. ❉❛= '❡4✉❧6❛'✐❛ c < n + 1✱ ❧♦❣♦ c
♥:♦ 4❡'✐❛ ❝♦6❛ 4✉♣❡'✐♦' ❞❡ N✱ ❣❡'❛♥❞♦ ✉♠❛ ❝♦♥6'❛❞✐?:♦✳ ✭✐✐✮✿ ◆♦6❡ *✉❡ 0 " ✉♠❛ ❝♦6❛ ✐♥❢❡'✐♦'
❞❡ X ⊂ R+ ✳ ❇❛46❛ ❡♥6:♦ ♣'♦✈❛' *✉❡ ♥❡♥❤✉♠ c > 0 " ❝♦6❛ ✐♥❢❡'✐♦' ❞❡ X ✳ ❖'❛✱ ❞❛❞♦ c > 0✱
❡①✐46❡✱ ♣♦' ✭✐✮✱ ✉♠ ♥F♠❡'♦ ♥❛6✉'❛❧ n > 1/c✱ ❞❛= 1/n < c, ♣♦'6❛♥6♦ c ♥:♦ " ❝♦6❛ ✐♥❢❡'✐♦' ❞❡
X ✳ ✭✐✐✐✮✿ ❉❛❞♦4 a, b ∈ R+ ✉4❛♠♦4 ✭✐✮ ♣❛'❛ ♦❜6❡' n ∈ N 6❛❧ *✉❡ n > b/a✳ ❊♥6:♦ na > b✳

❚❡♦$❡♠❛ ✶✳✹ ✳
✭■♥6❡'✈❛❧♦4 ❡♥❝❛✐①❛❞♦4✮ ❉❛❞❛ ✉♠❛ ❡'✉I♥❝✐❛ I1 ⊃ I2 ⊃ · · · In ⊃ · · · ❞❡
T
✐♥*❡0✈❛❧♦ ❧✐♠✐*❛❞♦ ❡ ❢❡❝❤❛❞♦ In = [an , bn ]✱ ❡①✐ *❡ ♣❡❧♦ ♠❡♥♦ ✉♠ c ∈ R *❛❧ '✉❡ c ∈ n∈N In ✳
/$♦✈❛✳ ❆4 ✐♥❝❧✉4I❡4 I ⊃ In+1 4✐❣♥✐✜❝❛♠ *✉❡ a1 ≤ a2 ≤ · · · ≤ an ≤ · · · ≤ bn ≤ · · · ≤ b2 ≤
n
b1 . ❊♥6:♦✱ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥6♦ A = {a1 , a2 , . . . , an , . . .} " ❧✐♠✐6❛❞♦ 4✉♣❡'✐♦'♠❡♥6❡ ♣♦' ❝❛❞❛ ✉♠ ❞♦4 bn ✳
❙❡❥❛ c = sup A. ◆♦6❡ *✉❡✱ an ≤ c ♣❛'❛ 6♦❞♦ n ∈ N ❡ ❝♦♠♦ ❝❛❞❛ bn " ❝♦6❛ 4✉♣❡'✐♦' ❞❡ A✱
6❡♠♦4 c ≤ bn ♣❛'❛ 6♦❞♦ n ∈ N. L♦'6❛♥6♦ c ∈ In *✉❛❧*✉❡' *✉❡ 4❡❥❛ n ∈ N✳
 ✹
❉❡✜♥✐%&♦ ✶✳✸✳ ❛✮ ❯♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥)♦ X * ❞✐)♦ ✜♥✐#♦ -✉❛♥❞♦ X = ∅ ♦✉ -✉❛♥❞♦ ❡①✐0)❡♠ n ∈ N
❡ ✉♠❛ ❜✐❥❡23♦ f : In → X ✳ ❊0❝6❡✈❡♥❞♦ x1 = f (1), x2 = f (2), . . . , xn = f (n) )❡♠♦0
X = {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn }✳ ❆ ❢✉♥23♦ f * ❞✐)❛ ✉♠❛ ❝♦♥#❛❣❡♠ ❞♦+ ❡❧❡♠❡♥#♦+ ❞❡ X ❡ n = |X| *
❝❤❛♠❛❞♦ ♦ ♥;♠❡6♦ ❞❡ ❡❧❡♠❡♥)♦0✱ ♦✉ ♥;♠❡6♦ ❝❛-❞✐♥❛❧ ❞♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥)♦ ✜♥✐)♦ X ✳ ❉✐③❡♠♦0 -✉❡
✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥)♦ * ✐♥✜♥✐#♦ -✉❛♥❞♦ ♥3♦ * ✜♥✐)♦✳
❜✮ ❯♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥)♦ X * ❞✐)♦ ❡♥✉♠❡-/✈❡❧ -✉❛♥❞♦ * ✜♥✐)♦✱ ❡ ❡♥)3♦ ❡①✐0)❡ ✉♠❛ ❢✉♥23♦ 0♦❜6❡❥❡)✐✈❛
f : N → X ✱ ♦✉ -✉❛♥❞♦ * ✐♥✜♥✐)♦ ❡ ❡①✐0)❡ ✉♠❛ ❢✉♥23♦ ❜✐❥❡)✐✈❛ f : N → X ✳ ◆❡0)❡ ❝❛0♦✱ f
* ✉♠❛ ❡♥✉♠❡-❛12♦ ❞♦0 ❡❧❡♠❡♥)♦0 ❞❡ X ✳ ❊0❝6❡✈❡♥❞♦ f (1) = x1 , f (2) = x2 , . . . , f (n) =
xn , . . . , )❡♠♦0 ❡♥)3♦ X = {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , . . .}✳

❚❡♦,❡♠❛ ✶✳✺✳ ❖ ❝♦♥❥✉♥)♦ ❞♦0 ♥;♠❡6♦0 6❡❛✐0 ♥3♦ * ❡♥✉♠❡6C✈❡❧✳

0,♦✈❛✳ ❆""✉♠❛ ♣♦( ❝♦♥+(❛❞✐./♦ 0✉❡ 0✉❡ ❡①✐"+❡ ✉♠❛ ❢✉♥./♦ f : N → R "♦❜(❡❥❡+✐✈❛✳ ❈♦♥"✲
+(✉✐(❡♠♦" ✉♠❛ "❡0✉:♥❝✐❛ ❞❡❝(❡"❝❡♥+❡ I1 ⊃ I2 ⊃ · · · In ⊃ · · · ❞❡ ✐♥+❡(✈❛❧♦" ❧✐♠✐+❛❞♦" ❡ ❢❡❝❤❛❞♦"
T
/ In ✳ ❊♥+/♦✱ "❡ c ∈ n∈N In ⊂ R✱ "❡❣✉❡ 0✉❡ f (n) 6= c✱ ♣❛(❛ +♦❞♦ n✳ ▲♦❣♦ f ♥/♦ A
+❛✐" 0✉❡ f (n) ∈
"♦❜(❡❥❡+✐✈❛✳ B❛(❛ ♦❜+❡( ♦" ✐♥+❡(✈❛❧♦"✱ ❝♦♠❡.❛♠♦" +♦♠❛♥❞♦ I1 = [a1 , b1 ] +❛❧ 0✉❡ f (1) < a1 < b1
❡✱ "✉♣♦♥❞♦ ♦❜+✐❞♦" I1 ⊃ I2 ⊃ · · · In +❛✐" 0✉❡ f (j) ∈
/ Ij , "❡ f (n + 1) ∈
/ In = [an , bn ]✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦"
+♦♠❛( In+1 = In . ❙❡✱ ♣♦(A♠✱ f (n + 1) ∈ In ✱ ♣❡❧♦ ♠❡♥♦" ✉♠ ❞♦" ❡①+(❡♠♦"✱ ♣♦❞❡ "❡( +♦♠❛❞♦
❞✐❢❡(❡♥+❡ ❞❡ f (n + 1)✱ ✐"+♦ A✱ "❡ an < f (n + 1) +♦♠❛♠♦" In+1 = [an , (an + f (n + 1))/2]✳ ❙❡
an = f (n + 1) < bn ✱ +♦♠❛♠♦" In+1 = [(an + bn )/2, bn ]✳

❖❜4❡,✈❛%&♦ ✶✳✹✳ ❯♠ ♥;♠❡6♦ 6❡❛❧ * ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦ ✐--❛❝✐♦♥❛❧ -✉❛♥❞♦ ♥3♦ * 6❛❝✐♦♥❛❧✳ ❈♦♠♦ ♦
❝♦♥❥✉♥)♦ Q * ❡♥✉♠❡6C✈❡❧✱ 6❡0✉❧)❛ ❞♦ ❚❡♦6❡♠❛ ✶✳✺ -✉❡ ❡①✐0)❡♠ ♥;♠❡6♦0 ✐66❛❝✐♦♥❛✐0 ❡ 0❡♥❞♦
R = Q ∪ I✱ ❝♦♠ I = R√− Q, ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥)♦ ❞♦0 ✐66❛❝✐♦♥❛✐0✱ 0❡❣✉❡ -✉❡ I * ✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥)♦ ♥3♦✲
❡♥✉♠❡6C✈❡❧✳ ❖ ♥;♠❡6♦ 2 * ✉♠ ❡①❡♠♣❧♦ ❞❡ ♥;♠❡6♦ ✐66❛❝✐♦♥❛❧✳ ❉❡ ❢❛)♦✱ K✐)C❣♦6❛0 ♠♦0)6♦✉
-✉❡ ♦ -✉❛❞6❛❞♦ ❞❡ ✉♠ ♥;♠❡6♦ 6❛❝✐♦♥❛❧ ♥3♦ ♣♦❞❡ 0❡6 ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ 2✱ ♣♦✐0 ❞❡ (p/q)2 = 2 6❡0✉❧)❛
2q 2 = p2 ✱ ❝♦♠ p, q ✐♥)❡✐6♦0✱ ✉♠ ❛❜0✉6❞♦ ♣♦6-✉❡ ♦ ❢❛)♦6 ♣6✐♠♦ 2 ❛♣❛6❡❝❡ ✉♠ ♥;♠❡6♦ ♣❛6 ❞❡
✈❡③❡0 ♥❛ ❞❡❝♦♠♣♦0✐23♦ ❞❡ p2 ❡♠ ❢❛)♦6❡0 ♣6✐♠♦0 ❡ ✉♠ ♥;♠❡6♦ L♠♣❛6 ❞❡ ✈❡③❡0 ❡♠ 2q 2 ✳

❈♦,♦❧8,✐♦ ✶✳✶✳ ❚♦❞♦ ✐♥)❡6✈❛❧♦ ♥3♦✲❞❡❣❡♥❡6❛❞♦ * ♥3♦✲❡♥✉♠❡6C✈❡❧✳

0,♦✈❛✳ ❚♦❞♦ ✐♥+❡(✈❛❧♦ ♥/♦✲❞❡❣❡♥❡(❛❞♦ ❝♦♥+A♠ ✉♠ ✐♥+❡(✈❛❧♦ ❛❜❡(+♦ (a, b)✳ ❇❛"+❛ ❡♥+/♦ ♠♦"✲
+(❛( 0✉❡ ✐♥+❡(✈❛❧♦" ❛❜❡(+♦" "/♦ ♥/♦✲❡♥✉♠❡(F✈❡✐"✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❛ ❢✉♥./♦ f : (−1, 1) → (a, b)✱ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛
♣♦( f (x) = [(b − a)x + a + b]/2✱ A ✉♠❛ ❜✐❥❡./♦ ✭❱❡(✐✜0✉❡✦✮✱ ❜❛"+❛ ♠♦"+(❛( 0✉❡ ♦ ✐♥+❡(✈❛❧♦
(−1, 1) A ♥/♦✲❡♥✉♠❡(F✈❡❧✱ ❡"+❛❜❡❧❡❝❡♥❞♦ ✉♠❛ ❜✐❥❡./♦ ❡♥+(❡ ❡❧❡ ❡ R✱ 0✉❡ A ♥/♦✲❡♥✉♠❡(F✈❡❧
✭B♦( 0✉:❄✮✳ ❉❡ ❢❛+♦✱ ❛ ❢✉♥./♦ ϕ : (−1, 1) → R ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦( ϕ(x) = x/(1 − |x|) ❡ ❝✉❥❛ ✐♥✈❡("❛ A
ϕ−1 : R → (−1, 1)✱ ❞❡✜♥✐❞❛ ♣♦( ϕ−1 (y) = y/(1 + |y|)✱ A +❛❧ ❜✐❥❡./♦ ✭❱❡(✐✜0✉❡✦✮✳

❚❡♦,❡♠❛ ✶✳✻✳ ❚♦❞♦ ✐♥)❡6✈❛❧♦ ♥3♦✲❞❡❣❡♥❡6❛❞♦ ■ ❝♦♥)*♠ ♥;♠❡6♦0 6❛❝✐♦♥❛✐0 ❡ ✐66❛❝✐♦♥❛✐0✳

0,♦✈❛✳ ◆♦+❡ 0✉❡ I ❝♦♥+A♠ ♥O♠❡(♦" ✐((❛❝✐♦♥❛✐" ♣♦✐"✱ ❞♦ ❝♦♥+(F(✐♦✱ "❡(✐❛ ❡♥✉♠❡(F✈❡❧✳ B❛(❛
♣(♦✈❛( 0✉❡ I ∩ Q 6= ∅✱ +♦♠❛♠♦" [a, b] ⊂ I ✱ ♦♥❞❡ a < b "/♦ ✐((❛❝✐♦♥❛✐"✳ ❋✐①❡♠♦" n ∈ N +❛❧ 0✉❡
S
1/n < b−a✳ ❖" ✐♥+❡(✈❛❧♦" Im = [m/n, (m+1)/n], m ∈ Z, ❝♦❜(❡♠ ❛ (❡+❛✱ ✐"+♦ A✱ R = m∈Z Im ✳
B♦(+❛♥+♦✱ ❡①✐"+❡ m ∈ Z +❛❧ 0✉❡ a ∈ Im ✳ ❈♦♠♦ a A ✐((❛❝✐♦♥❛❧✱ +❡♠♦" m/n < a < (m + 1)/n✳
❙❡♥❞♦ 1/n < b − a✱ "❡❣✉❡ 0✉❡ (m + 1)/n < 1/n + a < b. ▲♦❣♦ (m + 1)/n ∈ [a, b] ⊂ I ✳
 ✺
✷ ❙❡"✉$♥❝✐❛) ◆✉♠,-✐❝❛)
◆❛ ❛✉❧❛ ❞❡ ❤♦❥❡ ❡*+✉❞❛,❡♠♦* ♦ ❧✐♠✐+❡ ❞❡ *❡/✉0♥❝✐❛* ♥✉♠3,✐❝❛*✳

❉❡✜♥✐%&♦ ✷✳✶✳ ❛✮ ❯♠❛ $❡&✉(♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ♥-♠❡.♦$ .❡❛✐$ 0 ✉♠❛ ❢✉♥23♦ x : N → R✱ &✉❡ ❛$$♦❝✐❛
❛ ❝❛❞❛ n ∈ N ✉♠ ♥-♠❡.♦ .❡❛❧ xn ✱ ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦ ♦ n✲0$✐♠♦ 8❡.♠♦ ❞❛ $❡&✉(♥❝✐❛✳ ❉❡♥♦8❛♠♦$
(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , . . .) ♦✉ (xn )✱ ♣❛.❛ ✐♥❞✐❝❛. ❛ $❡&✉(♥❝✐❛ ❝✉❥♦ n✲0$✐♠♦ 8❡.♠♦ 0 xn ❀
❜✮ ❯♠❛ $❡&✉(♥❝✐❛ (xn ) 0 ❧✐♠✐8❛❞❛ $✉♣❡.✐♦.♠❡♥8❡ ✭.❡$♣❡❝8✐✈❛♠❡♥8❡ ✐♥❢❡.✐♦.♠❡♥8❡✮ &✉❛♥❞♦
❡①✐$8❡ c ∈ R 8❛❧ &✉❡ xn ≤ c ✭.❡$♣❡❝8✐✈❛♠❡♥8❡ xn ≥ c✮ ♣❛.❛ 8♦❞♦ n ∈ N❀
❝✮ ❉✐③❡♠♦$ &✉❡ ❛ $❡&✉(♥❝✐❛ (xn ) 0 ❧✐♠✐8❛❞❛ &✉❛♥❞♦ ❡❧❛ 0 ❧✐♠✐8❛❞❛ $✉♣❡.✐♦. ❡ ✐♥❢❡.✐♦.♠❡♥8❡✳
■$8♦ ❡&✉✐✈❛❧❡ ❛ ❞✐③❡. &✉❡ ❡①✐$8❡ k > 0 8❛❧ &✉❡ |xn | ≤ k ♣❛.❛ 8♦❞♦ n ∈ N❀
❞✮ ❉❛❞❛ ✉♠❛ $❡&✉(♥❝✐❛ x = (xn ) ✉♠❛ $✉❜$❡&✉(♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ x 0 ❛ .❡$8.✐23♦ ❞❛ ❢✉♥23♦ x ❛
✉♠ $✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥8♦ ✐♥✜♥✐8♦ N′ = {n1 < n2 < · · · < nk < · · · } ⊂ N✳ ❉❡♥♦8❛♠♦$
x = (xn1 , xn2 , . . . , xnk , . . .) = (xnk )k∈N ✱ ❡$8❛ ♥♦8❛23♦ ♠♦$8.❛ &✉❡ ✉♠❛ $✉❜$❡&✉(♥❝✐❛ ♣♦❞❡ $❡.
′

❝♦♥$✐❞❡.❛❞❛ ✉♠❛ $❡&✉(♥❝✐❛✱ ✐$8♦ 0✱ ✉♠❛ ❢✉♥23♦ ❝✉❥♦ ❞♦♠E♥✐♦ 0 N✳

❖❜-❡.✈❛%&♦ ✷✳✶✳ ◆3♦ ❝♦♥❢✉♥❞❛ ❛ $❡&✉(♥❝✐❛ (x ) ❝♦♠ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥8♦ {x , x , . . . , x , . . .} ❞♦$
n 1 2 n
$❡✉$ 8❡.♠♦$✳ G♦. ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ ❛$ $❡&✉(♥❝✐❛$ (0, 1, 0, 1, . . .) ❡ (0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 1, . . .) $3♦ ❞✐❢❡.❡♥8❡$✱
♠❛$ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥8♦ ❞♦$ $❡✉$ 8❡.♠♦$ 0 ♦ ♠❡$♠♦✱ ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ {0, 1}✳

❉❡✜♥✐%&♦ ✷✳✷✳ ❉✐③❡♠♦$ &✉❡ a ∈ R 0 (xn ) &✉❛♥❞♦✱ ♣❛.❛ 8♦❞♦ ε > 0

❧✐♠✐#❡ ❞❛ '❡(✉*♥❝✐❛

❞❛❞♦✱ ❡①✐$8❡ n0 ∈ N 8❛❧ &✉❡ |xn − a| < ε ♣❛.❛ 8♦❞♦ n > n0 ✳ ❉✐③❡♠♦$ &✉❡ (xn ) ❝♦♥✈❡/❣❡ ♣❛/❛
a ♦✉ &✉❡ (xn ) #❡♥❞❡ ❛ a &✉❛♥❞♦ n 8❡♥❞❡ ❛♦ ✐♥✜♥✐8♦ ❡ ❞❡♥♦8❛♠♦$ a = lim xn ♦✉ ❛✐♥❞❛ xn → a
&✉❛♥❞♦ n → ∞✳ ❖✉ $❡❥❛✱ ♣❛.❛ ✈❛❧♦.❡$ ❣.❛♥❞❡$ ❞❡ n✱ ♦$ 8❡.♠♦$ xn $❡ ❛♣.♦①✐♠❛♠ ❞❡ a 8❛♥8♦
&✉❛♥8♦ $❡ ❞❡$❡❥❡ ✭❞✐♠✐♥✉✐♥❞♦ ε✮✳ ❙✐♠❜♦❧✐❝❛♠❡♥8❡✱ a = lim xn ⇐⇒ ∀ ε > 0 ∃ n0 ∈ N ;
n > n0 ⇒ |xn − a| < ε ❡ ❧❡♠♦$ ✏❧✐♠✐8❡ ❞❡ (xn ) 0 ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ a $❡✱ ❡ $♦♠❡♥8❡ $❡✱ ♣❛.❛ 8♦❞♦ ε > 0
❡①✐$8❡ n0 ∈ N 8❛❧ &✉❡ n > n0 ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ &✉❡ ❛ ❞✐$8L♥❝✐❛ ❡♥8.❡ xn ❡ a 0 ♠❡♥♦. &✉❡ ε✑✳ ◗✉❛♥❞♦
(xn ) 8❡♠ ❧✐♠✐8❡✱ 0 ❞✐8❛ ❝♦♥✈❡/❣❡♥#❡✱ ❝❛$♦ ❝♦♥8.O.✐♦✱ 0 ❞✐8❛ ❞✐✈❡/❣❡♥#❡✳

❖❜-❡.✈❛%&♦ ✷✳✷✳ ◆♦8❡ &✉❡ |x − a| < ε ⇐⇒ a − ε < xn < a + ε ⇐⇒ xn ∈ (a − ε, a + ε)✳

n
❆$$✐♠✱ a = lim xn $✐❣♥✐✜❝❛ &✉❡ &✉❛❧&✉❡. ✐♥8❡.✈❛❧♦ ❛❜❡.8♦ ❞❡ ❝❡♥8.♦ a ❝♦♥80♠ 8♦❞♦$ ♦$ 8❡.♠♦$
xn ❞❛ $❡&✉(♥❝✐❛✱ ❡①❝❡8♦ ✉♠ ♥-♠❡.♦ ✜♥✐8♦ ❞❡ E♥❞✐❝❡$ n < n0 ✱ ♦♥❞❡ n0 0 ❡$❝♦❧❤✐❞♦ ❡♠ ❢✉♥23♦ ❞♦
.❛✐♦ ε ❞♦ ✐♥8❡.✈❛❧♦ ❞❛❞♦✳ ❆❧0♠ ❞✐$$♦✱ ♥♦8❡ &✉❡✱ ♣❡❧❛ ❞❡✜♥✐23♦✱ lim xn = a ⇐⇒ lim(xn −a) =
0 ⇐⇒ lim |xn − a| = 0, ♣♦✐$ |(xn − a) − 0| = |xn − a| = |(|xn − a|)|✳

❚❡♦.❡♠❛ ✷✳✶ ✭❯♥✐❝✐❞❛❞❡✮✳ ❯♠❛ $❡&✉(♥❝✐❛ ♥3♦ ♣♦❞❡ ❝♦♥✈❡.❣✐. ♣❛.❛ ❞♦✐$ ❧✐♠✐8❡$ ❞✐$8✐♥8♦$✳
3.♦✈❛✳ ❙❡❥❛ lim x = a✳ ❉❛❞♦ b 6= a ♣♦❞❡♠♦* +♦♠❛, ε = |b − a|/2 > 0 +❛❧ /✉❡ ♦* ✐♥+❡,✈❛❧♦*
n
❛❜❡,+♦* I = (a − ε, a + ε) ❡ J = (b − ε, b + ε) *❡❥❛♠ ❞✐*❥✉♥+♦*✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❡①✐*+❡ n0 ∈ N +❛❧ /✉❡
n > n0 ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ xn ∈ I ✱ ❡♥+@♦✱ ♣❛,❛ +♦❞♦ n > n0 ✱ +❡♠♦* xn ∈/ J ✳ ▲♦❣♦ ♥@♦ 3 lim xn = b.

❚❡♦.❡♠❛ ✷✳✷✳ ❙❡ lim x n = a✱ ❡♥83♦ 8♦❞❛ $✉❜$❡&✉(♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ (xn ) ❝♦♥✈❡.❣❡ ♣❛.❛ ♦ ❧✐♠✐8❡ a✳
3.♦✈❛✳ ❙❡❥❛ (x , . . . , x
n1 ✉♠❛ *✉❜*❡/✉0♥❝✐❛✱ ❞❛❞♦ /✉❛❧/✉❡, ✐♥+❡,✈❛❧♦ ❛❜❡,+♦ I ❞❡ ❝❡♥+,♦
nk , . . .)
a✱ ❡①✐*+❡ n0 ∈ N +❛❧ /✉❡ +♦❞♦* ♦* +❡,♠♦* xn ✱ ❝♦♠ n > n0 ✱ ♣❡,+❡♥❝❡♠ ❛ I ✳ ❊♠ ♣❛,+✐❝✉❧❛,✱
+♦❞♦* ♦* +❡,♠♦* xnk ✱ ❝♦♠ nk > n0 +❛♠❜3♠ ♣❡,+❡♥❝❡♠ ❛ I. ▲♦❣♦ lim xnk = a✳
 ✻
❚❡♦#❡♠❛ ✷✳✸✳ ❚♦❞❛ $❡&✉(♥❝✐❛ ❝♦♥✈❡-❣❡♥/❡ 0 ❧✐♠✐/❛❞❛✳
)#♦✈❛✳ ❙❡❥❛ a = lim xn ✳ ❚♦♠❛♥❞♦ ε = 1✱ ✈❡♠♦- .✉❡ ❡①✐-2❡ n0 ∈ N 2❛❧ .✉❡ n > n0 ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛
xn ∈ (a − 1, a + 1). ❙❡❥❛♠ b ♦ ♠❡♥♦6 ❡ c ♦ ♠❛✐♦6 ❡❧❡♠❡♥2♦ ❞❡ {x1 , . . . , xn0 , a − 1, a + 1}✳ ❚♦❞♦-
♦- 2❡6♠♦- xn ❞❛ -❡.✉7♥❝✐❛ ❡-28♦ ❝♦♥2✐❞♦- ♥♦ ✐♥2❡6✈❛❧♦ [b, c]✱ ❧♦❣♦ ❡❧❛ : ❧✐♠✐2❛❞❛✳

❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✶✳ ❆ $❡&✉(♥❝✐❛ (2, 0, 2, 0, . . .)✱ ❝✉❥♦ n✲0$✐♠♦ /❡-♠♦ 0 xn = 1 + (−1)n+1✱ 0 ❧✐♠✐✲
/❛❞❛✱ ♠❛$ ♥8♦ 0 ❝♦♥✈❡-❣❡♥/❡ ♣♦-&✉❡ ♣♦$$✉✐ ❞✉❛$ $✉❜$❡&✉(♥❝✐❛$✱ x2n−1 = 2 ❡ x2n = 0✱ ❝♦♠
❧✐♠✐/❡$ ❞✐$/✐♥/♦$✳ ❆ $❡&✉(♥❝✐❛ (1, 2, 3, . . .)✱ ❝♦♠ xn = n✱ ♥8♦ ❝♦♥✈❡-❣❡ ♣♦-&✉❡ ♥8♦ 0 ❧✐♠✐/❛❞❛✳
❉❡✜♥✐45♦ ✷✳✸✳ ❯♠❛ $❡&✉(♥❝✐❛ (xn) 0 ❞✐/❛ ♠♦♥#$♦♥❛ ♥&♦✲❞❡❝+❡,❝❡♥$❡ &✉❛♥❞♦ xn ≤ xn+1
♣❛-❛ /♦❞♦ n ∈ N 0 ❞✐/❛ ♠♦♥#$♦♥❛ ♥&♦✲❝+❡,❝❡♥$❡ xn+1 ≤ xn ♣❛-❛ /♦❞♦ n✳ ❙❡ xn < xn+1
(xn > xn+1 ) ♣❛-❛ /♦❞♦ n ∈ N✱ ❛ $❡&✉(♥❝✐❛ 0 ❞✐/❛ ❝-❡$❝❡♥/❡ ✭❞❡❝-❡$❝❡♥/❡✮✳
❖❜8❡#✈❛45♦ ✷✳✸✳ ❚♦❞❛ $❡&✉(♥❝✐❛ ♠♦♥?/♦♥❛ ♥8♦✲❞❡❝-❡$❝❡♥/❡ ✭♥8♦✲❝-❡$❝❡♥/❡✮ 0 ❧✐♠✐/❛❞❛ ✐♥✲
❢❡-✐♦-♠❡♥/❡ ✭$✉♣❡-✐♦-♠❡♥/❡✮ ♣❡❧♦ $❡✉ ♣-✐♠❡✐-♦ /❡-♠♦✳ A❛-❛ &✉❡ ❡❧❛ $❡❥❛ ❧✐♠✐/❛❞❛ 0 $✉✜❝✐❡♥/❡
&✉❡ ♣♦$$✉❛ ✉♠❛ $✉❜$❡&✉(♥❝✐❛ ❧✐♠✐/❛❞❛✳ ❉❡ ❢❛/♦✱ $❡❥❛ (xn ) ✉♠❛ $✉❜$❡&✉(♥❝✐❛ ❧✐♠✐/❛❞❛ ❞❛
k

$❡&✉(♥❝✐❛ (xn ) ♠♦♥?/♦♥❛ ♥8♦✲❞❡❝-❡$❝❡♥/❡✳ ❚❡♠♦$ xn ≤ c ♣❛-❛ /♦❞♦ k ∈ N✳ ❉❛❞♦ &✉❛❧&✉❡-

k

n ∈ N✱ ❡①✐$/❡ k ∈ N /❛❧ &✉❡ n < nk ✳ ❊♥/8♦ xn ≤ xn ≤ c✳ ❖ ❝❛$♦ ♥8♦✲❝-❡$❝❡♥/❡ 0 ❛♥G❧♦❣♦✳

k

❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✷✳ ❙❡ a > 1 ❡♥/8♦ ❛ $❡&✉(♥❝✐❛ (a, a2, . . . , an, . . .) 0 ❧✐♠✐/❛❞❛ ✐♥❢❡-✐♦-♠❡♥/❡✱ ♣♦-0♠
♥8♦ $✉♣❡-✐♦-♠❡♥/❡✳ ▼✉❧/✐♣❧✐❝❛♥❞♦ ❛♠❜♦$ ♦$ ❧❛❞♦$ ❞❛ ❞❡$✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡ 1 < a ♣♦- an ♦❜/❡♠♦$
an < an+1 ✳ ❉❛I✱ ❛ $❡&✉(♥❝✐❛ 0 ❝-❡$❝❡♥/❡ ❡ a < an = xn ♣❛-❛ /♦❞♦ n ∈ N✱ ❧♦❣♦ (xn ) 0 ❧✐♠✐/❛❞❛
✐♥❢❡-✐♦-♠❡♥/❡ ♣♦- a✳ A♦- ♦✉/-♦ ❧❛❞♦✱ /❡♠♦$ a = 1 + d✱ ❝♦♠ d > 0✳ ❊♥/8♦✱ ❛ ❉❡$✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡
❞❡ ❇❡-♥♦✉❧❧✐ ❛✜-♠❛ &✉❡ ✈❛❧❡ an > 1 + nd✱ ♣❛-❛ /♦❞♦ n > 1 ♥❛/✉-❛❧✳ A♦-/❛♥/♦✱ ❞❛❞♦ &✉❛❧&✉❡-
c ∈ R ♣♦❞❡♠♦$ ♦❜/❡- an > c ❞❡$❞❡ &✉❡ /♦♠❡♠♦$ 1 + nd > c✱ ✐$/♦ 0✱ n > (c − 1)/d✳
❚❡♦#❡♠❛ ✷✳✹✳ ❚♦❞❛ $❡&✉(♥❝✐❛ ♠♦♥?/♦♥❛ ❧✐♠✐/❛❞❛ 0 ❝♦♥✈❡-❣❡♥/❡✳
)#♦✈❛✳ ❙❡❥❛ (xn ) ♠♦♥;2♦♥❛✱ ♥8♦✲❞❡❝6❡-❝❡♥2❡✱ ❧✐♠✐2❛❞❛✳ ❈♦♥-✐❞❡6❡ X = {x1 , . . . , xn , . . .} ❡
a = sup X ✳ ❆✜6♠❛♠♦- .✉❡ a = lim xn ✳ ❉❡ ❢❛2♦✱ ❞❛❞♦ ε > 0✱ a − ε ♥8♦ : ❝♦2❛ -✉♣❡6✐♦6 ❞❡ ❳✳
▲♦❣♦✱ ❡①✐-2❡ n0 ∈ N 2❛❧ .✉❡ a − ε < xn0 < a✳ ❆--✐♠✱ n > n0 ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ a − ε < xn0 ≤ xn < a + ε
❡ ❞❛D lim xn = a✳ ❖ ❝❛-♦ ♥8♦✲❝6❡-❝❡♥2❡ : ❛♥F❧♦❣♦ ❝♦♠ lim xn = inf X ✳

❈♦#♦❧;#✐♦ ✷✳✶ ✭❚❡♦6❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❇♦❧③❛♥♦✲❲❡✐❡6-26❛--✮ ✳ ❚♦❞❛ $❡&✉(♥❝✐❛ ❧✐♠✐/❛❞❛ ❞❡ ♥K♠❡-♦$ -❡❛✐$

♣♦$$✉✐ ✉♠❛ $✉❜$❡&✉(♥❝✐❛ ❝♦♥✈❡-❣❡♥/❡✳
❯2✐❧✐③❛6❡♠♦- ❛ ❡①♣6❡--8♦ ✧ n ≫ 1✧ -✐❣♥✐✜❝❛♥❞♦ ✧n -✉✜❝✐❡♥2❡♠❡♥2❡ ❣6❛♥❞❡✧ ♦ .✉❡ ❡.✉✐✈❛❧❡
❛ ✧n > n0 ♣❛6❛ ❛❧❣✉♠ n0 ∈ N ✜①❛❞♦✧✳

❚❡♦#❡♠❛ ✷✳✺✳ ❙❡❥❛ a = lim xn✳ ❙❡ b < a ❡♥/8♦✱ ♣❛-❛ /♦❞♦ n $✉✜❝✐❡♥/❡♠❡♥/❡ ❣-❛♥❞❡✱ /❡♠♦$
b < xn ✳ ❆♥❛❧♦❣❛♠❡♥/❡✱ $❡ a < b ❡♥/8♦ xn < b ♣❛-❛ /♦❞♦ n $✉✜❝✐❡♥/❡♠❡♥/❡ ❣-❛♥❞❡✳
)#♦✈❛✳ ❚♦♠❛♥❞♦ ε = a − b✱ 2❡♠♦- ε > 0 ❡ b = a − ε✳ N❡❧❛ ❞❡✜♥✐O8♦ ❞❡ ❧✐♠✐2❡✱ ❡①✐-2❡ n0 ∈ N
2❛❧ .✉❡ n > n0 ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ a − ε < xn < a + ε✱ ✐-2♦ :✱ b < xn ✳ ❆ ♦✉26❛ ❛✜6♠❛O8♦ : ❛♥F❧♦❣❛✱
❜❛-2❛ ❢❛③❡6 ε = b − a✱ ❞❛D✱ xn < a + ε = b ♣❛6❛ 2♦❞♦ n ≫ 1✳

❈♦#♦❧;#✐♦ ✷✳✷✳ ❙❡❥❛ a = lim xn✳ ❙❡ a > b = 0 ❡♥/8♦✱ ♣❛-❛ /♦❞♦ n ≫ 1✱ /❡♠✲$❡ xn > 0✳
❆♥❛❧♦❣❛♠❡♥/❡✱ $❡ a < 0 ❡♥/8♦ xn < 0 ♣❛-❛ /♦❞♦ n $✉✜❝✐❡♥/❡♠❡♥/❡ ❣-❛♥❞❡✳
 ✼
❈♦"♦❧$"✐♦ ✷✳✸✳ ❙❡❥❛♠ a = lim xn ❡ b = lim yn✳ ❙❡ xn ≤ yn ♣❛'❛ (♦❞♦ n ≫ 1✱ ❡♥(-♦ a ≤ b✳
❊♠ ♣❛'(✐❝✉❧❛'✱ 3❡ xn ≤ b ♣❛'❛ (♦❞♦ n ≫ 1✱ ❡♥(-♦ lim xn ≤ b✳ ❉❡ ❢❛(♦✱ 3❡ ❢♦33❡ b < a ❡♥(-♦
♣❛'❛ c ∈ R (❛❧ 6✉❡ b < c < a✱ ♣❡❧♦ ❚❡♦'❡♠❛ ✷✳✺✱ (❡':❛♠♦3 yn < c < xn ♣❛'❛ (♦❞♦ n ≫ 1✳
❖❜+❡"✈❛/0♦ ✷✳✹✳ ❙❡ xn < yn ♥-♦ ; ♣♦33:✈❡❧ ❝♦♥❝❧✉✐' lim xn = a < b = lim yn✳ =❛'❛ ✈❡' ✉♠
❡①❡♠♣❧♦ ❞❡ 6✉❡ ♥♦ ❧✐♠✐(❡ ♣♦❞❡ ✈❛❧❡' ❛ ✐❣✉❛❧❞❛❞❡ a = b✱ ❜❛3(❛ (♦♠❛' xn = 0 ❡ yn = 1/n.
❚❡♦"❡♠❛ ✷✳✻ ✭❚❡♦%❡♠❛ ❞♦ )❛♥❞✉,❝❤❡✮✳ ❙❡ lim xn = lim yn = a ❡ xn ≤ zn ≤ yn✱ ♣❛'❛ (♦❞♦ n
3✉✜❝✐❡♥(❡♠❡♥(❡ ❣'❛♥❞❡✱ ❡♥(-♦ lim zn = a✳
5"♦✈❛✳ ❉❛❞♦ ε > 0, ❡①✐)3❡♠ n1 , n2 ∈ N 3❛✐) 4✉❡ n > n1 ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ a − ε < xn < a + ε
❡ n > n2 ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ a − ε < yn < a + ε✳ ❙❡❥❛ n0 = max{n1 , n2 }✱ ❡♥3;♦ n > n0 ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛
a − ε < xn ≤ zn ≤ yn < a + ε✱ ✐)3♦ <✱ zn ∈ (a − ε, a + ε)✱ ❧♦❣♦ lim zn = a✳
❚❡♦"❡♠❛ ✷✳✼✳ ❙❡ lim xn = 0 ❡ (yn) ; ❧✐♠✐(❛❞❛ ✭❝♦♥✈❡'❣❡♥(❡ ♦✉ ♥-♦✮✱ ❡♥(-♦ lim(xnyn) = 0✳
5"♦✈❛✳ ❊①✐)3❡ c > 0 3❛❧ 4✉❡ |yn| ≤ c ♣❛%❛ 3♦❞♦ n ∈ N✳ ❉❛❞♦ ε > 0✱ ❡①✐)3❡ n0 ∈ N 3❛❧ 4✉❡
n > n0 ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ |xn | < ε/c✱ ♣♦✐) lim xn = 0✳ ❊♥3;♦ n > n0 ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ |xn yn − 0| = |xn ||yn | <
(ε/c)c = ε, ❡♥3;♦✱ ♣♦% ❞❡✜♥✐@;♦✱ lim(xn yn ) = 0✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✸✳ ❙❡ xn = 1/n ❡ yn = sen(n)✱ ❡♥(-♦ (yn) ♥-♦ ❝♦♥✈❡'❣❡ ♠❛3✱ ❝♦♠♦ −1 ≤ yn ≤ 1✱
(❡♠♦3 6✉❡ lim(xn yn ) = lim(sen(n)/n) = 0✳ =♦' ♦✉('♦ ❧❛❞♦✱ 3❡ lim xn = 0, ♠❛3 yn ♥-♦ ;
❧✐♠✐(❛❞❛✱ ♦ ♣'♦❞✉(♦ xn yn ♣♦❞❡ ❞✐✈❡'❣✐'✱ (♦♠❡✱ ♣♦' ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ xn = 1/n, yn = n2 ✱ ♦✉ ❝♦♥✈❡'❣✐'
♣❛'❛ ✉♠ ✈❛❧♦' 6✉❛❧6✉❡'✱ (♦♠❡✱ ♣♦' ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ xn = 1/n ❡ yn = cn ♣❛'❛ c ∈ R 6✉❛❧6✉❡'✳
❚❡♦"❡♠❛ ✷✳✽✳ ❙❡ lim xn = a ❡ lim yn = b ❡♥(-♦✿
❛✮ lim(xn ± yn ) = a ± b; ❜✮ lim(xn yn ) = ab❀ ❝✮ lim xn /yn = a/b✱ %❡ b 6= 0✳

❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✹✳ ❛✮ ❙❡ xn > 0 ♣❛+❛ ,♦❞♦ n ∈ N ❡ lim(xn+1 /xn ) = a < 1✱ ❡♥,0♦ lim xn = 0✳
❉❡ ❢❛,♦✱ ❞❛❞♦ c ∈ R ❝♦♠ a < c < 1✱ ♣❡❧♦ ❚❡♦+❡♠❛ ✷✳✺✱ ,❡♠♦% 0 < xn+1 /xn < c ♣❛+❛ ,♦❞♦
n ≫ 1✳ ❉❛8✱ 0 < xn+1 = (xn+1 /xn )xn < cxn < xn < xn0 ♣❛+❛ n > n0 ✱ n0 ∈ N ✜①❛❞♦✳ ▲♦❣♦✱
♣❛+❛ n ≫ 1 ❛ %❡=✉?♥❝✐❛ (xn ) A ♠♦♥B,♦♥❛ ❞❡❝+❡%❝❡♥,❡ ❧✐♠✐,❛❞❛✱ ♣♦+,❛♥,♦✱ ❝♦♥✈❡+❣❡♥,❡✳ ❙❡❥❛
b = lim xn ✱ ❞❡ xn+1 < cxn ♣❛+❛ ,♦❞♦ n ≫ 1✱ ❢❛③❡♥❞♦ n → ∞✱ ♣❡❧♦ ❈♦+♦❧G+✐♦ ✷✳✸ ♦❜,❡♠♦%
b ≤ cb, ✐%,♦ A✱ (1 − c)b ≤ 0✳ ❈♦♠♦ b ≥ 0✱ ♣♦✐% xn > 0✱ ❡ 0 < c < 1, %❡❣✉❡ =✉❡ b = 0✳
nk an n!
❜✮ ❙❡ a > 1 ❡ k ∈ N %0♦ ❝♦♥%,❛♥,❡%✱ ❡♥,0♦ lim = lim = lim = 0✳ ❉❡ ❢❛,♦✱
n→∞ an n→∞ n! n→∞ nn
♣♦♥❞♦ xn = nk /an ✱ yn = an /n! ❡ zn = n!/nn ✱ ,❡♠♦% lim[yn+1 /yn ] = lim[a/(n + 1)] = 0
❡✱ ❡♥,0♦✱ %❡❣✉❡ ❞❡ ❛✮ =✉❡ lim yn = 0✳ ❚❡♠♦% ,❛♠❜A♠ xn+1 /xn = (1 + 1/n)k a−1 ✱ ♣♦+,❛♥,♦
lim(xn+1 /xn ) = 1/a < 1 ❡ %❡❣✉❡ ♦✉,+❛ ✈❡③ ❞❡ ❛✮ =✉❡ lim xn = 0✳ ❋✐♥❛❧♠❡♥,❡✱ lim zn+1 /zn =
lim[n/(n + 1)]n = lim[(n + 1)/n]−n = 1/ e✳ ❈♦♠♦ 1/ e < 1✱ %❡❣✉❡ ,❛♠❜A♠ =✉❡ lim zn = 0✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✺✳ ❉❛❞♦ a > 0✱ ❛ %❡=✉?♥❝✐❛ xn = √n a = a1/n ,❡♠ ❧✐♠✐,❡ L = 1✳ ❈♦♠
❡❢❡✐,♦✱ ❛ %❡=✉?♥❝✐❛ A ❧✐♠✐,❛❞❛✱ ❞❡❝+❡%❝❡♥,❡ %❡ a > 1✱ ❡ ❝+❡%❝❡♥,❡ %❡ a < 1✱ ❜❛%,❛ ✈❡+ =✉❡
a1/n < a1/(n+1) ⇐⇒ a < 1 ✭❥✉%,✐✜=✉❡✦✮✱ ♣♦+,❛♥,♦✱ ❡①✐%,❡ L = lim a1/n > 0✳ ❉❡ ❢❛,♦✱ %❡
0 < a < 1✱ ❡♥,0♦ 1 > a1/n > a✱ ♣❛+❛ ,♦❞♦ n ∈ N✱ ❞❛8 L ≥ a > 0✳ L♦+ ♦✉,+♦ ❧❛❞♦✱ %❡ a > 1✱ ❡♥✲
,0♦ a ≥ a1/n > 1✱ ♣❛+❛ ,♦❞♦ n ∈ N✱ ❞❛8 L ≥ 1✳ ❈♦♠♦ ♣❛+❛ ❛ %✉❜%❡=✉?♥❝✐❛ (a1/2 , a1/6 , a1/12 , . . .)
,❡♠♦% [n(n + 1)]−1 = 1/n − 1/(n + 1)✱ ♣❡❧♦ ❚❡♦+❡♠❛ ✷✳✷ ♦ ❧✐♠✐,❡ ❞❛ %❡=✉?♥❝✐❛ A ♦ ♠❡%♠♦ ❞❛
%✉❜%❡=✉?♥❝✐❛✱ ✐%,♦ A✱ L = lim a1/n(n+1) = lim a1/n /a1/(n+1) = L/L = 1.
 ✽
❉❡✜♥✐%&♦ ✷✳✹✳ ❉❛❞❛ ✉♠❛ %❡'✉(♥❝✐❛ (x )✱ ❞✐③❡♠♦% '✉❡ ✧♦ ❧✐♠✐1❡ ❞❡ (x ) 2 ♠❛✐% ✐♥✜♥✐1♦✧
n n
❡ ❞❡♥♦1❛♠♦% lim xn = +∞✱ ♣❛5❛ %✐❣♥✐✜❝❛5 '✉❡✱ ❞❛❞♦ A > 0✱ ❡①✐%1❡ n0 ∈ N 1❛❧ '✉❡ n > n0
✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ xn > A✳ ❆♥❛❧♦❣❛♠❡♥1❡✱ lim xn = −∞ %✐❣♥✐✜❝❛ '✉❡✱ ♣❛5❛ 1♦❞♦ A > 0 ❞❛❞♦✱ ❡①✐%1❡
n0 ∈ N 1❛❧ '✉❡ n > n0 ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ xn < −A✳

❖❜-❡.✈❛%&♦ ✷✳✺✳ ◆♦1❡ '✉❡ +∞ ❡ −∞ ♥;♦ %;♦ ♥<♠❡5♦%✱ ❧♦❣♦✱ %❡ lim xn = +∞ ❡ lim yn = −∞✱
❛% %❡'✉(♥❝✐❛% (xn) ❡ (yn) ♥;♦ %;♦ ❧✐♠✐1❛❞❛%✱ ♣♦51❛♥1♦✱ ♥;♦ %;♦ ❝♦♥✈❡5❣❡♥1❡%✳ ❉❡ ❢❛1♦✱
❝♦♠♦ lim xn = +∞ ⇐⇒ lim(−xn) = −∞✱ ❜❛%1❛ ♦❜%❡5✈❛5 '✉❡ %❡ lim xn = +∞✱ ❡♥1;♦
❛ %❡'✉(♥❝✐❛ (xn) ♥;♦ 2 ❧✐♠✐1❛❞❛ %✉♣❡5✐♦5♠❡♥1❡✳ ❆ 5❡❝@♣5♦❝❛✱ ❡♥15❡1❛♥1♦✱ 2 ❢❛❧%❛✳ ❆ %❡'✉(♥❝✐❛
xn = n + (−1)n n 2 ✐❧✐♠✐1❛❞❛ %✉♣❡5✐♦5♠❡♥1❡✱ ♣♦52♠✱ ♥;♦ %❡ 1❡♠ lim xn = +∞✱ ♣♦✐% x2n−1 = 0
♣❛5❛ 1♦❞♦ n ∈ N✳ ▼❛% %❡ (xn) 2 ♥;♦✲❞❡❝5❡%❝❡♥1❡✱ ❡♥1;♦ (xn) ✐❧✐♠✐1❛❞❛ ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ lim xn = +∞✳
❚❡♦.❡♠❛ ✷✳✾✳ (1) ❙❡ lim xn = +∞ ❡ (yn) 2 ❧✐♠✐1❛❞❛ ✐♥❢❡5✐♦5♠❡♥1❡✱ ❡♥1;♦ lim(xn + yn) = +∞;
(2) ❙❡ lim xn = +∞ ❡ ❡①✐%1❡ c > 0 1❛❧ '✉❡ yn > c ♣❛5❛ 1♦❞♦ n ∈ N✱ ❡♥1;♦ lim(xn yn ) = +∞❀
(3) ❙❡ xn > c > 0 ❡ yn > 0 ♣❛5❛ 1♦❞♦ n ∈ N ❡ lim yn = 0✱ ❡♥1;♦ lim(xn /yn ) = +∞❀
(4) ❙❡ (xn ) 2 ❧✐♠✐1❛❞❛ ❡ lim yn = +∞✱ ❡♥1;♦ lim(xn /yn ) = 0✳

❖❜-❡.✈❛%&♦ ✷✳✻✳ ❆% ❤✐♣F1❡%❡% ❢❡✐1❛% ♥♦ ❚❡♦5❡♠❛ ✷✳✾ 1(♠ ♣♦5 ♦❜❥❡1✐✈♦ ❡✈✐1❛5 ❛❧❣✉♠❛% ✧✐♥❞❡✲
1❡5♠✐♥❛KL❡%✧✳ ◆♦ ✐1❡♠ (1) ♣5♦❝✉5❛✲%❡ ❡✈✐1❛5 ❛ ❡①♣5❡%%;♦ +∞ − ∞✳ ❉❡ ❢❛1♦✱ %❡ lim xn = +∞
❡ lim yn = −∞ ♥❡♥❤✉♠❛ ❛✜5♠❛K;♦ ❣❡5❛❧ ♣♦❞❡ %❡5 ❢❡✐1❛ %♦❜5❡ lim(xn + yn)✳ ❊%1❡ ❧✐♠✐1❡ ♣♦❞❡
♥;♦ ❡①✐%1✐5✱ ❝♦♠♦ ♥♦ ❝❛%♦ ❡♠ '✉❡ xn = n + (−1)n ❡ yn = −n✱ ♣♦❞❡ %❡5 ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ +∞✱ %❡
xn = 2n ❡ yn = −n✱ ♣♦❞❡ %❡5 −∞✱ 1♦♠❛♥❞♦ xn = n ❡ yn = −2n✳ ❖✉ ❛✐♥❞❛✱ ♣♦❞❡ ❛%%✉♠✐5
✉♠ ✈❛❧♦5 ❛5❜✐15O5✐♦ c ∈ R✱ ♣♦5 ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ %❡ xn = n + c ❡ yn = −n✳ ◆♦% ✐1❡♥% (2), (3) ❡ (4)✱
❛% ❤✐♣F1❡%❡% ❢❡✐1❛% ❡①❝❧✉❡♠ ♦% ❧✐♠✐1❡% ❞♦ 1✐♣♦ 0 × ∞✱ 0/0 ❡ ∞/∞✱ 5❡%♣❡❝1✐✈❛♠❡♥1❡✱ ♦% '✉❛✐%
❝♦♥%1✐1✉❡♠ ✐♥❞❡1❡5♠✐♥❛KL❡%✳ ❖✉15❛% ✐♥❞❡1❡5♠✐♥❛KL❡% ❢5❡'✉❡♥1❡% %;♦ ∞0, 1∞ ❡ 00.
❖❜-❡.✈❛%&♦ ✷✳✼✳ ❙❡ k ∈ N ❡ a ∈ R, a > 1✱ ❡♥1;♦ n→∞ lim nk = lim an = lim n! = lim nn = +∞.
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
▼❛% ♦ ❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✹ ❜✮ ♥♦% ❞✐③ '✉❡✱ ♣❛5❛ ✈❛❧♦5❡% ❣5❛♥❞❡% ❞❡ n 1❡♠♦% nk ≪ an ≪ n! ≪ nn✱
♦♥❞❡ ✧≪✧ '✉❡5 ❞✐③❡5 ✧2 ✐♥%✐❣♥✐✜❝❛♥1❡ ❞✐❛♥1❡ ❞❡✧✳ R♦5 ✐%%♦ ❞✐③❡♠♦% '✉❡ ♦ ❝5❡%❝✐♠❡♥1♦ ❡①✲
♣♦♥❡♥❝✐❛❧ %✉♣❡5❛ ♦ ♣♦❧✐♥♦♠✐❛❧✱ ♦ ❢❛1♦5✐❛❧ %✉♣❡5❛ ♦ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❝♦♠ ❜❛%❡ ❝♦♥%1❛♥1❡✱ ♠❛% 2
%✉♣❡5❛❞♦ ♣❡❧♦ ❝5❡%❝✐♠❡♥1♦ ❡①♣♦♥❡♥❝✐❛❧ ❝♦♠ ❜❛%❡ ✐❧✐♠✐1❛❞❛♠❡♥1❡ ❝5❡%❝❡♥1❡✳ R♦5 ♦✉15♦ ❧❛❞♦✱
♦ ❝5❡%❝✐♠❡♥1♦ ❞❡ nk ✱ ♠❡%♠♦ '✉❛♥❞♦ k = 1✱ %✉♣❡5❛ ♦ ❧♦❣❛5@1♠✐❝♦✳
❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✷✳✻✳ ❆ ❢✉♥K;♦ log : R+ → R ❞❛❞❛ ♣♦5 log x = z ⇐⇒ ez = x✱ 2 ❝5❡%❝❡♥1❡✱ ♣♦✐%
ex ♦ 2✱ ❡ %❛1✐%❢❛③ log(xy) = log x + log y ❡ log x < x ♣❛5❛ '✉❛✐%'✉❡5 x, y ∈ R+ ✭❥✉%1✐✜'✉❡
√ √ √
✉%❛♥❞♦
√
'✉❡ 1 + x ≤ (1 + x/n)n → ex ✮✳ ❉❛@ log x = log( x x) = 2 log x✱ ❡ ❡♥1;♦
log x = (log x)/2. ❆❧2♠ ❞✐%%♦✱ log x = log(1x) = log 1 + log x✱ ♦✉ %❡❥❛✱ log 1 = 0✳ R♦51❛♥1♦✱
log x > log 1 = 0, ♣❛5❛ 1♦❞♦ x > 1✳ ❈♦♠ ✐%%♦✱ ✈❛❧❡ '✉❡ log(2n ) = n log 2 → +∞✱ '✉❛♥❞♦
n → ∞✳ ❈♦♠♦ (log(2n )) 2 ✉♠❛ %✉❜%❡'✉(♥❝✐❛ ✐❧✐♠✐1❛❞❛ ❞❡ (log n)✱ '✉❡ 2 ✉♠❛ %❡'✉(♥❝✐❛
❝5❡%❝❡♥1❡✱ %❡❣✉❡ '✉❡ lim√log n√= +∞. ❊♥15❡1❛♥1♦✱ lim(log n)/n
√
= 0✳ ❉❡ ❢❛1♦✱ ♣❛5❛ 1♦❞♦ n ∈ N✱
1❡♠♦% (log n)/2 = log√ n < n✱ ❞❛@ %❡❣✉❡ '✉❡ log n < 2 n✳ ❉✐✈✐❞✐♥❞♦ ♣♦5 n 5❡%✉❧1❛ '✉❡
0 < (log n)/n < 2/ n. ❋❛③❡♥❞♦ n → ∞✱ ♣❡❧♦ ❚❡♦5❡♠❛ ❞♦ ❙❛♥❞✉@❝❤❡✱ ❝♦♥❝❧✉@♠♦% '✉❡
lim(log n)/n = 0✳