AIRCRAFT AERODYNAMICS, STRUCTURES AND SYSTEMS

COMPUTER-BASED AIRFOIL AND WING

AERODYNAMIC ANALYSIS

ENGG07011 – DECEMBER 2017

COURSE COORDINATOR: MR. SHAYLAAN AUZINE

DARSHANA BHUDYE
B00340530
 University of the West of Scotland

Coursework Assessment Feedback

Module Title: Aircraft Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems
Course/Year Aircraft Engineering Year 1 Session 2017-18
Module Code: ENGG07011 Word-count: 1511
CW Title Computer-based airfoil and wing aerodynamic analysis
Date Due: 04. 12. 2017 Date Submitted: 04.12.2017
Student ID Number:

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COURSEWORK 1st marker 2nd marker
REPORT
Write-up: Introduction
(5%), structure (5%),
presentation (5%), and
referencing (5%)
(20%)
Computational
techniques/tools:
description (10%), set-up
(5%), and post
processing (5%)
(20%)
Computational data:
Graphs (5%),
presentation (5%),
discussion/analysis(10%)
(20%)
Evaluation of the
software, data and
application of data
(20%)
Conclusion
(20%)
TOTAL MARK (%)
FEEDBACK SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

BEng Aircraft Engineering: Aircraft Aerodynamics,

Structures and Systems Module Course Work: Session 2017 – 2018
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Table of contents
Titles Pages
Introduction
 Airfoil …………………………………………………………………. 4

 Aircraft Characteristics
1.1 -- Aerodynamic Forces: Lift and drag ………………………. 5
1.2 – Generation of Lift ……………………………………………. 6
1.3 – Coefficient of Lift, Cl ………………………………………… 6
1.3.1 - Variation of Cl vs AOA ………………………… 7
1.4 – Coefficient of Drag, Cd ……………………………………… 7
1.4.1 – Variation of Cd vs AOA ……………………...... 8
1.5 – Lift to Drag Ratio ……………………………………….......... 8
1.5.1 – Variation of Cl/Cd vs AOA ……………………. 9
XFLR5
 Features and capabilities …………………………………………. 10 – 13

Generation of Aerodynamic Data

3.1 – Airfoil Data ……………………………………………………. 14 – 16
3.2 – XFLR5 Platform …………………………………………….... 17 – 20

Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………. 21

References ……………………………………………………………………. 22 - 23

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Introduction
Airfoils
 Airfoils are defined as the cross sectional form of a wing which provides
aerodynamic forces such as lift, when moving in air. For different aircrafts, different
airfoils are used.

 Wing designs have changed during the past few years. In order to improve the
efficiency of an aircraft aerodynamically, better wing configurations and airfoil
shapes are being generated. The diagram below shows an illustrated airfoil of an
aircraft.

Figure 1.0 The cross sectional view of an airfoil.

(Source: BERNOULLI'S PRINCIPLE)

What are the factors affecting the airflow on an airfoil?

The flow of air on a wing is affected by the:
 pressure on the wing
 velocity of the airflow
 planform area of the wing
 type of flow of air
 angle of attack and
 Reynolds number

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Aircraft Characteristics
1.1 Aerodynamic Forces: Lift and Drag

 Lift is defined as the force opposite to the weight of an aircraft which holds it in
the air and drag is defined as the force which opposes the direction of motion of
an aircraft. The diagrams below show the two forces acting on an aircraft and on
an airfoil.

Figure 1.1. The forces acting on an aircraft

(Source: May the Force Be with You: Lift)

Figure 1.11 Aerodynamic Forces

Lift L, drag D and resultant force R acting on an airfoil
(Source: Difference resultant aerodynamics force on an airfoil and a flat plate)

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1.2 Generation of Lift
 According to Bernoulli’s principle, pressure is inversely proportional to velocity.
Thus, pressure decreases with an increasing air velocity, which generates lift on
a wing. The diagram illustrates lift generation on an airfoil.

Figure 1.2 Generation of lift on a wing

(Source: Coanda Effect)

1.3 Coefficient of Lift, Cl

 The coefficient of lift has a maximum value when the aircraft starts to lose airflow
over its wings and has decreased lift (at stalling angle of attack). The difference
in pressure caused by the change in angle of attack in a symmetrical airfoil,
generates lift.

L
Cl =
1 2
ρV A
2

Where,
L is the lift generated
Ρ is the density of air
V is the velocity
A is the area of the wing

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1.3.1 Variation of Cl and Angle of Attack
 Since angle of attack is directly proportional to the lift, lift increases with AOA
until a point called stall angle of attack. The graph below shows the variation of
Cl vs AOA.
 At point P which is the stalling point, the aircraft has a maximum CL and the
aircraft begins to slow down.

Figure 1.3 Variation of Cl vs AOA

(Source: ONLINE WIND TUNNEL LABORATORY)

1.4 Coefficient of Drag, CD

 Drag depends on the AOA, wing shape, Reynolds number, speed and wing area.

D
Cd =
1 2
ρV A
2

Where,
D is the generated drag
ρ is the density of air
v is the velocity and
A is the area of the wing

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1.4.1 Variation of CD and Angle of Attack
 The lift coefficient increases with the angle of attack which causes a change in
the induced drag. The graph below shows the variation of Cd vs AOA

Figure 1.4 Variation of Cd vs AOA

(Source: rotorhead8900 (DRAG – The Drag Formula))

1.5 Lift to Drag Ratio/Glide Ratio

 Glide ratio is used to find the efficiency of an aircraft. For an aircraft in flight, drag
will occur as a result of aerodynamic flow interaction with the airplane body and
drag due to lift.
1
L cl ρV2 A cl
2
= 1 =
D cd ρV2 A cd
2

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1.5.1 Variation of CL/CD vs Angle of Attack
 The graph below shows that at critical angle of attack, known as the stalling
angle, the aerodynamic efficiency is at its maximum. Thus, the aircraft is unable
to produce lift in order to remain in level flight.

Figure 1.5 Variation of Lift to Drag ratio vs AOA

(Source: Aerofoils and wings)

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XFLR5

 Xflr5 is a program used to design and analyze 2D airfoils, wings and airplanes
which operates at a given Reynolds and Mach Number. It can also be used to
modify the thickness and camber of an airfoil.

The main features of the software, xflr5 are:

1. Direct analysis
 Airfoil database points are uploaded on its platform, which give the
required airfoil shape. Airfoils are analyzed in batch mode to generate
their polar data.

 The software uses X and Y coordinates and the required foil name
to perform its task. The figure below shows designing a foil with
Xflr5.

Figure 2.0 Designing an airfoil on Xflr5

(Source: Xflr5 Source Forge)
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  This option also allows plotting of graphs of the desired foil at the given
Reynold’s and Mach Number when a range of values of angle of attack
is entered. It therefore plots the graph such as CL/CD against AOA
and Cl vs AOA. The figure below shows the different variation of
graphs.

Figure 2.1 Direct Analysis on xflr5

(Source: Aero World)

2. Foil Design
 It can modify the thickness, camber, maximum thickness and
maximum camber positions of an airfoil, as shown in the figure
below. The program provides local and global refinements as
well.

.
Figure 2.2 Modification of an airfoil
(Source: xflr5 - Airfoil camber and thickness variation algo – Source Forge)

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3. Analysis/Polar Object
 After defining a polar object, the analysis of a foil is performed. A polar
object is determined by the type, the Reynold’s Number and Mach
Number, the change form laminar to turbulent of the airfoil. The graph
below shows the variation of Cl against Cd of a foil polar.

Figure 2.3 Foil Polar (Source: Guidelines of Xflr5)

4. Plane Definition
 The airfoil is implemented on the program which will allow the defining
of a plane using the chord length of a wing as shown in the figure
below.

Figure 2.4 Designing a rectangular wing

(Source: Assemble a Wing on XFLR5)

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 5. Stability Analysis
 This is used to position the center of gravity of the aircraft in order to
keep the stability. The figure below shows the stability analysis of a
rectangular airfoil using the software.

Figure 2.5 Stability Analysis using Xflr5

(Source: XFLR5 airplane stability analysis)

 The program allows many features in order to facilitate the designing of an airfoil
such as Direct and Inverse Analysis and 3D Designing.

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Generation of Aerodynamic Data
3.1 Airfoil Data
NACA 4-Digit Airfoil Generator

 The airfoil is 2% maximum camber at 40% of the chord line and the thickness of
the airfoil is 30% (Based on the two last digits of my banner ID).

Figure 3.1 NACA 2430

 Based on 4-digit NACA airfoil provided, the software NACA airfoil generator
created a data-point file, as shown in the Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1.1 NACA 4-digit airfoil generator (NACA 2430)

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Airfoil Data Points on Excel

 The x and y coordinates were plotted on excel as shown in the figure below.

Figure 3.1.2 Airfoil Data Points on Excel

 The following equation is used to calculate the thickness distribution of the airfoil
using the x and y coordinates which is generated by the NACA software:
𝑡
𝑦𝑡 = (0.2969√𝑥 − 0.126𝑥 − 0.3516𝑥 2 + 0.2843𝑥 3 − 0.1015𝑥 4 )
0.2
where x is a position along the chord line and t is the value of maximum thickness.

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3.2 XFLR-5 Platform
 The airfoil was generated based on the foil coordinates uploaded on the platform,
shown in the figure below.

Figure 3.2 Foil design and its coordinates

 A range of angle of attack 0º to 25º and a range of Reynold’s number were used
for the graphs of Cl vs AOA at a given Mach Number, as shown in Figure 3.3 and
3.5.

Figure 3.3 Aerodynamic Calculations for given AOA and Reynold’s Number within the
range 100,000 and 500,000.

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  After analysing the aerodynamic calculations for the range of Reynold’s Number,
the following graphs were obtained.

Figure 3.4 Graphs obtained from computational data

Figure 3.5 Aerodynamic Calculations for given AOA and Reynold’s Number within the
range 500,000 and 900,000.

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  After analysing the aerodynamic calculations for the range of Reynold’s Number,
the following graphs were obtained.

Figure 3.6 Graphs obtained from computational data

Figure 3.7 Cl vs AOA for Re Number 100 000 – 500 000 Figure 3.8 Cl vs AOA for Re Number 500 000 – 900 000

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  The graphs show the variation of Cl against AOA for different range of Re
Number. Since lift is directly proportional to AOA, thus it increases with the angle
of attack and so does the Cl, until a certain point called the stall angle.

 For Reynold’s Number lower than 500 000, the flow is laminar as shown in figure
3.7 whereas for higher Reynold’s Number, the flow is turbulent as shown in figure
3.8.

 In Figure 3.7, the maximum value of Cl is at 1.1 at a stall angle of attack of 20º as
compared to in Figure 3.8, it reaches its peak value at 1.22 at an angle of 20º.
The curve starts to incline slightly which shows loss of lift effectiveness. At the
maximum Cl, the lift decreases rapidly causing loss in lift and stalling of aircraft.

 The table below shows the different Reynold’s Number relating to the stall angle
of attack and the Cl.

Reynold’s 100 000 300 000 600 000 800 000

Number - - - -
300 000 500 000 800 000 900 000

Stall Angle of 17º 20.0º 20.0º 20.0º

Attack

Lift Coefficient 1.1 1.1 1.22 1.22

 Since velocity is directly proportional to Re number, it increases at high Re

Number. Thus the increasing velocity of the air causes turbulent flow.

 The maximum glide ratio occurs at the most efficient angle that is at an angle of
7º.

 As AOA increases, drag also increases, so does the drag coefficient, thus the
aircraft loses balance in flight.

If Re  500000, the flow is turbulent and if Re 500000, the flow is laminar.

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 From the chosen airfoil, a rectangular wing was designed. The wing span and
chord length was inspired from the airfoil of Piper PA-38.
- From the formula, Length x Width (Wing span x Chord length, for a
rectangular wing), the wing area is obtained.
- From the formula, AR = b2/A, where AR is the aspect ratio, b is the wing span
and A is the area, the value of the airfoil’s aspect ratio is obtained.

 The table below shows the data of the airfoil.

NACA 2430
Wing Span 10.36 m

Area 11.60 m2

Chord Length 1.12 m

Aspect Ratio 9.25

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Conclusion
Airfoils are very essential components for an aircraft since they are used for its flight.
Thus, change in their designs may cause a great impact on the aircraft. The factors to
be considered for designing a wing are its planform area, cross sectional area,
thickness, aspect ratio and taper ratio.
Moreover, the generation of lift is the most essential part during the flight since it
balances the aircraft during the flight condition. The main factors affecting the
generation of lift on an airfoil of an aircraft is the Reynold’s number, the Mach number
and the range of angle of attack. At high Reynold’s Number, the Cl is higher than at low
Reynold’s Number.
The Principle of Bernoulli states that pressure acting on the airfoil is inversely
proportional to the velocity of the aircraft. The slower the pressure, the higher the
velocity. Thus at higher Reynold’s Number, the velocity of the aircraft increases. High
velocity of aircraft causes turbulent flow which leads to imbalance in the flight condition
which is between 15º – 20º of stall angle of attack at maximum lift coefficient.
The software XFLR5 has used its features such as direct analysis and batch analysis
and plane definition to design the airfoil at low Reynold’s Number. The range of
Reynold’s Number was taken from 100 000 to 900 000 since exceeding this range will
cause instability in the flight condition due to high unsteady flow. The value of Mach
Number is considered 0.2 so as the speed of the aircraft will be less than the speed of
sound which is known as the subsonic speed. The graphs indicate that the aircraft
moves in a steady flow till it reaches the maximum lift coefficient at a stall angle of
attack where separation of flow begins.

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References
[1] BERNOULLI'S PRINCIPLE. avstop, 2017.
http://avstop.com/ac/apgeneral/bernoulli%27sprinciple.html.
[2] Difference resultant aerodynamics force on an airfoil and a flat plate. Physics, 2013.
https://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/83432/difference-resultant-
aerodynamics-force-on-an-airfoil-and-a-flat-plate.
[3] Coanda Effect. Formula 1 Dictionary, 2017. http://www.formula1-
dictionary.net/coanda_effect.html.
[4] rotorhead8900 (DRAG – The Drag Formula). WordPress, 2011.
https://rotorhead8900.wordpress.com/tag/drag-formula/.
[5] Aerofoils and wings- 4.8 Aircraft lift/drag ratio. Recreational Flying, 2012.
https://www.recreationalflying.com/tutorials/groundschool/umodule4.html.
[6] xflr5. Source Forge, 2017. https://sourceforge.net/p/xflr5/tickets/93/.
[7] xflr5 - Airfoil camber and thickness variation algo. Source Forge, 2017.
https://sourceforge.net/p/xflr5/discussion/679396/thread/dc794cfd/.
[8] Aero World. aeroworldjay.blogspot, 2014.
http://aeroworldjay.blogspot.com/2014/05/xflr-5-basics.html.
[9] XFLR5 airplane stability analysis. Full Inverse Analysis, 2017.
https://www.google.mu/search?q=full+inverse+analysis+xflr5&rlz=1C1CHBF_enMU
761MU761&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiJoq_9z-
jXAhXFWhQKHZ5eDGIQ_AUICigB&biw=1366&bih=623#imgrc=SzLa4gwCZk76nM
:.
[10] Assemble a Wing on XFLR5. Plane Definition, 2017.
https://www.google.mu/search?q=plane+definition+on+xflr5&rlz=1C1CHBF_enMU7
61MU761&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiJlMuM5-
jXAhWLVhQKHd7SBHAQ_AUICigB&biw=1366&bih=623#imgrc=0Oex_jWQU5sGE
M:.
[11] Guidelines for QFLR5 v0.03 - XFLR5 Analysis of foils and wings operating at low
Reynolds numbers. 2009.
[12] AviationKnowledge - Aerofoil. wikidot, 2011.
http://aviationknowledge.wikidot.com/aviation:aerofoil.
[13] Frawley, G. AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL DATA & SPECIFICATIONS - Piper PA-38
Tomahawk. Airliners, 2017. http://www.airliners.net/aircraft-data/piper-pa-38-
tomahawk/309.

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[14] Rutkowski, T., Yowell, J., Zarske, M., Hill, G. and Conner, A. Lesson: May the
Force Be with You: Lift (Figure 1). Teach Engineering, 2004.
https://www.teachengineering.org/lessons/view/cub_airplanes_lesson02.
[15] S. Aziz, E. and Esche, S. ONLINE WIND TUNNEL LABORATORY. Research Gate,
2008.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273771608_ONLINE_WIND_TUNNEL_L
ABORATORY.

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