✶✸

✹ ❈♦♥❥✉♥%♦& ❆❜❡*%♦&✱ ❋❡❝❤❛❞♦& ❡ ❈♦♠♣❛❝%♦&

❆ ♣❛%&✐% ❞❡ ❛❣♦%❛ ❛❜♦%❞❛%❡♠♦. ❛❧❣✉♥. ❝♦♥❝❡✐&♦. &♦♣♦❧3❣✐❝♦. ❡❧❡♠❡♥&❛%❡. %❡❢❡%❡♥&❡. ❛♦.
.✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥&♦. ❞❡ R✱ ✈✐.❛♥❞♦ ❡.&❛❜❡❧❡❝❡% ❛ ❜❛.❡ ❛❞❡8✉❛❞❛ ♣❛%❛ ❞❡.❡♥✈♦❧✈❡% ♦. ❝♦♥&❡9❞♦.
.✉❜.❡8✉❡♥&❡.✳ ❆❞♦&❛%❡♠♦. ✉♠❛ ❧✐♥❣✉❛❣❡♠ ❣❡♦♠;&%✐❝❛✱ ❞✐③❡♥❞♦ ✧♣♦♥&♦✧ ❡♠ ✈❡③ ❞❡ ✧♥9♠❡%♦
%❡❛❧✧ ❡ ✧❛ %❡&❛✧ ❡♠ ✈❡③ ❞❡ ✧♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥&♦ R✧✳

❉❡✜♥✐%&♦ ✹✳✶✳ ❛✮ ❉✐③❡♠♦( )✉❡ ♦ ♣♦♥-♦ a . ✐♥"❡$✐♦$ ❛♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥"♦ X ⊂ R )✉❛♥❞♦ ❡①✐(-❡

✉♠ ε > 0 -❛❧ )✉❡ ♦ ✐♥-❡2✈❛❧♦ ❛❜❡2-♦ (a − ε, a + ε) ❡(-5 ❝♦♥-✐❞♦ ❡♠ X ❀
❜✮ ❖ ❝♦♥❥✉♥-♦ ❞♦( ♣♦♥-♦( ✐♥-❡2✐♦2❡( ❛ X . ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦ ♦ ✐♥"❡$✐♦$ ❞❡ X ❡ ❞❡♥♦-❛❞♦ ♣♦2 ✐♥-X ❀
❝✮ ◗✉❛♥❞♦ a ∈ ✐♥-X ❞✐③❡♠♦( )✉❡ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥-♦ X . ✉♠❛ ✈✐③✐♥❤❛♥-❛ ❞♦ ♣♦♥-♦ a❀
❞✮ ❯♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥-♦ A ⊂ R . ❛❜❡$"♦ )✉❛♥❞♦ A = ✐♥-A✱ ✐(-♦ .✱ -♦❞♦( ♦( (❡✉( ♣♦♥-♦( (>♦ ✐♥-❡2✐♦2❡(✳

❖❜-❡.✈❛%&♦ ✹✳✶✳ ❖ ❧✐♠✐-❡ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ (❡)✉@♥❝✐❛ ♣♦❞❡ (❡2 2❡❢♦2♠✉❧❛❞♦ ❡♠ -❡2♠♦( ❞❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥-♦(
❛❜❡2-♦(✱ ✐(-♦ .✱ a = lim xn ⇐⇒ ∀ ❛❜❡2-♦ A✱ ❝♦♠ a ∈ A ⊂ R✱ ∃ n0 ∈ N -❛❧ )✉❡ n > n0 ⇒
xn ∈ A. ❉❡ ❢❛-♦✱ lim xn = a ∈ ✐♥-A ⇐⇒ xn ∈ (ε − a, a + ε) ⊂ A✱ ♣❛2❛ ❛❧❣✉♠ ε > 0 ❡ n ≫ 1.

❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✹✳✶✳ ✭❛✮ ❉❛❞♦ c ∈ (a, b)✱ ❡①✐(-❡ ε = min{b − c, c − a}✱ -❛❧ )✉❡ (c − ε, c + ε) ⊂ (a, b)✳
❊♥->♦✱ -♦❞♦ ♣♦♥-♦ c ∈ (a, b) . ✉♠ ♣♦♥-♦ ✐♥-❡2✐♦2 ❛ (a, b)✱ ✐(-♦ .✱ (a, b) . ✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥-♦ ❛❜❡2-♦✳
❆♥❛❧♦❣❛♠❡♥-❡✱ -♦❞♦ c ∈ (a, b) . ✐♥-❡2✐♦2 ❛ [a, b]✱ ♠❛( ♦( ♣♦♥-♦( ❡①-2❡♠♦( a ❡ b ♥>♦ (>♦
✐♥-❡2✐♦2❡( ❛ [a, b]✱ ♣♦✐( ♥>♦ ❡①✐(-❡ ε > 0 -❛❧ )✉❡ (a−ε, a+ε) ⊂ [a, b]✱ ♥❡♠ (b−ε, b+ε) ⊂ [a, b]✱
❞❛F ✐♥-[a, b] = (a, b) ❡ [a, b] ♥>♦ . ✉♠❛ ✈✐③✐♥❤❛♥G❛ ❞❡ a ♥❡♠ ❞❡ b❀
✭❜✮ ❖ ✐♥-❡2✐♦2 ❞❡ Q . ✈❛③✐♦✳ ❉❡ ❢❛-♦✱ ❝♦♠♦ ♥>♦ ❡①✐(-❡ ♥❡♥❤✉♠ ✐♥-❡2✈❛❧♦ ♥>♦✲❞❡❣❡♥❡2❛❞♦
❝♦♥-✐❞♦ ❡♠ Q✱ ❞❛❞♦ r ∈ Q✱ ♥>♦ . ♣♦((F✈❡❧ ♦❜-❡2 ε > 0 -❛❧ )✉❡ (r − ε, r + ε) ⊂ Q.

❚❡♦.❡♠❛ ✹✳✶✳ ❛✮ ❙❡ A 1 ❡ A2 (>♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥-♦( ❛❜❡2-♦(✱ ❡♥->♦ ❛ ✐♥-❡2(❡G>♦ A1 ∩ A2 . ✉♠ ❛❜❡2-♦❀

❜✮ ❙❡ (Aλ )λ∈L . ✉♠❛ ❢❛♠F❧✐❛ )✉❛❧)✉❡2 ❞❡ ❛❜❡2-♦(✱ ❡♥->♦ A = ∪λ∈L Aλ . ✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥-♦ ❛❜❡2-♦✳
7.♦✈❛✳ a) ❙❡ x ∈ A ∩ A2 ✱ ❡♥&?♦ x ∈ A1 ❡ x ∈ A2 ✳ ❈♦♠♦ A1 ❡ A2 .?♦ ❛❜❡%&♦.✱ ❡①✐.&❡♠
1
ε1 > 0 ❡ ε2 > 0 &❛✐. 8✉❡ (x − εi , x + εi ) ⊂ Ai ✱ ♣❛%❛ i = 1, 2✳ ❙❡❥❛ ε = min{ε1 , ε2 }✳ ❊♥&?♦✱
(x−ε, x+ε) ⊂ Ai , ♣❛%❛ i = 1, 2. ▲♦❣♦ (x−ε, x+ε) ⊂ A1 ∩A2 ✳ ❆..✐♠✱ &♦❞♦ ♣♦♥&♦ x ∈ A1 ∩A2
; ✉♠ ♣♦♥&♦ ✐♥&❡%✐♦%✱ ♦✉ .❡❥❛✱ ♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥&♦ A1 ∩ A2 ; ❛❜❡%&♦❀
b) ❙❡ x ∈ A✱ ❡♥&?♦ ❡①✐.&❡ λ ∈ L &❛❧ 8✉❡ x ∈ Aλ ✳ ❈♦♠♦ Aλ ; ❛❜❡%&♦✱ ❡①✐.&❡ ε > 0 &❛❧ 8✉❡
(x − ε, x + ε) ⊂ Aλ ⊂ A, ❧♦❣♦ &♦❞♦ ♣♦♥&♦ x ∈ A ; ✐♥&❡%✐♦%✱ ✐.&♦ ;✱ A ; ❛❜❡%&♦✳

❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✹✳✷✳ ❘❡(✉❧-❛ ❞♦ ❚❡♦2❡♠❛ ✹✳✶ ❛✮ )✉❡ ❛ ✐♥-❡2(❡G>♦ ✜♥✐-❛ A1 ∩ · · · ∩ An ❞❡ ❛❜❡2-♦(

. ✉♠ ❛❜❡2-♦✳ ▼❛(✱ ❡♠❜♦2❛ ♣♦2 ❜✮ ❛ ✉♥✐>♦ ✐♥✜♥✐-❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥-♦( ❛❜❡2-♦( (❡❥❛ ❛❜❡2-❛✱ ❛ ✐♥-❡2✲
(❡G>♦ ❞❡ ✉♠ ♥P♠❡2♦ ✐♥✜♥✐-♦ ❞❡ ❛❜❡2-♦( ♣♦❞❡ ♥>♦ (❡2 ❛❜❡2-❛✳ Q♦2 ❡①❡♠♣❧♦✱ (❡ A1 = (−1, 1),
A2 = (−1/2, 1/2), . . . , An = (−1/n, 1/n), . . .✱ ❡♥->♦ A1 ∩ A2 ∩ · · · ∩ An ∩ · · · = {0}✱ )✉❡ ♥>♦
. ❛❜❡2-♦ ✭♣♦2 )✉@❄✮✳ ❉❡ ❢❛-♦✱ (❡ x 6= 0, ❡♥->♦ ❡①✐(-❡ n ∈ N -❛❧ )✉❡ |x| > 1/n ❧♦❣♦ x 6∈ An ✳

❉❡✜♥✐%&♦ ✹✳✷✳ ❛✮ ❉✐③❡♠♦( )✉❡ ✉♠ ♣♦♥-♦ a . ❛❞❡$❡♥"❡ ❛♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥-♦ X ⊂ R )✉❛♥❞♦ a .

❧✐♠✐-❡ ❞❡ ❛❧❣✉♠❛ (❡)✉@♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ♣♦♥-♦( (xn ) ⊂ X ✳ ❚♦❞♦ ♣♦♥-♦ a ∈ X . ❛❞❡2❡♥-❡ ❛ X ✱ ❜❛(-❛
-♦♠❛2 xn = a ♣❛2❛ -♦❞♦ n ∈ N❀
❜✮ ❖ ❝♦♥❥✉♥-♦ X ❞♦( ♣♦♥-♦( ❛❞❡2❡♥-❡( ❛ X . ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦ ❢❡❝❤♦ ❞❡ ❳✳ ❈♦♠♦ X ⊂ X ✱ ❞✐③❡♠♦(
 ✶✹
✉❡ X # ❢❡❝❤❛❞♦ ✉❛♥❞♦ X = X ✱ ✐*+♦ #✱ ✉❛♥❞♦ +♦❞♦ ♣♦♥+♦ ❛❞❡-❡♥+❡ ❛ X ♣❡-+❡♥❝❡ ❛ X ❀
❝✮ ❙❡ X ⊂ Y ✱ ❞✐③❡♠♦* ✉❡ X # ❞❡♥(♦ ❡♠ Y ✉❛♥❞♦ Y ⊂ X ✱ ✐*+♦ #✱ ✉❛♥❞♦ +♦❞♦ b ∈ Y #
❛❞❡-❡♥+❡ ❛ X ✳ ◆♦+❡ ✉❡ Q # ❞❡♥*♦ ❡♠ R✱ ♣♦✐* +♦❞♦ x ∈ R # ❧✐♠✐+❡ ❞❡ ❛❧❣✉♠❛ (xn ) ⊂ Q✳

❚❡♦#❡♠❛ ✹✳✷✳ ❯♠ ♣♦♥+♦ a ∈ X *❡✱ ❡ *♦♠❡♥+❡ *❡✱ V ∩ X 6= ∅✱ ♣❛-❛ +♦❞❛ ✈✐③✐♥❤❛♥;❛ V❞❡ a✳
6 X # ♥❡❝❡**>-✐♦ ❡ *✉✜❝✐❡♥+❡ ✉❡ ❡①✐*+❛ ✉♠❛ ✈✐③✐♥❤❛♥;❛
❊ ✉✐✈❛❧❡♥+❡♠❡♥+❡✱ ❛ ✜♠ ❞❡ ✉❡ a ∈
V ∋ a +❛❧ ✉❡ V ∩ X = ∅.
)#♦✈❛✳ ❙❡❥❛ a ∈ X ✳ ❊♥)*♦ a = lim xn ♣❛-❛ ❛❧❣✉♠❛ (xn ) ⊂ X ✳ ❉❛❞❛ ✉♠❛ ✈✐③✐♥❤❛♥8❛ 9✉❛❧✲
9✉❡- V ∋ a )❡♠♦; xn ∈ V ♣❛-❛ )♦❞♦ n ≫ 1✱ ♣❡❧❛ ❞❡✜♥✐8*♦ ❞❡ ❧✐♠✐)❡✱ ❧♦❣♦ V ∩X 6= 0✳ ❘❡❝✐♣-♦✲
❝❛♠❡♥)❡✱ ;❡ )♦❞❛ ✈✐③✐♥❤❛♥8❛ ❞❡ V ∋ a ;❛)✐;❢❛③ V ∩X 6= ∅ ❡①✐;)❡ xn ∈ (a − 1/n, a + 1/n) ∩ X ✱
♣❛-❛ )♦❞♦ n ∈ N✳ ❊♥)*♦ |xn − a| < 1/n ❡ lim xn = a✱ ✐;)♦ B✱ a B ❛❞❡-❡♥)❡ ❛ X ✳

❈♦#♦❧-#✐♦ ✹✳✶✳ ❖ ❢❡❝❤♦ ❞❡ ✉❛❧ ✉❡- ❝♦♥❥✉♥+♦ # ✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥+♦ ❢❡❝❤❛❞♦✱ ♦✉ *❡❥❛✱ X = X ♣❛-❛
+♦❞♦ X ⊂ R✳ ❈♦♠ ❡❢❡✐+♦✱ *❡ a # ❛❞❡-❡♥+❡ ❛ X ✱ ❡♥+D♦ +♦❞❛ ✈✐③✐♥❤❛♥;❛ V ⊃ ✐♥+V ∋ a ❝♦♥+#♠
❛❧❣✉♠ b ∈ X ∩ ✐♥+V ✱ ❧♦❣♦ V # ✉♠❛ ✈✐③✐♥❤❛♥;❛ ❞❡ b✳ ❈♦♠♦ b ∈ X, *❡❣✉❡ ✉❡ V ❝♦♥+#♠ ❛❧❣✉♠
♣♦♥+♦ ❞❡ X ✳ ▲♦❣♦ ✉❛❧ ✉❡- ♣♦♥+♦ a ❛❞❡-❡♥+❡ ❛ X # +❛♠❜#♠ ❛❞❡-❡♥+❡ ❛ X ✱ ✐*+♦ #✱ a ∈ X ✳

❚❡♦#❡♠❛ ✹✳✸✳ ❯♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥+♦ F ⊂ R # ❢❡❝❤❛❞♦ ⇐⇒ *❡✉ ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥+❛- A = R − F # ❛❜❡-+♦✳

)#♦✈❛✳ ❙❡❥❛♠ F ❢❡❝❤❛❞♦ ❡ a ∈ A, ✐;)♦ B✱ a 6∈ F = F. C❡❧♦ ❚❡♦-❡♠❛ ✹✳✷✱ ❡①✐;)❡ ❛❧❣✉♠❛
✈✐③✐♥❤❛♥8❛ V ∋ a 9✉❡ ♥*♦ ❝♦♥)B♠ ♣♦♥)♦; ❞❡ F ✱ ✐;)♦ B✱ V ⊂ A✳ ❆;;✐♠✱ )♦❞♦ ♣♦♥)♦ a ∈ A B
✐♥)❡-✐♦- ❛ A✱ ♦✉ ;❡❥❛✱ A B ❛❜❡-)♦✳ ❘❡❝✐♣-♦❝❛♠❡♥)❡✱ ;❡ A B ❛❜❡-)♦ ❡ a B ❛❞❡-❡♥)❡ ❛ F = R − A✱
❡♥)*♦ )♦❞❛ ✈✐③✐♥❤❛♥8❛ ❞❡ a ❝♦♥)B♠ ♣♦♥)♦; ❞❡ F ✱ ❧♦❣♦ a 6∈ ✐♥)A = A✱ ♦✉ ;❡❥❛✱ a ∈ F ✳ ❉❡
❢❛)♦✱ ;❡ a ∈ A, ❡♥)*♦✱ ❡①✐;)✐-✐❛ V ∋ a ✉♠❛ ✈✐③✐♥❤❛♥8❛ ❝♦♠ V ⊂ A✱ ♣♦✐; A B ❛❜❡-)♦✱ ❧♦❣♦
V ∩ F = ∅✱ ✉♠❛ ❝♦♥)-❛❞✐8*♦✳ ❆;;✐♠✱ a ∈ F ✐♠♣❧✐❝❛ a ∈ F ✱ ❧♦❣♦ F = F B ❢❡❝❤❛❞♦✳

❚❡♦#❡♠❛ ✹✳✹✳ ❛✮ ❙❡ F1 ❡ F2 *D♦ ❢❡❝❤❛❞♦*✱ ❡♥+D♦ F1 ∪ F2 # ❢❡❝❤❛❞♦❀

❜✮ ❙❡ (Fλ )λ∈L ✱ # ✉♠❛ ❢❛♠G❧✐❛ ✉❛❧ ✉❡- ❞❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥+♦* ❢❡❝❤❛❞♦*✱ ❡♥+D♦ F = ∩λ∈L Fλ # ❢❡❝❤❛❞♦✳
)#♦✈❛✳ a) C❡❧♦ ❚❡♦-❡♠❛ ✹✳✸✱ Ai = R − Fi B ❛❜❡-)♦✱ ♣❛-❛ i = 1, 2✳ ▲♦❣♦✱ ♣❡❧♦ ❚❡♦-❡♠❛ ✹✳✶✱
A1 ∩ A2 = R − (F1 ∪ F2 ) B ❛❜❡-)♦✳ ◆♦✈❛♠❡♥)❡✱ ♣❡❧♦ ❚❡♦-❡♠❛ ✹✳✸✱ F1 ∪ F2 B ❢❡❝❤❛❞♦❀
b) C❛-❛ ❝❛❞❛ λ ∈ L✱ Aλ = R − Fλ B ❛❜❡-)♦✳ ❊♥)*♦✱ ;❡❣✉❡ ❞♦ ❚❡♦-❡♠❛ ✹✳✶ 9✉❡ A = ∪λ∈L Aλ B
❛❜❡-)♦✳ ▼❛; A = R − F ✭❱❡-✐✜9✉❡✦✮✱ ❧♦❣♦ F B ❢❡❝❤❛❞♦✳

❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✹✳✸✳ ❛✮ ❙❡❥❛ ∅ = 6 X ⊂ R ❧✐♠✐+❛❞♦✱ ❡♥+D♦ a = inf X ❡ b = sup X *D♦ ❛❞❡-❡♥+❡*

❛ X ✳ ❈♦♠ ❡❢❡✐+♦✱ ♣❛-❛ +♦❞♦ n ∈ N, ♣♦❞❡♠♦* ❡*❝♦❧❤❡- xn ∈ X ❝♦♠ a < xn < a + 1/n, ♣♦✐*
a+1/n ♥D♦ # ❝♦+❛ ✐♥❢❡-✐♦- ♣❛-❛ X. ▲♦❣♦✱ ♣❡❧❛ ❞❡✜♥✐;D♦ ❞❡ ❧✐♠✐+❡✱ a = lim xn ✳ ❆♥❛❧♦❣❛♠❡♥+❡✱
♣♦❞❡♠♦* ❝♦♥*+-✉✐- (yn ) ⊂ X ✱ ❝♦♠ b = lim yn ✭❱❡-✐✜ ✉❡✦✮✳ L♦-+❛♥+♦✱ a ❡ b *D♦ ❛❞❡-❡♥+❡* ❛
X ✳ ❈♦♠♦✱ ♣❛-❛ n ≫ 1✱ +❡♠♦* xn , yn ∈ (a, b)✱ ❡♠ ♣❛-+✐❝✉❧❛-✱ a ❡ b *D♦ ❛❞❡-❡♥+❡* ❛ (a, b)❀
❜✮ ❖ ❢❡❝❤♦ ❞♦* ✐♥+❡-✈❛❧♦* (a, b), [a, b) ❡ (a, b] # [a, b]. ❉❡ ❢❛+♦✱ ✈✐♠♦* ❡♠ ❛✮ ✉❡ [a, b] ⊂ (a, b)✱
❛❧#♠ ❞✐**♦✱ *❡ x ∈
/ [a, b] ♥D♦ ♣♦❞❡ ❡①✐*+✐- (xn ) ⊂ [a, b] ❝♦♠ lim xn = x ✭♣♦- ✉N❄✮❀
❝✮ ❈♦♠♦ Q # ❞❡♥*♦ ❡♠ R✱ ♣❛-❛ +♦❞♦ ✐♥+❡-✈❛❧♦ I ✱ +❡♠♦* Q ∩ I # ❞❡♥*♦ ❡♠ I ✭❱❡-✐✜ ✉❡✦✮❀
❞✮ ❯♠❛ ✉♥✐D♦ ✐♥✜♥✐+❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥+♦* ❢❡❝❤❛❞♦* ♣♦❞❡ ♥D♦ *❡- ✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥+♦ ❢❡❝❤❛❞♦✳ ❉❡ ❢❛+♦✱ +♦❞♦
❝♦♥❥✉♥+♦✱ ❢❡❝❤❛❞♦ ♦✉ ♥D♦✱ # ✉♥✐D♦ ❞♦* *❡✉* ♣♦♥+♦*✱ ✉❡ *D♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥+♦* ❢❡❝❤❛❞♦* ✭❏✉*+✐✜ ✉❡✦✮✳
 ✶✺
❉❡✜♥✐%&♦ ✹✳✸✳ ❯♠❛ ❝✐"#♦ ❞❡ X ⊂ R % ✉♠❛ ❞❡❝♦♠♣♦*✐,-♦ X = A ∪ B .❛❧ 0✉❡ A ∩ B = ∅
❡ A ∩ B = ∅✱ ✐*.♦ %✱ ♥❡♥❤✉♠ ♣♦♥.♦ ❞❡ A % ❛❞❡4❡♥.❡ ❛ B ❡ ♥❡♥❤✉♠ ♣♦♥.♦ ❞❡ B % ❛❞❡4❡♥.❡ ❛
A✳ ❊♠ ♣❛4.✐❝✉❧❛4✱ A ∩ B = ∅✳ ❆ ❞❡❝♦♠♣♦*✐,-♦ X = X ∪ ∅ % ❝❤❛♠❛❞❛ ❝✐"#♦ %&✐✈✐❛❧✳

❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✹✳✹✳ ❙❡ X = R − {0}✱ ❡♥.-♦ X = R+ ∪ R− % ✉♠❛ ❝✐*-♦✱ ♣♦✐* R+ = R+ ∪ {0}

❡ R− = R− ∪ {0}✳ ❉❛❞♦ a ∈/ Q✱ *❡❥❛♠ A = {x ∈ Q ; x < a} ❡ B = {x ∈ Q ; x > a}✳ ❆
❞❡❝♦♠♣♦*✐,-♦ Q = A ∪ B % ✉♠❛ ❝✐*-♦ ❞❡ Q✱ ♣♦✐* A = (−∞, a] ❡ B = [a, +∞)✳ ;♦4 ♦✉.4♦
❧❛❞♦✱ *❡ a < c < b, ❡♥.-♦ [a, b] = [a, c] ∪ (c, b] ♥-♦ % ✉♠❛ ❝✐*-♦✱ ♣♦✐* [a, c] ∩ (c, b] = {c}✳
❚❡♦1❡♠❛ ✹✳✺✳ ❯♠ ✐♥.❡4✈❛❧♦ ❞❛ 4❡.❛ *= ❛❞♠✐.❡ ❛ ❝✐*-♦ .4✐✈✐❛❧✳
❈♦1♦❧51✐♦ ✹✳✷✳ ❖* ?♥✐❝♦* *✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥.♦* ❞❡ R 0✉❡ *-♦ *✐♠✉❧.❛♥❡❛♠❡♥.❡ ❛❜❡4.♦* ❡ ❢❡❝❤❛❞♦*
*-♦ ∅ ❡ R✳ ❈♦♠ ❡❢❡✐.♦✱ *❡ A ⊂ R % ❛❜❡4.♦ ❡ ❢❡❝❤❛❞♦✱ R − A .❛♠❜%♠ % ❢❡❝❤❛❞♦ ❡ ❛❜❡4.♦✱
❧♦❣♦ R = A ∪ (R − A) % ✉♠❛ ❝✐*-♦✱ ♣♦✐* A ∩ (R − A) = ∅✱ ❥D 0✉❡ A = A ❡ R − A ∩ A = ∅✱
♣♦✐* R − A = R − A✳ ❈♦♠♦ ❛ 4❡.❛ ♣♦❞❡ *❡4 ✈✐*.❛ ❝♦♠♦ ♦ ✐♥.❡4✈❛❧♦ I = (−∞, +∞)✱ *❡❣✉❡ ❞♦
❚❡♦4❡♠❛ ✹✳✺ 0✉❡ ❡*.❛ ❝✐*-♦ % .4✐✈✐❛❧✱ ♦✉ *❡❥❛✱ ♦✉ A = ∅ ❡ R − A = R ♦✉ A = R ❡ R − A = ∅✳
❉❡✜♥✐%&♦ ✹✳✹✳ ❛✮ ❉✐③❡♠♦* 0✉❡ a ∈ R % ♣♦♥%♦ ❞❡ ❛❝✉♠✉❧❛1#♦ ❞❡ X ⊂ R 0✉❛♥❞♦ .♦❞❛
✈✐③✐♥❤❛♥,❛ V ∋ a ❝♦♥.%♠ ❛❧❣✉♠ ♣♦♥.♦ ❞❡ X ❞✐❢❡4❡♥.❡ ❞♦ ♣4=♣4✐♦ a✱ ✐*.♦ %✱ V ∩(X −{a}) 6= ∅✳
❊0✉✐✈❛❧❡♥.❡♠❡♥.❡✱ ♣❛4❛ .♦❞♦ ε > 0 .❡♠♦* (a − ε, a + ε) ∩ (X − {a}) 6= ∅. ❉❡♥♦.❛♠♦* ♣♦4 X ′
♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥.♦ ❞♦* ♣♦♥.♦* ❞❡ ❛❝✉♠✉❧❛,-♦ ❞❡ X ✳ ;❡❧♦ ❚❡♦4❡♠❛ ✹✳✷✱ a ∈ X ′ ⇐⇒ a ∈ X − {a}❀
❜✮ ❙❡ a ∈ X ♥-♦ % ♣♦♥.♦ ❞❡ ❛❝✉♠✉❧❛,-♦ ❞❡ ❳✱ ❞✐③❡♠♦* 0✉❡ a % ✉♠ ♣♦♥%♦ ✐"♦❧❛❞♦ ❞❡ X ✳
■*.♦ *✐❣♥✐✜❝❛ 0✉❡ ❡①✐*.❡ ε > 0 .❛❧ 0✉❡ a % ♦ ?♥✐❝♦ ♣♦♥.♦ ❞❡ X ♥♦ ✐♥.❡4✈❛❧♦ (a − ε, a + ε)❀
❝✮ ◗✉❛♥❞♦ .♦❞♦* ♦* ♣♦♥.♦* ❞❡ X *-♦ ✐*♦❧❛❞♦*✱ X % ❝❤❛♠❛❞♦ ✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥.♦ ❞✐"❝&❡%♦✳
❚❡♦1❡♠❛ ✹✳✻✳ ❉❛❞♦* X ⊂ R ❡ a ∈ R✱ ❛* *❡❣✉✐♥.❡* ❛✜4♠❛,Q❡* *-♦ ❡0✉✐✈❛❧❡♥.❡*✿
(1) a % ✉♠ ♣♦♥.♦ ❞❡ ❛❝✉♠✉❧❛,-♦ ❞❡ X ❀ (2) a % ❧✐♠✐.❡ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ *❡0✉S♥❝✐❛ (xn ) ⊂ X − {a}❀
(3) ❚♦❞♦ ✐♥.❡4✈❛❧♦ ❛❜❡4.♦ ❞❡ ❝❡♥.4♦ a ❝♦♥.%♠ ✉♠❛ ✐♥✜♥✐❞❛❞❡ ❞❡ ♣♦♥.♦* ❞❡ X ✳

❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✹✳✺✳ ;❡❧♦ ❚❡♦4❡♠❛ ✹✳✻ ❡♠ (1) ⇒ (3)✱ *❡ X % ✜♥✐.♦✱ ❡♥.-♦ X ′ = ∅✱ ✐*.♦ %✱
✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥.♦ ✜♥✐.♦ ♥-♦ .❡♠ ♣♦♥.♦* ❞❡ ❛❝✉♠✉❧❛,-♦✳ ❖ ❝♦♥❥✉♥.♦ Z % ✐♥✜♥✐.♦✱ ♠❛* .♦❞♦* ♦*
♣♦♥.♦* ❞❡ Z *-♦ ✐*♦❧❛❞♦*✱ ♣♦✐* ❞❛❞♦ z ∈ Z .❡♠♦* 0✉❡ z % ♦ ?♥✐❝♦ ♣♦♥.♦ ❞❡ Z ♥♦ ✐♥.❡4✈❛❧♦
(z − ε, z + ε) ♣❛4❛ .♦❞♦ ε ∈ (0, 1)✳ ◆♦.❡ .❛♠❜%♠ 0✉❡ Q′ = R✱ ♣♦✐*✱ ❞❛❞♦ 0✉❛❧0✉❡4 x ∈ R✱
❡①✐*.❡ (xn) ⊂ Q − {x} ❝♦♠ lim xn = x ✭▼♦*.4❡✦✮✳ ❙❡ X = (a, b)✱ ❡♥.-♦ X ′ = [a, b]✱ ♣♦✐*
.♦❞♦ ✐♥.❡4✈❛❧♦ ❝❡♥.4❛❞♦ ❡♠ 0✉❛❧0✉❡4 x ∈ [a, b] ♣♦**✉✐ ✉♠❛ ✐♥✜♥✐❞❛❞❡ ❞❡ ♣♦♥.♦* ❞❡ (a, b)✳
❙❡ X = {1, 1/2, . . . , 1/n, . . .} ❡♥.-♦ X ′ = {0}✱ ✐*.♦ %✱ ③❡4♦ % ♦ ?♥✐❝♦ ♣♦♥.♦ ❞❡ ❛❝✉♠✉❧❛,-♦
❞❡ X ✱ ❥D 0✉❡ *❡✉* ♣♦♥.♦* ❢♦4♠❛♠ ✉♠❛ *❡0✉S♥❝✐❛ 0✉❡ ❝♦♥✈❡4❣❡ ♣❛4❛ ③❡4♦✳ ❆❧%♠ ❞✐**♦✱ X %
❞✐*❝4❡.♦✱ ✐*.♦ %✱ .♦❞♦* ♦* ♣♦♥.♦* ❞❡ X *-♦ ✐*♦❧❛❞♦*✱ ♣♦✐* ❞❛❞♦ 1/n ∈ X ❡①✐*.❡ ε > 0 ❝♦♠
(1/n − ε, 1/n + ε) ∩ X = {1/n} ❜❛*.❛ 0✉❡ 0 < ε < 1/n − 1/(n + 1) ✳

❆ #❡❣✉✐( ❛♣(❡#❡♥,❛♠♦# ✉♠❛ ✈❡(#0♦ ❞♦ ❚❡♦(❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❇♦❧③❛♥♦✲❲❡✐❡(#,(❛## ❡♠ ,❡(♠♦# ❞❛

❡①✐#,9♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ✉♠ ♣♦♥,♦ ❞❡ ❛❝✉♠✉❧❛;0♦✳

❚❡♦1❡♠❛ ✹✳✼✳ ❚♦❞♦ *✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥.♦ X ⊂ R ✐♥✜♥✐.♦ ❡ ❧✐♠✐.❛❞♦ *❛.✐*❢❛③ X ′

6= ∅✳
 ✶✻
!♦✈❛✳ ❉❛❞♦ X ⊂ R ✐♥✜♥✐)♦ ❡ ❧✐♠✐)❛❞♦✳ ❙❛❜❡♠♦0 1✉❡ X ♣♦00✉✐ ✉♠ 0✉❜❝♦♥❥✉♥)♦ ❡♥✉♠❡67✈❡❧
{x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , . . .}✳ ❋✐①❛♥❞♦ ❡0)❛ ❡♥✉♠❡6❛;<♦✱ )❡♠♦0 ✉♠❛ 0❡1✉>♥❝✐❛ (xn ) ⊂ X ❞❡ )❡6♠♦0
❞♦✐0 ❛ ❞♦✐0 ❞✐0)✐♥)♦0✱ ♣♦6)❛♥)♦✱ ✉♠❛ 0❡1✉>♥❝✐❛ ❧✐♠✐)❛❞❛✱ ❛ 1✉❛❧✱ ♣❡❧♦ ❚❡♦6❡♠❛ ❞❡ ❇♦❧③❛♥♦✲
❲❡✐❡60)6❛00✱ ♣♦00✉✐ ✉♠❛ 0✉❜0❡1✉>♥❝✐❛ ❝♦♥✈❡6❣❡♥)❡ (xnk ) ❝♦♠ lim xnk = x✳ ❈♦♠♦ (xnk ) ⊂ X ✱
♠✉❞❛♥❞♦ ❛ ♥♦)❛;<♦✱ ♣♦❞❡♠♦0 ❛❞♠✐)✐6 1✉❡ (xk ) ⊂ X ❝♦♥✈❡6❣❡ ♣❛6❛ x✳ ❈♦♠♦ ♦0 )❡6♠♦0 xk
0<♦ )♦❞♦0 ❞✐0)✐♥)♦0✱ ❧♦❣♦✱ ♥♦ ♠7①✐♠♦ ✉♠ ❞❡❧❡0 ♣♦❞❡ 0❡6 ✐❣✉❛❧ ❛ x✳ ❉❡0❝❛6)❛♥❞♦✲♦✱ )❡6❡♠♦0 x
❝♦♠♦ ❧✐♠✐)❡ ❞❡ ✉♠❛ 0❡1✉>♥❝✐❛ (xk ) ⊂ X − {x}✱ ❧♦❣♦ x ∈ X ′ .

❉❡✜♥✐+,♦ ✹✳✺✳ ❯♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥'♦ X ⊂ R ( ❝♦♠♣❛❝'♦ +✉❛♥❞♦ ( ❧✐♠✐'❛❞♦ ❡ ❢❡❝❤❛❞♦✳

❖❜1❡!✈❛+,♦ ✹✳✷✳ ❛✮ ❚♦❞♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥'♦ ❞✐5❝6❡'♦ ❡ ❧✐♠✐'❛❞♦ X ( ❝♦♠♣❛❝'♦✱ ❡♠ ♣❛6'✐❝✉❧❛6✱ X
✜♥✐'♦ ( ❝♦♠♣❛❝'♦✱ ♣♦✐5 ( ❧✐♠✐'❛❞♦ ♣♦6 5❡6 ✜♥✐'♦ ❡ ❢❡❝❤❛❞♦ ♣♦6 5❡6 ❞✐5❝6❡'♦ ✭❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✹✳✺✮✳ ❉❡
❢❛'♦✱ ♥♦'❡ +✉❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥'♦5 ❞✐5❝6❡'♦5 5?♦ ❢❡❝❤❛❞♦5✱ ♣♦✐5 5❡ x ∈ X ❡ x ∈/ X ✱ ❡♥'?♦✱ ♣♦6 ❞❡✜♥✐@?♦
x ∈ X ′ ✱ ✐5'♦ (✱ X = X ∪ X ′ ✭❱❡6✐✜+✉❡✦✮✱ ❞❛C X ′ = ∅ ⇒ X = X ❡ X ( ❢❡❝❤❛❞♦❀
❜✮ ❖ ✐♥'❡6✈❛❧♦ [a, b] ( ❝♦♠♣❛❝'♦✳ H♦6 ♦✉'6♦ ❧❛❞♦✱ (a, b) ( ❧✐♠✐'❛❞♦✱ ♠❛5 ♥?♦ ( ❢❡❝❤❛❞♦✱ ♣♦✐5
5❡✉ ❢❡❝❤♦ ( [a, b]✱ ❧♦❣♦ ♥?♦ ( ❝♦♠♣❛❝'♦✳ ❚❛♠❜(♠ Z ♥?♦ ( ❝♦♠♣❛❝'♦✱ ♣♦✐5 ( ✐❧✐♠✐'❛❞♦✱ ❡♠❜♦6❛
5❡❥❛ ❢❡❝❤❛❞♦✱ ✈✐5'♦ +✉❡ 5❡✉ ❝♦♠♣❧❡♠❡♥'❛6 R − Z = ∪k∈Z(k, k + 1)✱ ✐5'♦ (✱ ✉♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥'♦ ❛❜❡6'♦✳
❖❜1❡!✈❛+,♦ ✹✳✸✳ ❙❡ X ⊂ R ( ❝♦♠♣❛❝'♦ ❡♥'?♦✱ ♣❡❧♦ ❊①❡♠♣❧♦ ✹✳✸ ❛✮✱ ❝♦♠♦ X ( ❢❡❝❤❛❞♦ ❡
❧✐♠✐'❛❞♦ '❡♠♦5 a = inf X ❡ b = sup X ♣❡6'❡♥❝❡♠ ❛ X ✳ ❆55✐♠✱ ♦❞♦ ❝♦♥❥✉♥ ♦ ❝♦♠♣❛❝ ♦
❝♦♥ *♠ ✉♠ ❡❧❡♠❡♥ ♦ ♠-♥✐♠♦ ❡ ✉♠ ❡❧❡♠❡♥ ♦ ♠/①✐♠♦ ✳ ❖✉ 5❡❥❛✱ X ❝♦♠♣❛❝'♦ ⇒
∃ a, b ∈ X '❛✐5 +✉❡ a ≤ x ≤ b, ♣❛6❛ '♦❞♦ x ∈ X.

❚❡♦!❡♠❛ ✹✳✽✳ ❯♠ ❝♦♥❥✉♥'♦ X ⊂ R ( ❝♦♠♣❛❝'♦ 5❡✱ ❡ 5♦♠❡♥'❡ 5❡✱ '♦❞❛ 5❡+✉M♥❝✐❛ ❞❡ ♣♦♥'♦5
❡♠ X ♣♦55✉✐ ✉♠❛ 5✉❜5❡+✉M♥❝✐❛ +✉❡ ❝♦♥✈❡6❣❡ ♣❛6❛ ✉♠ ♣♦♥'♦ ❞❡ X ✳
!♦✈❛✳ ❙❡ X ⊂ R F ❝♦♠♣❛❝)♦✱ )♦❞❛ 0❡1✉>♥❝✐❛ ❡♠ X F ❧✐♠✐)❛❞❛✱ ❧♦❣♦ ♣♦6 ❇♦❧③❛♥♦✲❲❡✐❡60)6❛00✱
♣♦00✉✐ ✉♠❛ 0✉❜0❡1✉>♥❝✐❛ ❝♦♥✈❡6❣❡♥)❡✱ ❝✉❥♦ ❧✐♠✐)❡ F ✉♠ ♣♦♥)♦ ❞❡ X = X ✱ ♣♦✐0 X F ❢❡❝❤❛❞♦✳
❘❡❝✐♣6♦❝❛♠❡♥)❡✱ 0❡❥❛ X ⊂ R )❛❧ 1✉❡ )♦❞❛ 0❡1✉>♥❝✐❛ (xn ) ⊂ X ♣♦00✉✐ ✉♠❛ 0✉❜0❡1✉>♥❝✐❛ 1✉❡
❝♦♥✈❡6❣❡ ♣❛6❛ ❛❧❣✉♠ x ∈ X ✳ ❊♥)<♦ X F ❧✐♠✐)❛❞♦✱ ❝❛0♦ ❝♦♥)676✐♦✱ ♣❛6❛ ❝❛❞❛ n ∈ N ❡①✐0)✐6✐❛
xn ∈ X ❝♦♠ |xn | > n✳ ❆ 0❡1✉>♥❝✐❛ (xn ) ♥<♦ ♣♦00✉✐6✐❛ 0✉❜0❡1✉>♥❝✐❛ ❧✐♠✐)❛❞❛✱ ♥❡♠ )❛♠♣♦✉❝♦
❝♦♥✈❡6❣❡♥)❡✱ ❝♦♥)6❛❞✐③❡♥❞♦ ❛ ❤✐♣L)❡0❡✳ ❆❧F♠ ❞✐00♦✱ X F ❢❡❝❤❛❞♦✱ ❝❛0♦ ❝♦♥)676✐♦✱ ❡①✐0)✐6✐❛♠
(xn ) ⊂ X ❡ ✉♠ ♣♦♥)♦ a ∈ / X ✱ ❝♦♠ a = lim xn ✳ ▲♦❣♦✱ (xn ) ♥<♦ ♣♦00✉✐6✐❛ 0✉❜0❡1✉>♥❝✐❛
❝♦♥✈❡6❣✐♥❞♦ ♣❛6❛ ✉♠ ♣♦♥)♦ ❞❡ X ✱ ♣♦✐0 )♦❞❛0 0✉❛0 0✉❜0❡1✉>♥❝✐❛0 )❡6✐❛♠ ❧✐♠✐)❡ a✳

❉❡✜♥✐+,♦ ✹✳✻✳ ❯♠❛ ❢❛♠C❧✐❛ ❞❡ ❝♦♥❥✉♥'♦5 C = (Cλ )λ∈L '❛❧ +✉❡

X ⊂ ∪λ∈L Cλ ✭♣❛6❛ ❝❛❞❛
x ∈ X ✱ ❡①✐5'❡ ❛❧❣✉♠ λ ∈ L '❛❧ +✉❡ x ∈ Cλ ✮ ( ❝❤❛♠❛❞❛ ❝♦❜❡2 ✉2❛ ❞❡ X ✳ ◗✉❛♥❞♦ '♦❞♦5 ♦5
Cλ 5?♦ ❛❜❡6'♦5✱ ❞✐③❡♠♦5 +✉❡ C ( ✉♠❛ ❝♦❜❡2 ✉2❛ ❛❜❡2 ❛ ✳ ◗✉❛♥❞♦ L = {λ1 , . . . , λn } ( ✜♥✐'♦✱
❞✐③❡♠♦5 +✉❡ X ⊂ Cλ1 ∪· · ·∪Cλn ( ✉♠❛ ❝♦❜❡2 ✉2❛ ✜♥✐ ❛✳ ❙❡ L′ ⊂ L ( '❛❧ +✉❡ X ⊂ ∪λ∈L′ Cλ✱
❞✐③❡♠♦5 +✉❡ C ′ = (Cλ)λ∈L′ ✱ ( ✉♠❛ 4✉❜❝♦❜❡2 ✉2❛ ❞❡ C ✳
❚❡♦!❡♠❛ ✹✳✾ ✭❇♦6❡❧✲▲❡❜❡0❣✉❡✮✳ ❚♦❞❛ ❝♦❜❡6'✉6❛ ❛❜❡6'❛ ❞❡ ✉♠ ❝♦♠♣❛❝'♦ '❡♠ 5✉❜❝♦❜❡6'✉6❛
✜♥✐'❛✳