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A TEXTBOOK OF
POWER PLANT ENGINEERING
“By the Same Author” :
l Thermal Engineering
l Engineering Thermodynamics
l Applied Thermodynamics
l Internal Combustion Engines
l Automobile Engineering
l Manufacturing Technology
(Manufacturing Processes and Machine Tools)
l Steam Tables with Mollier Diagram
A TEXTBOOK OF
POWER PLANT
ENGINEERING
IN
SI UNITS
For
Engineering Students of Various Disciplines

and Competitive Examinations (GATE, UPSC, etc.)
By
Er. R.K. RAJPUT
M.E. (Hons.), Gold Medallist; Grad. (Mech. Engg. & Elect. Engg.) ;
M.I.E. (India) ; M.S.E.S.I. ; M.I.S.T.E. ; C.E. (India)
Recipient of :
‘‘Best Teacher (Academic) Award’’
‘‘Distinguished Author Award’’
‘‘Jawahar Lal Nehru Memorial Gold Medal’’
for an outstanding research paper
(Institution of Engineers–India)
Principal (Formerly):
l Thapar Polytechnic College
l Punjab College of Information Technology
PATIALA
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A TEXTBOOK OF POWER PLANT ENGINEERING
© by Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd.

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Contents
Chapter Pages
INTRODUCTION TO SI UNITS AND CONVERSION FACTORS (xix)–(xxiv)

1. INTRODUCTION ... 1–19
1.1. Energy and Power ... 1
1.2. Sources of Energy ... 1
1.2.1. Fuels ... 2
1.2.2. Energy stored in water ... 5
1.2.3. Nuclear energy ... 5
1.2.4. Wind power ... 5
1.2.5. Solar energy ... 6
1.2.6. Tidal power ... 6
1.2.7. Geothermal energy ... 7
1.2.8. Thermoelectric power ... 7
1.3. Principal Types of Power Plants ... 7
1.4. Combustion of Fuels ... 8
1.4.1. Combustion chemistry ... 8
1.4.2. How to convert volumetric analysis to weight analysis ? ... 9
1.4.3. How to convert weight analysis to volumetric analysis ? ... 9
1.4.4. Weight of air required for complete combustion of fuel ... 9
1.4.5. Excess air ... 9
1.4.6. Weight of carbon in flue gases ... 10
1.4.7. Weight of flue gas per kg of fuel burnt ... 10
Worked Examples ... 10
Highlights ... 17
Theoretical Questions ... 18
Unsolved Examples ... 18
2. POWER PLANT CYCLES ... 20–57

2.1. Introduction ... 20
2.2. Classification of Power Plant Cycles ... 20
2.3. Carnot Cycle ... 20
2.4. Rankine Cycle ... 21
2.5. Modified Rankine Cycle ... 28
2.6. Reheat Cycle ... 31
2.7. Regenerative Cycle ... 35
2.8. Binary Vapour Cycle ... 40
2.9. Otto Cycle ... 44
2.10. Diesel Cycle ... 48
2.11. Dual Combustion Cycle ... 50
2.12. Gas Turbine Cycles ... 55
Highlights ... 55
(v)
( vi )
Chapter Pages
3. STEAM POWER PLANT ... 58–217

3.2 Classification of Steam Power Plants ... 59
3.3. Layout of a Modern Steam Power Plant ... 59
3.4 Essential Requirements of Steam Power Station Design ... 60
3.5. Selection of Site for Steam Power Station ... 60
3.6. Capacity of Steam Power Plant ... 62
3.7. Choice of Steam Conditions ... 62
3.8. Fuel Handling ... 63
3.8.1. Introduction ... 63
3.8.2. Requirements of good coal handling plant ... 63
3.8.3. Coal handling systems ... 64
3.8.4. Coal handling ... 64
3.8.5. Layout of a fuel handling equipment ... 68
3.9. Combustion Equipment for Steam Boilers ... 68
3.9.1. General aspects ... 68
3.9.2. Combustion equipment for solid fuels—selection considerations ... 69
3.9.3. Burning of coal ... 69
3.9.4. Burners ... 76
3.10. Fluidised Bed Combustion (FBC) ... 81
3.11. Ash Handling ... 82
3.11.1. Ash handling equipment ... 82
3.11.2. Ash handling systems ... 83
3.12. Dust Collection ... 85
3.12.2. Removal of smoke ... 85
3.12.3. Removal of dust and dust collectors ... 86
3.12.4. Efficiency of dust collectors ... 88
3.12.5. Installation of dust collectors ... 88
3.12.6. Uses of ash and dust ... 88
3.12.7. General layout of ash handling and dust collection system ... 88
3.12.8. Flyash—Its composition, disposal and applications ... 89
3.13. Chimney Draught ... 90
3.13.1. Definition and classification of draught ... 90
3.13.2. Natural draught ... 90
3.13.3. Chimney height and diameter ... 91
3.13.4. Condition for maximum discharge through a chimney ... 92
3.13.5. Efficiency of a chimney ... 93
3.13.6. Draught losses ... 93
3.13.7. Artificial draught ... 93
3.13.8. Forced draught ... 93
3.13.9. Induced draught ... 94
3.13.10. Balanced draught ... 94
3.13.11. Advantages of mechanical draught ... 94
3.13.12. Steam jet draught ... 94
3.14. Boilers ... 97
3.14.2. Classification of boilers ... 97
3.14.3. Comparison between ‘fire-tube and water-tube’ boilers ... 98
3.14.4. Selection of a boiler ... 98
3.14.5. Essentials of a good steam boiler ... 98
( vii )
Chapter Pages
3.14.6. Boiler terms ... 99
3.14.7. Fire tube boilers ... 99
3.14.8. Water tube boilers ... 103
3.14.9. High pressure boilers ... 105
3.15. Accessories ... 111
3.15.1. Feed pumps ... 111
3.15.2. Injector ... 111
3.15.3. Economiser ... 112
3.15.4. Air preheater ... 113
3.15.5. Superheater ... 114
3.15.6. Steam separator ... 115
3.16. Feed Water Heaters and Evaporators ... 115
3.16.1. Feed water heaters ... 115
3.16.2. Miscellaneous heaters ... 117
3.16.3. Evaporators ... 117
3.16.4. Typical utility cycle layout ... 117
3.17. Performance of Boilers ... 118
3.17.1. Evaporative capacity ... 118
3.17.2. Equivalent evaporation ... 118
3.17.3. Factor of evaporation ... 119
3.17.4. Boiler efficiency ... 119
3.17.5. Heat losses in a boiler plant ... 119
3.18. Steam Nozzles ... 123
3.18.2. Steam flow through nozzles ... 124
3.18.3. Discharge through the nozzle and conditions for its
maximum value ... 124
3.18.4. Nozzle efficiency ... 126
3.18.5. Supersaturated or metastable expansion of steam in a nozzle ... 127
3.19. Steam Turbines ... 130
3.19.2. Classification of steam turbines ... 131
3.19.3. Advantages of steam turbine over the steam engines ... 132
3.19.4. Description of common types of turbines ... 132
3.19.5. Methods of reducing wheel or rotor speed ... 133
3.19.6. Difference between impulse and reaction turbines ... 135
3.19.7. Impulse turbines ... 135
3.19.8. Reaction turbines ... 140
3.19.9. Turbine efficiencies ... 142
3.19.10. Types of power in steam turbine practice ... 143
3.19.11. Energy losses in steam turbines ... 143
3.19.12. Steam turbine governing and control ... 144
3.19.13. Special forms of turbines ... 146
3.20. Steam Condensers ... 157
3.20.2. Vacuum ... 157
3.20.3. Organs of a steam condensing plant ... 157
3.20.4. Classification of condensers ... 157
3.20.5. Jet condensers ... 157
3.20.6. Surface condensers ... 159
3.20.7. Reasons for inefficiency in surface condensers ... 160
3.20.8. Comparison between jet and surface condensers ... 161
3.20.9. Selection of condenser ... 161
( viii )
Chapter Pages
3.20.10. Sources of air in condensers ... 161

3.20.11. Effects of air leakage in condenser ... 161
3.20.12. Method for obtaining maximum vacuum in condensers ... 161
3.20.13. Vacuum measurement ... 162
3.20.14. Vacuum efficiency ... 162
3.20.15. Condenser efficiency ... 162
3.20.16. Determination of mass of cooling water ... 162
3.20.17. Heat transmission through walls of tubes of a surface
condenser ... 163
3.20.18. Methods of cleaning condenser tubes ... 163
3.21. Cooling Ponds and Cooling Towers ... 164
3.21.2. River or sea ... 164
3.21.3. Cooling ponds ... 164
3.21.4. Spray ponds ... 165
3.21.5. Cooling towers ... 165
3.21.6. Dry cooling towers ... 167
3.21.7. Maintenance of cooling towers ... 168
3.22. Feed Water Treatment ... 176
3.22.1. Classification of impurities in water ... 176
3.22.2. Troubles caused by the impurities in water ... 177
3.22.3. Methods of feed water treatment ... 178
3.22.4. pH value of water ... 181
3.23. Piping System ... 181
3.23.1. Requirements of steam piping system ... 181
3.23.2. Materials used for pipes ... 182
3.23.3. Insulation of steam piping ... 182
3.23.4. Steam pipe fittings ... 182
3.23.5. Pipe expansion bends ... 183
3.24. Advantages and Disadvantages of Steam Power Plants ... 183
3.25. Miscellaneous ... 184
3.25.1. Plant arrangement ... 184
3.25.2. Useful life of steam power plant components ... 185
3.25.3. Steam power plant pumps ... 185
3.25.4. Cost of steam power plant ... 185
3.25.5. Comparison of various types of power plants ... 186
3.25.6. Thermal power stations in India ... 187
3.25.7. Indian boilers act ... 187
Additional/Typical Examples ... 191
Highlights ... 206
Competitive Examinations Questions ... 212
4. DIESEL ENGINE POWER PLANT ... 218–264

4.2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Diesel Power Plants ... 218
4.3. Applications of Diesel Power Plant ... 219
4.4. Site Selection ... 219
4.5. Heat Engines ... 219
4.6. Classification of I.C. Engines ... 219
( ix )
Chapter Pages
4.7. Different Parts of I.C. Engines ... 220

4.8. Terms Connected with I.C. Engines ... 220
4.9. Four Stroke Cycle Diesel Engines ... 221
4.10. Two Stroke Cycle Diesel Engines ... 222
4.11. Comparison of Four Stroke and Two Stroke Cycle Engines ... 223
4.12. Comparison Between a Petrol Engine and a Diesel Engine ... 223
4.13. Essential Components of a Diesel Power Plant ... 224
4.13.1. Engine ... 224
4.13.2. Air intake system ... 224
4.13.3. Exhaust system ... 225
4.13.4. Fuel system ... 225
4.13.5. Cooling systems ... 228
4.13.6. Lubrication systems ... 232
4.13.7. Engine starting system ... 234
4.13.8. Governing system ... 235
4.14. Combustion Phenomenon in C.I. Engines ... 235
4.15. Delay Period (or Ignition Lag) in C.I. Engines ... 237
4.16. Diesel Knock ... 237
4.17. Cetane Number ... 237
4.18. Basic Designs of C.I. Engine Combustion Chambers ... 238
4.19. Supercharging ... 239
4.20. Operation of a Diesel Power Plant ... 241
4.21. Types of Diesel Engine used for Diesel Power Plants ... 241
4.22. Layout of a Diesel Engine Power Plant ... 242
4.23. Performance of I.C. Engines ... 242
Highlights ... 260
5. GAS TURBINE POWER PLANTS ... 265–322

5.1. Gas Turbines—General Aspects ... 265
5.2. Applications of Gas Turbine Plants ... 265
5.3. Advantages and Disadvantages of Gas Turbine
Power Plants Over Diesel and Thermal Power Plants ... 266
5.4. Site Selection ... 266
5.5. The Simple Gas Turbine Plant ... 267
5.6. Energy Cycle for a Simple-Cycle Gas Turbine ... 267
5.7. Performance Terms ... 268
5.8. Classification of Gas Turbine Power Plants ... 268
5.9. Classification of Gas Turbines ... 268
5.10. Merits of Gas Turbines ... 268
5.11. Constant Pressure Combustion Gas Turbines ... 269
5.11.1. Open cycle gas turbines ... 269
5.11.2. Methods for improvement of thermal efficiency of open
cycle gas turbine plant ... 270
5.11.3. Closed cycle gas turbine (constant pressure or joule cycle) ... 273
5.11.4. Merits and demerits of closed cycle turbine over open cycle turbine ... 277
5.12. Constant Volume Combustion Turbines ... 277
5.13. Gas Turbine Fuels ... 278
(x)
Chapter Pages
5.14. Effect of Operating Variables on Thermal Efficiency ... 278

5.15 Combination Gas Turbine Cycles ... 280
5.15.1. Combined gas turbine and steam power plants ... 280
5.15.2. Combined gas turbine and diesel power plants ... 281
5.15.3. Advantages of combined cycle ... 282
5.16. Operation of a Gas Turbine ... 282
5.17. Gas Turbine Power Plant Layout ... 283
5.18. Components of a Gas Turbine Power Plant ... 283
5.19. Various Arrangements of Gas Turbine Power Plants ... 285
5.20. Effect of Thermodynamic Variables on Air Rate ... 288
5.21. Free-Piston Engine Plant ... 289
5.22. Relative Thermal Efficiencies of Different Cycles ... 290
Highlights ... 319
6. HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER PLANT ... 323–394

6.2. Application of Hydro-electric Plants ... 324
6.3. Advantages and Disadvantages of Hydro-electric Plants ... 324
6.4. Selection of Site for a Hydro-electric Plant ... 324
6.5. Essential Features/Elements of Hydro-electric Power Plant ... 325
6.5.1. Catchment area ... 325
6.5.2. Reservoir ... 325
6.5.3. Dam ... 325
6.5.4. Spillways ... 328
6.5.5. Conduits ... 330
6.5.6. Surge tanks ... 331
6.5.7. Prime movers ... 333
6.5.8. Draft tubes ... 333
6.5.9. Powerhouse and equipment ... 334
6.6. Classification of Hydro-electric Power Plants ... 334
6.6.1. High head power plants ... 334
6.6.2. Medium head power plants ... 335
6.6.3. Low head power plants ... 335
6.6.4. Base load plants ... 336
6.6.5. Peak load plants ... 336
6.6.6. Run-of-river plants without pondage ... 336
6.6.7. Run-of-river plant with pondage ... 336
6.6.8. Storage type plants ... 336
6.6.9. Pumped storage plants ... 336
6.6.10. Mini and microhydel plants ... 337
6.7. Hydraulic Turbines ... 337
6.7.1. Classification of hydraulic turbines ... 337
6.7.2. Description of various types of turbines ... 338
6.7.3. Specific speed of a turbine ... 348
6.7.4. Efficiencies of a turbine ... 350
6.7.5. Cavitation ... 351
6.7.6. Performance of hydraulic turbines ... 352
( xi )
Chapter Pages
6.7.7. Governing of hydraulic turbines ... 354

6.7.8. Selection of turbines ... 356
6.8. Plant Layout ... 357
6.9. Hydro-plant Auxiliaries ... 357
6.10. Cost of Hydro-plant ... 357
6.11. Average Life of Hydro-plant Components ... 358
6.12. Hydro-plant Controls ... 358
6.13. Electrical and Mechanical Equipment in a Hydro-plant ... 358
6.14. Combined Hydro and Steam Power Plants ... 359
6.15. Comparison of Hydro-power Station with Thermal Power Stations ... 359
6.16. Underground Hydro-plants ... 360
6.17. Automatic and Remote Control of Hydro-station ... 361
6.18. Safety Measures in Hydro-electric Power Plants ... 361
6.19. Preventive Maintenance of Hydro-plant ... 362
6.20. Calculation of Available Hydro-power ... 362
6.21. Cost of Hydro-power ... 362
6.22. Hydrology ... 362
6.22.2. The hydrologic cycle ... 363
6.22.3. Measurement of run-off ... 363
6.22.4. Hydrograph ... 364
6.22.5. Flow duration curve ... 365
6.22.6. Mass curve ... 366
6.23. Hydro-Power Development in India ... 366
Highlights ... 389
7. NUCLEAR POWER PLANT ... 395–431

7.1. General Aspects of Nuclear Engineering ... 395
7.1.1. Atomic structure ... 395
7.1.2. Atomic mass unit ... 396
7.1.3. Isotopes ... 397
7.1.4. Radioactivity ... 397
7.1.5. Nuclear radiation ... 397
7.1.6. Binding energy ... 399
7.1.7. Radioactive decay ... 399
7.1.8. Nuclear reactions ... 400
7.1.9. Nuclear cross-sections ... 401
7.1.10. Fertile materials ... 402
7.1.11. Fission of nuclear fuel ... 402
7.1.12. Nuclear fusion ... 404
7.1.13. Comparison of fission and fusion processes ... 404
7.2. Nuclear Power Systems ... 405
7.3. Nuclear Reactors ... 406
7.3.2. Classification of nuclear reactors ... 406
7.3.3. Essential components of a nuclear reactor ... 407
7.3.4. Power of a nuclear reactor ... 410
7.4. Main Components of a Nuclear Power Plant ... 410
( xii )
Chapter Pages
7.5. Description of Reactors ... 410

7.5.1. Pressurised water reactor (PWR) ... 410
7.5.2. Boiling water reactor (BWR) ... 411
7.5.3. CANDU (Canadian-Deuterium-Uranium) reactor ... 412
7.5.4. Gas-cooled reactor ... 413
7.5.5. Liquid metal cooled reactors ... 414
7.5.6. Breeder reactor ... 415
7.6. Selection of Materials for Reactor Components ... 415
7.7. Metals for Nuclear Energy ... 417
7.8. Advantages of Nuclear Power Plants ... 419
7.9. Nuclear-Plant Site Selection ... 420
7.10. Application of Nuclear Power Plants ... 422
7.11. Economics of Nuclear Power Plants ... 422
7.12. Safety Measures for Nuclear Power Plants ... 424
7.13. Nuclear Power Plants in India ... 424
7.14. Future of Nuclear Power ... 425
7.15. Useful by-products of Nuclear Power Generation and Their Uses ... 425
Highlights ... 429
8. COMBINED OPERATION OF DIFFERENT POWER PLANTS ... 432–441

8.1. General Aspects ... 432
8.2. Advantages of Combined Operation of Plants ... 432
8.3. Load Division Between Power Stations ... 432
8.4. Hydro-electric (storage type) Plant in Combination with Steam Plant ... 434
8.5. Run-of-river Plant in Combination with Steam Plant ... 435
8.6. Pump Storage Plant in Combination with Steam
or Nuclear Power Plant ... 435
8.7. Co-ordination of Hydro-electric and Gas Turbine Stations ... 436
8.8. Co-ordination of Different Types of Power Plants ... 436
9. ECONOMICS OF POWER GENERATION ... 442–493

9.2. Terms and Definitions ... 442
9.3. Principles of Power Plant Design ... 444
9.4. Location of Power Plant ... 444
9.5. Layout of Power Plant Building ... 445
9.6. Cost Analysis ... 445
9.7. Selection of Type of Generation ... 447
9.8. Selection of Power Plant Equipment ... 448
9.8.1. Selection of boilers ... 448
9.8.2. Selection of prime movers ... 448
9.8.3. Selection of size and number of generating units ... 449
9.9. Economics in Plant Selection ... 449
9.10. Factors Affecting Economics of Generation and Distribution of Power ... 451
9.11. How to Reduce Power Generation Cost ? ... 451
( xiii )
Chapter Pages
9.12. Power Plant—Useful Life ... 451
9.13. Economics of Hydro-electric Power Plants ... 452
9.14. Economics of Combined Hydro and Steam Power Plants ... 452
9.15. Performance and Operating Characteristics of Power Plants ... 453
9.16. Economic Load Sharing ... 454
9.17. Tariff for Electrical Energy ... 455
9.17.2. Objectives and requirements of tariff ... 455
9.17.3. General tariff form ... 456
Highlights ... 484
10. NON-CONVENTIONAL POWER GENERATION AND DIRECT ENERGY

CONVERSION ... 494–535
10.1. Introduction to Energy and Energy Sources ... 494
10.1.1. Energy ... 494
10.1.2. Non-conventional energy sources ... 497
10.2. Wind Power Plants ... 497
10.2.2. Characteristics of wind ... 497
10.2.3. Advantages and disadvantages of wind energy ... 497
10.2.4. Sources/Origins of wind ... 498
10.2.5. Wind availability and measurement ... 498
10.2.6. Wind power ... 499
10.2.7. Terms and definitions ... 500
10.2.8. Types of wind mills ... 501
10.2.9. Wind-electric generating power plant ... 502
10.2.10. Types of wind machines ... 503
10.2.11. Utilisation aspects of wind energy ... 503
10.2.12. Generating systems ... 504
10.2.13. Wind-powered battery chargers ... 505
10.2.14. Wind electricity in small independent grids ... 505
10.2.15. Wind electricity economics ... 505
10.2.16. Problems in operating large wind power generators ... 506
10.2.17. Considerations for selection of site for wind energy conversion systems ... 506
10.3. Tidal Power Plants—Ocean Energy Conversion ... 506
10.3.1. Ocean energy sources—General aspects ... 506
10.3.2. Tidal power plants ... 506
10.3.3. Wave energy ... 508
10.3.4. Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) plant ... 509
10.4. Solar Power Plants ... 510
10.4.1. Solar energy—General terms and introduction ... 510
10.4.2. Collectors in various ranges and applications ... 511
10.4.3. Flat plate collectors ... 512
10.4.4. Focusing (or concentrating) collectors ... 513
10.4.5. Solar pond technology ... 513
10.4.6. Low temperature thermal power generation ... 514
10.4.7. Medium temperature systems using focusing collectors ... 516
10.4.8. High temperature systems—solar farm and solar power plant ... 516
( xiv )
Chapter Pages
10.5. Geothermal Power Plants ... 516

10.5.1. Geothermal energy ... 516
10.5.2. Geothermal sources ... 517
10.5.3. Geothermal power estimates ... 518
10.5.4. Environmental problems ... 518
10.5.5. Applications of geothermal energy ... 518
10.5.6. Advantages and disadvantages of geothermal energy over
other energy forms ... 518
10.5.7. Geothermal energy in India and abroad ... 518
10.6. Biogas Plants-Biomass ... 519
10.6.1. Introduction to biomass ... 519
10.6.2 Biomass conversion processes ... 519
10.6.3. Biogas plants ... 520
10.7. Direct Energy Conversion Systems ... 525
10.7.1. Thermoelectric conversion system ... 525
10.7.2. Thermionic conversion system ... 526
10.7.3. Photovoltaic power system ... 527
10.7.4. Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) system ... 529
10.7.5. Electrostatic mechanical generators ... 531
10.7.6. Electro gas-dynamic generators (EGD) ... 531
10.7.7. Fuel cells ... 532
10.7.8. Nuclear batteries ... 533
Highlights ... 534
11. PLANT INSTRUMENTATION ... 536–557

11.1. General Aspects ... 536
11.2. Classification of Instruments ... 536
11.3. Pressure Gauges ... 537
11.3.1. Pressure ... 537
11.3.2. Types of pressure measurement devices ... 537
11.3.3. Mechanical type instruments ... 537
11.3.4. Electrical transducers ... 540
11.4. Thermometers ... 541
11.4.1. Temperature ... 541
11.4.2. Temperature measuring instruments ... 541
11.5. Liquid Level Gauges ... 545
11.5.1. Gauge glass ... 545
11.5.2. Electrical level gauges ... 546
11.6. Flow Meters ... 547
11.7. pH Measuring Instruments ... 547
11.8. Gas Analysers ... 547
11.9. Humidity Measuring Instruments ... 550
11.10. Impurity Measuring Instruments ... 552
11.11. Speed Measuring Instruments ... 553
11.12. Steam Calorimeters and Fuel Calorimeters ... 553
11.12.1. Steam calorimeters ... 553
11.12.2. Fuel calorimeters ... 555
Highlights ... 557
( xv )
Chapter Pages
12. MAJOR ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT IN POWER PLANTS ... 558–629

12.2. Generating Equipment ... 558
12.2.1. Classification ... 558
12.2.2. Two-wire direct current generators ... 558
12.2.3. Alternator current generators ... 577
12.3. Transformers ... 590
12.3.2. Basic definitions ... 591
12.3.3. Working principle of a transformer ... 591
12.3.4. Transformer ratings ... 591
12.3.5. Kinds of transformers ... 592
12.3.6. Transformer construction ... 592
12.3.7. Transformer windings, terminals, tappings and bushings ... 594
12.3.8. Transformer cooling ... 596
12.3.9. Three phase transformer ... 597
12.3.10. Instrument transformers ... 603
12.3.11. Constant current transformers ... 605
12.4. Switchgear ... 605
12.4.1. Functions of a switchgear ... 605
12.4.2. Switches ... 605
12.4.3. Fuses ... 606
12.4.4. Circuit breakers ... 607
12.4.5. Types of switchgear ... 609
12.5. Protection of Electrical Systems ... 609
12.5.2. Different types of relays ... 610
12.5.3. Alternator protection ... 612
12.5.4. Transformer protection ... 613
12.5.5. Bus protection ... 613
12.5.6. Protection of transmission lines ... 614
12.6. Short-circuits in Electrical Installations and Limiting Methods ... 615
12.7. Control Room ... 616
12.8. Earthing of a Power System ... 617
12.9. Electrical Equipment-Layout ... 619
12.10. Voltage Regulation ... 620
12.11. Transmission of Electric Power ... 620
12.11.1. System of transmission ... 620
12.11.2. Line supports ... 621
12.11.3. Conductor material ... 622
12.11.4. Line insulators ... 622
12.11.5. Distribution systems ... 622
12.11.6. Underground cables ... 623
12.12. Substations ... 624
12.12.1. Classification of substations ... 624
12.13. Indian Electricity Act ... 625
Highlights ... 627
( xvi )
Chapter Pages
13. POLLUTION AND ITS CONTROL ... 630–636

13.2. Pollution from Thermal Power Plants ... 630
13.2.1. Gaseous emission and its control ... 630
13.2.2. Particulate emission and its control ... 632
13.2.3. Solid waste disposal ... 634
13.2.4. Thermal pollution ... 634
13.3. Pollution from Nuclear Power Plants ... 635
13.4. Pollution from Hydro-electric Power Plants and Solar Power
Generating Stations ... 635
Highlights ... 636
14. ‘GATE’ AND ‘UPSC’ EXAMINATIONS’ QUESTIONS (Latest-selected) WITH

ANSWERS/SOLUTIONS ... 637–661
A. Conventional Questions with Answers/Solutions ... 637
B. Multiple-Choice Questions with Answers and “Explanations” ... 652
OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS BANK ... 663–688
INDEX ... 689–691
STEAM TABLES AND MOLLIER DIAGRAM (SI UNITS) ... 1–20

Preface to The Fifth Edition
I am pleased to present the Fifth Edition of this book. The warm reception which the previous editions
and reprints have enjoyed all over India and abroad has been a matter of great satisfaction to me.
Beside revising the whole book a new chapter ‘‘14’’ has been added which assimilates the following
contents:
Chapter 14: ‘GATE’ and ‘UPSC’ Examinations’ Questions (Latest-selected) with Answers/
Solutions.
A. Conventional Questions with Answers/Solutions.
B. Multiple-choice Questions with Answers and “Explanations”.
Any constructive suggestions for further improvement of the book will be thankfully acknowledged and
incorporated in the next edition.
Er. R.K. Rajput

(Author)
Preface to The First Edition

On the subject of “Power Plant Engineering” several books are available in the market but they either
lack in proper subject treatment or the solved examples are inadequate in number. The purpose of writing this
book is to bridge these gaps and to present such a book to the students which should be easy to understand
and should assimilate comprehensive treatment of the subject matter in simple, lucid and direct language.
The book comprises of 13 Chapters and an Objective Type Questions Bank. Each chapter contains
adequate text supported by simple and self explanatory figures, large number of worked examples both in SI
and MKS units, highlights, theoretical questions and several unsolved examples.
Chapters—Brief Contents
1. Introductory. This chapter gives the introduction of the various sources of the energy, Principal types
of the Power Plants and Combustion of Fuels.
2. Power Plants Cycles. This chapter deals with the various cycles used in Power Plants, viz., Rankine
Cycle, Regenerative Cycle, Binary Vapour Cycle, Otto Cycle, Diesel Cycle, Duel Combustion Cycle, Gas
Turbine Cycles.
3. Steam Power Plant. Under this chapter, following aspects of Steam Power Plant have been discussed:
Layout of a Modern Steam Power Plant, Fuel Handling, Combustion Equipment for Steam Boilers, Ash
Handling, Dust Collection, Chimney Draught, Boiler Accessories, Steam Nozzles, Steam Turbines, Cool-
ing Towers, Cooling Ponds etc.
4. Diesel Engine Power Plant. This chapter deals with I.C. Engines used in such a Plant and essential
components of Diesel Power Plants. It also deals with Combustion Phenomenon in I.C. Engines along
with its related topics and layout of a Diesel Engine Power Plant etc.
5. Gas Turbine Power Plant. This chapter deals with general aspects of Gas Turbine used in such a Plant
along with the description of Gas Power Cycle used in such turbines. It also deals with topics such as
Operation of Gas Turbines, Gas Turbines Power Plant Layout etc.
6. Hydro-Electric Power Plant. Under this chapter the following topics are dealth with : Elements of
Hydro-Electric Power Plant, Hydro-Electric Turbines, Plant Layout, Hydro-Electric Plant Controls, Hy-
drology etc.
( xvii )
( xviii )
7. Nuclear Power Plant. This chapter deals with the General Aspects of Nuclear Engineering, Nuclear
Power Systems, Nuclear Reactors and their Description, Nuclear Energy etc.
8. Combined Operation of Different Power Plants. This chapter deals with : Advantages of Combined
Operation of Plants, Load Division between Power Stations, Hydro-Electric Plant in Combination with
Steam Plant, Pump Storage Plant in Combination with Steam or Nuclear Power Plants, Co-ordination
of Hydro-Electric and Gas Turbine Stations, Co-ordination of different types of Power Plants.
9. Economics of Power Generation. This chapter deals with topics such as Principle of Power Plant
Design, Location of Power Plant, Layout of Power Plant Building, Cost Analysis, Selection of Type of
Generation, Selection of Power Plant Equipment, Economics in Plant Selection, Economic Load Sharing
etc.
10. Non-Conventional Power Generation. This chapter deals with the Wind Power Plant, Tidal Power
Plant, Solar Power Plant, Geothermal Power Plant, Direct Energy Conversion Systems.
11. Plant Instrumentation. This chapter deals with the various instruments used in a Power Plant such as
Pressure Gauges, Thermometers, Liquid Gauges, Flow Meters, p-H Measuring Instruments, Speed Measuring
Instruments etc.
12. Major Electrical Equipment used in Power Plant. In this chapter following electrical equipment
have been discussed : Generating Equipment, Transformers, Switch Gear, Protection of Electrical Systems.
13. Pollution and its Control. It deals with : Pollution from Thermal Plants, pollution from Nuclear Power
Plants, and pollution from Hydro-electric Power Plants.
Objective Type Questions Bank
The bank assimilates 600 Objective Type Questions.
The book will prove to be of great help to the students preparing for engineering degree, A.M.I.E. (India),
diploma and other competitive examinations.
The author’s grateful thanks are due to Smt. Ramesh Rajput (wife) for extending full co-operation during
the preparation of the manuscript.
The author’s thanks are also due to Mr. Rakesh Syal for drawing neat diagrams for this book.
In the end the author wishes to express his gratitudes to M/s Laxmi Publications for taking extra pains
in printing the book at a rapid pace and very systematically.
Although every care has been taken to make the book free of error both in text as well as in solved
examples, yet the author shall feel obliged if any error present is brought to his notice. Constructive criticism
of the book will be warmly received.
Er. R.K. Rajput

(Author)
Introduction to SI Units and
Conversion Factors
A. INTRODUCTION TO SI UNITS
SI, the international system of units are divided into three classes:
1. Base units 2. Derived units 3. Supplementary units.
From the scientific point of view division of SI units into these classes is to a certain extent arbitrary, because it is
not essential to the physics of the subject. Nevertheless the General Conference, considering the advantages of a single,
practical, world-wide system for international relations, for teaching and for scientific work, decided to base the
international system on a choice of six well-defined units given in Table 1 below:
Table 1. SI Base Units
Quantity Name Symbol

length metre m
mass kilogram kg
time second s
electric current ampere A
thermodynamic temperature kelvin K
luminous intensity candela cd
amount of substance mole mol
The second class of SI units contains derived units, i.e., units which can be formed by combining base units
according to the algebraic relations linking the corresponding quantities. Several of these algebraic expressions in terms
of base units can be replaced by special names and symbols can themselves be used to form other derived units.
Derived units may, therefore, be classified under three headings. Some of them are given in Tables 2, 3 and 4.
Table 2. Examples of SI Derived Units Expressed in Terms of Base Units
Quantity SI Units
Name Symbol
area square metre m2
volume cubic metre m3
speed, velocity metre per second m/s
acceleration metre per second squared m/s2
wave number 1 per metre m–1
density, mass density kilogram per cubic metre kg/m3
concentration (of amount of substance) mole per cubic metre mol/m3
activity (radioactive) 1 per second s–1
specific volume cubic metre per kilogram m3/kg
luminance candela per square metre cd/m2
xix
xx POWER PLANT ENGINEERING
Table 3. SI Derived Units with Special Names
Quantity SI Units
Name Symbol Expression in terms Expression in terms
of other units of SI base units
frequency hertz Hz – s–1
force newton N – m.kg.s–2
pressure pascal Pa N/m2 m–1.kg.s–2
energy, work, quantity of heat power joule J N.m m2.kg.s–2
radiant flux quantity of electricity watt W J/s m2.kg.s–3
electric charge coulomb C A.s s.A
electric tension, electric potential volt V W/A m2.kg.s–3.A–1
capacitance farad F C/V m–2.kg–1.s4
electric resistance ohm  V/A m2.kg.s–3.A–2
conductance siemens S A/V m–2.kg–1.s3.A2
magnetic flux weber Wb V.S. m2.kg.s–2.A–1
magnetic flux density tesla T Wb/m2 kg.s–2.A–1
inductance henry H Wb/A m2.kg.s–2.A–2
luminous flux lumen lm – cd.sr
illuminance lux lx – m–2.cd.sr
Table 4. Examples of SI Derived Units Expressed by Means of Special Names
Quantity SI Units
Name Symbol Expression in terms
of SI base units
dynamic viscosity pascal second Pa-s m–1.kg.s–1

moment of force metre newton N.m m2.kg.s–2
surface tension newton per metre N/m kg.s–2
heat flux density, irradiance watt per square metre W/m2 kg.s–2
heat capacity, entropy joule per kelvin J/K m2.kg.s–2.K–1
specific heat capacity, specific joule per kilogram kelvin J/(kg.K) m2.s–2.K–1
entropy
specific energy joule per kilogram J/kg m2.s–2
thermal conductivity watt per metre kelvin W/(m.K) m.kg.s–3.K–1
energy density joule per cubic metre J/m3 m–1.kg.s–2
electric field strength volt per metre V/m m.kg.s–3.A–1
electric charge density coulomb per cubic metre C/m3 m–3.s.A
electric flux density coulomb per square metre C/m2 m–2.s.A
permittivity farad per metre F/m m–3.kg–1.s4.A4
current density ampere per square metre A/m2 –
magnetic field strength ampere per metre A/m –
permeability henry per metre H/m m.kg.s–2.A–2
molar energy joule per mole J/mol m2.kg.s–2mol–1
molar heat capacity joule per mole kelvin J/(mol.K) m2.kg.s–2.K–1.mol–1
The SI units assigned to third class called “Supplementary units” may be regarded either as base units or as
derived units. Refer to Table 5 and Table 6.
VED
p-plant (color)\plan14-1 IInd 19-12-14 3nd 12-1-15 4rd 28-2-15 5th 21-4-15 6th 16-05-15 7th 30-06-15
INTRODUCTION TO SI UNITS AND CONVERSION FACTORS xxi
Table 5. SI Supplementary Units
Quantity SI Units
Name Symbol
plane angle radian rad
solid angle steradian sr
Table 6. Examples of SI Derived Units Formed by Using Supplementary Units
Quantity SI Units
Name Symbol
angular velocity radian per second rad/s
angular acceleration radian per second squared rad/s2
radiant intensity watt per steradian W/sr
radiance watt per square metre steradian W-m–2.sr–1
Table 7. SI Prefixes
Factor Prefix Symbol Factor Prefix Symbol

1012 tera T 10–1 deci d
109 giga G 10–2 centi c
106 mega M 10–3 milli m
103 kilo k 10–6 micro 
102 hecto h 10–9 nano n
101 deca da 10–12 pico p
10–15 fasnto f
10–18 atto a
B. CONVERSION FACTORS
1. Force:
1 newton = kg-m/sec2 = 0.012 kgf
1 kgf = 9.81 N
2. Pressure:
1 bar = 750.06 mm Hg = 0.9869 atm = 105 N/m2 = 103 kg/m-sec2
1 N/m2 = 1 pascal = 10–5 bar = 10–2 kg/m-sec2
1 atm = 760 mm Hg = 1.03 kgf/cm2 = 1.01325 bar
= 1.01325 × 105 N/m2
3. Work, Energy or Heat:
1 joule = 1 newton metre = 1 watt-sec
= 2.7778 × 10–7 kWh = 0.239 cal
= 0.239 × 10–3 kcal
1 cal = 4.184 joule = 1.1622 × 10–6 kWh
1 kcal = 4.184 × 103 joule = 427 kgf-m
= 1.1622 × 10–3 kWh
1 kWh = 8.6042 × 105 cal = 860.42 kcal = 3.6 × 106 joule
FG 1 IJ kcal = 9.81 joules
1 kgf-m =
H 427 K
VED
xxii POWER PLANT ENGINEERING
4. Power:
1 watt = 1 joule/sec = 0.860 kcal/h
1 h.p. = 75 m kgf/sec = 0.1757 kcal/sec = 735.3 watt
1 kW = 1000 watts = 860 kcal/h
5. Specific heat:
1 kcal/kg-K = 4.184 kJ/kg-K
6. Thermal conductivity:
1 watt/m-K = 0.8598 kcal/h-m-°C
1 kcal/h-m-°C = 1.16123 watt/m-K = 1.16123 joules/s-m-K.
7. Heat transfer co-efficient:
1 watt/m2-K = 0.86 kcal/m2-h-°C
1 kcal/m2-h-°C = 1.163 watt/m2-K.
C. IMPORTANT ENGINEERING CONSTANTS AND EXPRESSIONS
Engineering constants and expressions M.K.S. system SI Units
1. Value of g0 9.81 kg-m/kgf-sec2 1 kg-m/N-sec2

2. Universal gas constant 848 kgf-m/kg mole-K 848 × 9.81 = 8314 J/kg-mole-K
(∵ 1 kgf-m = 9.81 joules)
8314
3. Gas constant (R) 29.27 kgf-m/kg-K for air = 287 joules/kg-K for air
29
4. Specific heats (for air) cv = 0.17 kcal/kg-K cv = 0.17 × 4.184 = 0.71128 kJ/kg-K
cp = 0.24 kcal/kg-K cp = 0.24 × 4.184 = 1 kJ/kg-K
5. Flow through nozzle-exit velocity (C2) 91.5 U , where U is in kcal 44.7 U , where U is in kJ
6. Refrigeration 1 ton = 50 kcal/min = 210 kJ/min
7. Heat transfer
The Stefan Boltzmann Q = T4 kcal/m2-h Q = T4 watts/m2-h
Law is given by: when  = 4.9 × 10–8 kcal/h-m2-K4 when  = 5.67 × 10–8 W/m2-K4
VED
Compiled by
Smt. RAMESH RAJPUT
Introduction 1
1.1. Energy and power. 1.2. Sources of energy—Fuels—Energy stored in water—Nuclear energy—Wind power—Solar energy—
Tidal power—Geothermal energy—Thermoelectric power. 1.3. Principal types of power plants. 1.4. Combustion of fuels—
Combustion chemistry—How to convert volumetric analysis to weight analysis ?—How to convert weight analysis to volumetric
analysis ?—Weight of air required for complete combustion of fuel—Excess air—Weight of carbon in flue gases—Weight of flue gas
per kg of fuel burnt.—Worked Examples—Highlights—Theoretical Questions—Unsolved Examples.
1.1. ENERGY AND POWER and, to a certain extent, of radiation energy is not ordinarily
thought of as power. Power is primarily associated with
Energy. The historical as well as present-day civilization mechanical work and electrical energy. Therefore, power
of mankind are closely interwoven with energy, and there can be defined as the rate of flow of energy and can state
is little reason to doubt but that in the future our existence that a power plant is a unit built for production and delivery
will be ever more dependent upon this thing called energy. of a flow of mechanical and electrical energy. In common
Energy probably was the original stuff or creation. Energy usage, a machine or assemblage of equipment that produces
appears in many forms, but has one thing in common— and delivers a flow of mechanical or electrical energy is a
energy is possessed of the ability to produce a dynamic, vital power plant. Hence, an internal combustion engine is a
effect. Energy is associated with physical substance, but is power plant, a water wheel is a power plant, etc. However,
not a substance itself. It shows itself by excited, animated what we generally mean by the term is that assemblage of
state assumed by material which receives energy. The equipment, permanently located on some chosen site which
examples which can be quoted in respect of energy are receives raw energy in the form of a substance capable of
almost endless in number. In this era energy is being being operated on in such a way as to produce electrical
produced in enormous quantities. As more and more of it energy for delivery from the power plant.
is produced per person, the comforts, conveniences, and With the advancement in technology the power
pleasures of life are even enhanced. consumption is rising steadily. This necessitates that in
Energy exists in various forms e.g., mechanical, addition to the existing sources of power such as coal, water,
thermal, electrical etc. One form of energy can be converted petroleum etc. other sources of energy should be searched
into other by the use of suitable arrangements. Out of all out and new and more efficient ways of producing energy
these forms of energy, electrical energy is preferred due to should be devised. Nuclear energy has enlarged the world’s
the following advantages : 1. Can be easily transported from power resources. The energy released by 1 kg of uranium
one place to another. 2. Losses in transport are minimum. is equivalent to energy obtained by 4500 tonnes of high grade
3. Can be easily subdivided. 4. Economical in use. 5. Easily coal.
converted into other forms of energy. 6. Easily controlled
and regulated to suit requirements. 1.2. SOURCES OF ENERGY
Power. Any physical unit of energy when divided
The various sources of energy are :
by a unit of time automatically becomes a unit of power.
However, it is in connection with the mechanical and R|Solids  Coal, coke anthracite etc.
electrical forms of energy that the term “power” is generally
1. Fuels S
|Liquids  Petroleum and its derivates
used. The rate of production or consumption of heat energy ||Gases  Natural gas, blast furnace
T gas etc.
1
2 POWER PLANT ENGINEERING
2. Energy stored in water Peat. It is the first stage in the formation of coal
3. Nuclear energy from wood. It contains huge amount of moisture and
therefore it is dried for about 1 to 2 months before it is put
4. Wind power
to use. It is used as a domestic fuel in Europe and for power
5. Solar energy generation in Russia. In India it does not come in the
6. Tidal power categories of good fuels.
7. Geothermal energy Lignites and brown coals. These are intermediate
8. Thermoelectric power. stages between peat and coal. They have a woody or often
a clay like appearance associated with high moisture, high
1.2.1. Fuels ash and low heat contents. Lignites are usually amorphous
Fuels may be chemical or nuclear. Here we shall consider in character and impose transport difficulties as they break
chemical fuels only. easily. They burn with a smoky flame. Some of this type
A chemical fuel is a substance which releases heat are suitable for local use only.
energy on combustion. The principal combustible elements Bituminous coal. It burns with long yellow and
of each fuel are carbon and hydrogen. Though sulphur is a smoky flames and has high percentages of volatile matter.
combustible element too but its presence in the fuel is The average calorific value of bituminous coal is about
considered to be undesirable. 31350 kJ/kg. It may be of two types, namely caking or non-
caking.
Classification of fuels : Semi-bituminous coal. It is softer than the
Fuels can be classified according to whether anthracite. It burns with a very small amount of smoke. It
1. They occur in nature called primary fuels or are contains 15 to 20 per cent volatile matter and has a
prepared called secondary fuels. tendency to break into small sizes during storage or
2. They are in solid, liquid or gaseous state. The transportation.
detailed classification of fuels can be given in a summary Semi-anthracite. It has less fixed carbon and less
form as below : lustre as compared to true anthracite and gives out longer
and more luminous flames when burnt.
Type of fuel Natural Prepared Anthracite. It is very hard coal and has a shining
(Primary) (Secondary) black lustre. It ignites slowly unless the furnace tempera-
ture is high. It is non-caking and has high percentage of
Solid Wood Coke fixed carbon. It burns either with very short blue flames or
Peat Charcoal without flames. The calorific value of this fuel is high to
Lignite coal Briquettes the tune of 35500 kJ/kg and as such is very suitable for
Liquid Petroleum Gasoline steam generation.
Kerosene Wood charcoal. It is obtained by destructive
Fuel oil distillation of wood. During the process the volatile matter
Alcohol and water are expelled. The physical properties of the
Benzol residue (charcoal) however depends upon the rate of heating
Shale oil and temperature.
Coke. It consists of carbon, mineral matter with
Gaseous Natural gas Petroleum gas
about 2% sulphur and small quantities of hydrogen,
Producer gas
nitrogen and phosphorus. It is solid residue left after the
Coal gas
destructive distillation of certain kinds of coals. It is
Coke-oven gas
Blast furnace gas
smokeless and clear fuel and can be produced by several
Carburetted gas processes. It is mainly used in blast furnace to produce
heat and at the same time to reduce the iron ore.
Sewer gas
Briquettes. These are prepared from fine coal or
coke by compressing the material under high pressure.
1.2.1.1. Solid fuels
Analysis of coal. The following two types of
Coal. Its main constituents are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, analysis is done on the coal :
nitrogen, sulphur, moisture and ash. Coal passes through 1. Proximate analysis
different stages during its formation from vegetation. These
2. Ultimate analysis.
stages are enumerated and discussed below :
1. Proximate analysis. In this analysis, individual
Plant debris-Peat-Lignite-Brown coal-Sub-bitumi-
elements are not determined ; only the percentage of
nous coal-Bituminous coal-Semi-bituminous coal-Semi-
moisture, volatile matters, fixed carbon and ash are
anthracite coal-Anthracite coal-graphite.
determined.
INTRODUCTION 3
Example. Moisture = 4.5%, volatile matter = 5.5%, —ash softening temperature of 2400–2590°F, and
fixed carbon = 20.5%. —a sulphur content of 1.4 to 1.6%.
This type of analysis is easily done and is for com- A rank and grade of a coal gives a complete report
mercial purposes only. of the material. Thus the following rank and grade of the
2. Ultimate analysis. In the ultimate analysis, the coal described above :
percentage of various elements are determined. (62–500), 5–10 cm, 500-A8-F24-S1.6.
Example. Carbon = 90%, hydrogen = 2%, oxygen =
4%, nitrogen = 1%, sulphur = 15% and ash = 1.5%. 1.2.1.2. Liquid fuels
This type of analysis is useful for combustion The chief source of liquid fuels is petroleum which is
calculations. obtained from wells under the earth’s crust. These fuels
have proved more advantageous in comparison to solid fuels
Properties of Coal. Important properties of coal in the following respects.
are given below :
Advantages :
1. Energy content or heating value
1. Require less space for storage.
2. Sulphur content
3. Burning characteristics 2. Higher calorific value.
4. Grindability 3. Easy control of consumption.
5. Weatherability 4. Staff economy.
6. Ash softening temperature. 5. Absence of danger from spontaneous combustion.
A good coal should have : 6. Easy handling and transportation.
(i) low ash content and high calorific value 7. Cleanliness.
(ii) small percentage of sulphur (less than 1%) 8. No ash problem.
(iii) good burning characteristics (i.e., should burn 9. Non-deterioration of the oil in storage.
freely without agitation) so that combustion will be com- Petroleum. There are different opinions regarding
plete the origin of petroleum. However, now it is accepted that
(iv) high grindability index (in case of ball mill grind- petroleum has originated probably from organic matter like
ing) fish and plant life etc., by bacterial action or by their
(v) high weatherability. distillation under pressure and heat. It consists of a mixture
of gases, liquids and solid hydrocarbons with small amounts
Ranking of Coal. ASME and ASTM have accepted
of nitrogen and sulphur compounds. In India the main
a specification based on the fixed carbon and heating value
sources of petroleum are Assam and Gujarat.
of the mineral matter free analysis.
Heavy fuel oil or crude oil is imported and then
—Higher ranking is done on the basis of fixed refined at different refineries. The refining of crude oil
carbon percentage (dry basis). supplies the most important product called petrol. Petrol
—Lower ranking is done on the heating value on can also be made by polymerization of refinery gases.
the moist basis. Other liquid fuels are kerosene, fuels oils, colloidal
Example. 62% C and a calorific value of 5000 kcal/kg fuels and alcohol.
is ranked as (62–500) rank. The following table gives composition of some com-
Rank is an inherent property of the fuel depending mon liquid fuels used in terms of the elements in weight
upon its relative progression in the classification process. percentage.
Grading of Coal. Grading is done on the following Fuel Carbon Hydrogen Sulphur Ash
basis :
Petrol 85.5 14.4 0.1 –
(i) Size (ii) Heating value
Benzene 91.7 8.0 0.3 –
(iii) Ash content Kerosene 86.3 13.6 0.1 –
(iv) Ash softening temperature Diesel oil 86.3 12.8 0.9 –
(v) Sulphur content. Light fuel oil 86.2 12.4 1.4 –
Example. A grade written as 5–10 cm, 500-A8-F24- Heavy fuel oil 88.3 9.5 1.2 1.0
S1.6 indicate the coal as having :
Important Properties of Liquid Fuels
—a size of 5–10 cm,
(1) Specific gravity (2) Flash point
—heating value of 5000 kcal/kg,
(3) Fire point (4) Volatility
—8 to 10% ash,
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The other version current in Usagara, in the north of the Colony,
says nothing of the serpent or the hot water, but states that the
sorcerers began by ordering large beer-drinkings in every village.
When the pombe had produced its effect, the villagers were initiated
into the conspiracy, and received their dawa, of whose composition
no details are given, but which, in this case also, was supposed to
possess the power of making them invulnerable, so that the bullets of
the Germans would simply be changed into water as soon as they left
the rifle-barrel. The Majimaji soon discovered, in the course of
numerous battles that this was not the case, but nevertheless, the
fanaticism of these natives, who, under a murderous fire, charged up
to within a spear’s length of the machine-guns—the bumbum, as they
call them—is truly astonishing.
From the coast to a little beyond Nyangao the character of the
vegetation is essentially different from that which we find farther
west. The greater part of the road (the barabara, in the carriers’
jargon, that is to say, the path cut to the regulation width on which
all the long-distance traffic takes place) runs as far as Nyangao
through thick scrub from 10 to 15 feet high, from which rise here and
there single trees of twice or three times that height. Several times in
the course of the day’s march the traveller comes across large open
spaces in the bush on either side of the path. It is clear from the
absence of underwood and the presence of charred stumps that this
is old cultivated ground—no doubt the sites of former villages. But
where are the huts and where the people who once hoed their
gardens here? Here we find a typical touch of African history, more
especially in recent times, when its primitive conditions have been
modified by the modern plantation system with its demand for
labour and the necessity for a native military force. Originally and in
himself the African is by no means shy, on the contrary, he is
inquisitive and fully alive to the attractions of town life and social
intercourse. But he cannot stand having his private affairs interfered
with. Every caravan of inland natives on their way to the coast,
whether to sell their supplies of wax, tobacco or what not, or to
engage themselves as labourers to some European, considered that
they had a natural right to expect food and drink from the villagers
along their route. Even the caravan of a white man is apt to make the
same sort of demands on the villagers. How often have I seen my
men scatter at every halt, to ask for some service or other—perhaps
merely the loan of a gourd dipper—at one or other of the straggling
huts, which may be half-a-mile apart. However good-natured and
obliging the native may be, he cannot put up with an indefinite
continuance of such disturbances to the quiet of his home life, and
therefore prefers to pull down his huts and build new ones in the
bush at a distance from the main road, where they can only be
reached by narrow side paths.
Anthropologically speaking, one might take the Wamwera for
Indians, such is the lustrous copper tone of their skins. At first I
thought that this marked redness of tint was a peculiarity of the
tribe, but have since met with many individuals of exactly the same
shade among the Makua of Hatia’s, Nangoo and Chikugwe, and a few
among the Yaos at this place and those at Mtua, and Mtama. In fact,
it seems to me very difficult to do any really satisfactory
anthropological work here—the types are too much mixed, and it is
impossible to tell from any man’s features the tribe to which he
belongs. Probably, indeed, there is no distinction of race at all, for
Wamwera, Wangindo, Wayao, Makonde, Matambwe and Makua
alike belong to the great sub-group of the East African Bantu. This is
one additional reason, when time is so precious, for giving to
anthropology even less attention than I had originally planned. Let
the gentlemen come out here themselves with their measuring
instruments, compasses and poles—we ethnographers have more
urgent work to attend to.
The Wamwera are just now in a deplorable condition. The whole of
this tribe was concerned in the rising, and though refusing to
acknowledge defeat in battle after battle, were ultimately forced to
take refuge in the bush. The mere fact of living for months without
shelter in the rainy season would of itself cause suffering enough;
and when we add that they have had no harvest, being unable to sow
their crops at the beginning of the rains, it can readily be understood
that numbers must have perished. Now that most of the ringleaders
have been secured and sent down to the coast, the survivors are
gradually coming forth from their hiding-places. But what a spectacle
do the poor creatures present! encrusted more thickly than usual
with dirt, emaciated to skeletons, suffering from skin-diseases of
various kinds, with inflamed eyes—and exhaling a nauseous
effluvium. But at least they are willing to face the white man—a sign
of newly-established confidence in our rule which must not be
undervalued.
Several hours’ hard marching from Nyangao bring us to the
residence of “Sultan” Hatia. He is the fourth of his name on this tiny
throne of the Makua. The grave of his predecessor, Hatia III, lies in a
deep cave on the Unguruwe mountain. This mountain is really a
promontory of the Makonde plateau projecting far into the Lukuledi
plain. It is visible from the road for several days before we reach it,
with its gleaming red cliff-face, which might fitly be described as the
emblem of the whole Central Lukuledi region. It also plays a great
part in the myths and legends of the local tribes. The traditions of the
past had already gathered round it before the burial of Hatia III; but
now that the dead chief rests in a dark ravine forbidden to every
profane footstep, from the toil and turmoil of his life, the Unguruwe
has become in popular belief a sanctuary where, on moonlight
nights, Hatia rises from his grave, and assembles the ghosts of his
subjects round him for the dance.
Hatia IV had returned to his capital just before our arrival, having
had some months’ leisure on the coast, in which to think over the
consequences of the rising. He impressed me as a broken man,
physically in no better case than his subjects; moreover he was no
better lodged, and certainly no better provided with food than they.
On the day of our halt at his village, he was more than ordinarily
depressed. A few hours previously a lion, whose impudence has
made him famous throughout the country, had in broad daylight
dragged a woman out of a hut, not far from the chief’s dwelling. The
prints of the enormous paws were still quite clear in the sand, so that
we could track the robber right round the hut in which a man with
his wife and child had been sitting at their ease. The great brute had
suddenly sprung on the woman who was sitting next the door. Her
husband tried to hold her, but was weak from illness, and could offer
no effectual resistance. Though for some time the poor creature’s
shrieks, “Nna kufa! Nna kufa!”—“I die! I die!”—could be heard in the
bush, growing fainter and fainter, no one could come to her help, for
the people have been deprived of their guns since the rising, and
even if they had had them, there was no ammunition, the
importation of this having been stopped some time ago.
The nephew and heir of Hatia IV is to take the part of avenger. He
is a handsome, jet-black youth with a small frizzled moustache on his
upper lip, and an enviably thick growth of woolly hair on his scalp.
Armed with a rifle, of which he is unconscionably proud, he has come
with us from Lindi in order to deliver his people from the plague of
lions. Such an expression is, in truth, no exaggeration as far as this
place is concerned. It is said that the whole length of the road from
Nyangao to Masasi has been divided between four pairs of lions, each
of which patrols its own section, on the look-out for human victims.
Even the three missionaries at Nyangao are not safe; Father Clement,
when out for a walk, not long ago, suddenly found himself face to
face with a huge lion, who, however, seemed quite as much startled
by the incident as the good Father himself.
After examining the architecture of the present Wamwera huts, I
can easily understand how the lion at Hatia’s could drag the woman
out from the interior. Anyone desirous of studying the evolution of
the human dwelling-house could very well see its beginnings here.
Most of these dwellings are nothing more or less than two walls,
consisting of bundles of grass roughly tied together, and leaning
against each other in a slanting position. The addition of gable-ends
marks quite a superior class of house. Besides this, the Wamwera
have been compelled to build their huts, such as they are, in the
untouched jungle, since they have lost all they had, even the
necessary implements for tillage and for clearing the bush. Their
villages, containing their only possessions of any value, were of
course levelled with the ground by our troops. The lion is shy of open
spaces, but feels at home in the pori, which he looks upon as his
natural hunting-ground, and where he can creep unseen close up to a
hut before making his deadly spring.
One point I must not forget. Even before leaving Lindi, my mouth
had watered at the descriptions I heard of the extraordinary
appearance presented by the Wamwera women. But I find that these
descriptions come far short of the reality. The famous Botocudos of
Brazil with their labrets are nothing to the southern tribes of German
East Africa. I had long known that the Makonde plateau and the
whole surrounding country belong to the region of the pelele, or lip
ring, but I have never come across a good illustration of earlier date
than my own. The accompanying reproductions of photographs will
show the nature of this extraordinary decoration more clearly than
any description.
The pelele, or, as it is called in Kimwera, itona, is only worn by the
women, but among them it is universal. It is a peg, in older persons
even an actual disc, of ebony, or else of some light-coloured wood
bleached snow-white with argillaceous earth, inserted in the upper
lip, which is perforated and stretched to receive it. Of course, a disc
the size of a two-shilling piece is not inserted all at once: the
operation is very gradual and begins by piercing the lip, between a
girl’s seventh and ninth year, with the end of a razor which is ground
into the shape of an awl.[8] The hole is kept open by inserting a
foreign body of small size, such as a thin stalk of grass, or the like. It
is then enlarged by adding another stalk at regular intervals; and
after a time, a strip of palm-leaf rolled up into a spiral is substituted.
This, being elastic, presses against the sides of the opening, and so,
in due course renders it large enough to receive the first solid plug.
Among the Wamwera the diameter of this varies from the thickness
of a finger to the size of a florin; the older Makonde women,
however, are said to have them twice as large. Naturally I am all
impatience to see these people, whose country, moreover, is as yet a
complete terra incognita, as far as science is concerned.
Not content with the
itona, the old women
sometimes wear a pin
or peg in the lower lip,
called nigulila. It is
long and slender,
ending in a round
knob, and is intended
to divert the eye from
the withered skin and
A MWERA WOMAN faded charms of the
wearer.[9] Discs or plugs
inserted in the lobe of
the ear are also very general. Furthermore, the YOUNG MAN OF THE
countenance of these fair ones are covered MWERA TRIBE
with extraordinary scars which, at a distance,
suggest that they must have passed their
youth at a German university. On a close inspection it will be found
that these are not scars, left by straight cuts, but consist of a
multitude of small keloids arranged in various patterns. The patterns
are made by parallel rows of small cuts (usually vertical), which have
been prevented from healing by repeatedly opening them during the
process of cicatrization. Thus in the course of weeks and months they
take the form of conspicuous swellings which, in their totality, give a
distinctive character to the whole physiognomy.
Even this is not enough to satisfy the
craving of the Wamwera women for
adornment. If the cloth draping chest and
back slips aside for a moment, either through
an incautious movement on the part of the
wearer or through the inseparable baby being
shifted from its usual place on its mother’s
back to her hip—the astonished eye discovers
that the surfaces thus revealed are adorned
with markings similar to those on the face.
Even the hips and upper part of the thighs are
said to be covered with them. The
ethnographer, reflecting on these and other
queer manifestations of human vanity, may be
tempted, perhaps, to indulge in a comfortable
sense of superiority. But, after all, the fashion
of wearing earrings is not quite extinct in
Europe; and the advantages of the corset,
considered as an aid to beauty, might be quite
as much open to discussion as the African
MWERA WOMAN ornaments we have just been describing. I am
WITH PIN IN LOWER alluding, of course, to those women who think
LIP that tight lacing improves the figure.
Otherwise I am inclined to agree with Max
Buchner of Munich, who thinks that some form of this article would
be of great service to the women of all the less-clothed races among
whom appliances for supporting the bust are unknown.
Up to the present, I have been able to see but little of the real life of
the inland tribes, yet that little has been very interesting. On the
march to Masasi I noticed that wherever the natives had taken an
active part in the rebellion, the roads were in perfect order, while in
the territory of the friendly tribes they were nearly impassable with
high grass, and sometimes bushes. These allies of ours are now,
secure in the consciousness of their past services, saying to
themselves that they may take things easy for a time, as the “Mdachi”
will surely consider their loyalty and make no very severe demands
on them. Captain Ewerbeck, however, has been laying down the law
with great precision and energy to the Akidas and Jumbes, the
district chiefs and village headmen, who are responsible for order
within their own districts.
One can enjoy magnificent spectacles by night in Africa. Sitting in
front of my tent on the way here, or now, when I step out in front of
the Baraza—the rest-house in which I have taken up my abode—I
see, wherever I turn my eyes, the red glow of flames on the horizon.
This is the burning of the grass—a custom practised by the Africans
for thousands of years. It may be remembered that when Hanno, on
his voyage from Carthage, sailed down the West coast of Africa,
nothing produced such a deep and lasting impression of terror on
himself and his crew as the streams of fire seen to flow down from
the coast-ranges at night. In my opinion, which, of course, I do not
consider decisive, these streams of fire were certainly not, as has so
often been maintained, connected with any volcanic phenomena, but
resulted from the processes still put into operation by the inhabitants
of the Dark Continent every night during the dry season.
ROAD THROUGH THE BUSH IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF
CHINGULUNGULU
Much has been written in our Colonial publications with regard to

the benefit or injury to be derived from this grass-burning. Some
condemn it as deleterious to the growth of trees, while others take
the part of the natives and say that only by burning off the high grass
and brushwood of the African forest at regular intervals can they
possibly get the upper hand of the vermin, which would otherwise
increase by myriads. Besides, it is said, the ashes are for the present
the only manure that can be applied on a large scale. I do not feel
justified in attempting a decision, but confine myself to admiring the
magnificent effect of the near and distant fires, reflected in the most
varied gradations of light and colour in the misty atmosphere. None
of these fires, moreover, is dangerous to the traveller; where the
flames seize a patch of completely dry grass, they rush along, it is
true, with a noise like the crackling of musketry-fire; but otherwise,
and indeed in general, the people have to keep up the conflagration
by systematic kindling of the grass in fresh places. In any case they
have the direction and extent of the fire fully under control.
This burning is, so far as I am enabled to judge, only possible
where the remarkable form of vegetation prevails which
characterizes the greater part of Africa, and covers the whole extent
of the great plain on the west and north-west of the Makonde
plateau. This is the “open bush and grass steppe” (lichte Baumgras-
steppe) as it has been very appropriately named by the geologist
Bornhardt. In fact, this form of vegetation is neither exclusively
forest nor altogether steppe; it unites the characters of the two.
Imagine a particularly neglected orchard, in some rural part of
Germany (where I am sorry to say the farmers still pay far too little
attention to this branch of cultivation), and fill up the spaces between
the scattered apple, pear or plum trees, not with our modest German
grass but with the African variety, two or three yards high and more
like canes, mix this with underwood—thorny, but not very close—and
finally bind together the tops of the trees (which are not very high—
certainly none of them over forty feet—and all varieties having a sort
of general resemblance to our maple) by means of a system of airy
lianas. Having done all this, you have, without any further strain on
the imagination, a fairly correct picture of what is here generally
called pori, though in the North the name of “myombo forest” is
more usually applied to it. During the rains, and just after them, this
pori must undeniably have its charms,—in fact, Ewerbeck and his
companion Knudsen are indefatigable in singing its praises as it
appears in that season. Now, on the other hand, in July, it is
anything but beautiful: it neither impresses us by the number and
size of its trees, nor refreshes us with any shade whatever, nor
presents the slightest variation in the eternal monotony which greets
the traveller as soon as he leaves Nyangao and crosses to the right
bank of the Lukuledi and from which he only escapes after a march
of several weeks, high up on the Upper Rovuma. “So this is the
exuberant fertility of the tropics, and this is what an evergreen
primeval forest looks like!” I thought, after enjoying this spectacle for
the space of a whole day. Just as with regard to the alleged want of
appetite experienced by Europeans in the tropics, we ought to see
that the general public is more correctly informed as to the supposed
fertility of Equatorial Africa, and so saved from forming extravagant
notions of the brilliant future in store for our colonies.
The pori becomes downright unpleasant wherever the owners of
the country have just been burning it. To right and left of the road
extends a thick layer of black or grey ashes, on which, here and there,
lies a dead tree, steadily smouldering away. Now that there is no
grass to obstruct the view, the eye ranges unhindered through what
at other times is impenetrable bush. For the sportsman this state of
things is a pleasure, as he can now see game at almost any distance;
but for the traveller, especially if encumbered with a large caravan, it
is nothing less than torture. This is not so much the case in the early
morning, when the fine particles of dust are laid by the heavy dews;
but, when the sun rises higher, marked differences of temperature
are produced within a comparatively small area. Tramping on
through the glowing heat of noon, suspecting no harm and intending
none, the traveller suddenly sees something whirling in front of his
feet—a black snake spinning round in a raging vortex, rises straight
up, dances round him in coquettish curves, and then vanishes
sideways behind the trees, with a low chuckle, as if in derision of the
stranger and his immaculately clean khaki suit. The native followers
have not suffered, being of the same colour as the insidious foe. But
what is the aspect presented by the leader of the expedition! Though
not guaranteed to wash, he presents a sufficiently close resemblance
to a blackamoor, and under the circumstances, the faithful Moritz
and Kibwana, as soon as we have reached camp, will have no more
pressing task than to prepare the bath for their master and
thoroughly soap him down from the crown of his head to the sole of
his foot. And all this is the work of the pori whirlwind.
In these small distresses of life on the march, the imperturbable
cheerfulness of the natives is always a comfort. Among the Wamwera
on the scene of the late rising, there was little inclination for dancing
and merriment—the prevailing misery was too great; but everywhere
else, before our camp was even half arranged, the inhabitants of the
place had assembled in crowds, and the scene which ensued was
always the same in its general features, though varying in detail. The
negro has to dance. As the German, whenever anything lifts him out
of the dead level of the workaday mood, feels irresistibly impelled to
sing, so the African misses no opportunity of assembling for a
ngoma. The word ngoma, in its original signification means nothing
more than a drum; in an extended sense it denotes all festivities
carried on to the sound of the drum. These festivities have an
indisputable advantage over ours, in that the instrumental music,
dancing, and singing are all simultaneous. The band drums, but also
occasionally improvises songs, the audience standing round in a
circle form the chorus and at the same time march round the band to
the rhythm of the song. This is the usual picture, with all its
strangeness so fascinating that the oldest residents in the coast
towns do not think it beneath their dignity to honour this expression
of aboriginal life by attending from time to time, if only for a few
minutes. Other and less sophisticated whites are regular habitués at
these festivals, and never let a Saturday evening pass—this being the
day when ngomas are allowed by law—without standing for hours
among the panting and perspiring crowd. One of these dances,
executed by the women of every place I have so far visited, on every
possible occasion, is peculiarly pleasing. It is called likwata
(“clapping of hands”). A number of women and girls stand in a circle,
facing inwards. Suddenly arms rise into the air, mouths open, feet
twitch in unison, and all goes on in exact step and time; hand-
clapping, singing and dancing. With the peculiar grace which
characterizes all movements of native women, the whole circle moves
to the right, first one long step, then three much shorter. The hand-
clapping, in time and force, accurately follows the above rhythm, as
does the song, which I shall presently reproduce. Suddenly, at a
certain beat, two figures step out of the line of dancers—they trip in
the centre of the circle, moving round one another in definite figures,
the movements in which, unfortunately, are too rapid for the eye to
follow—and then return to their fixed places in the circle to make
way for two more solo artists. So the game goes on, without
interruption or diminution of intensity, hour after hour, regardless of
the babies who, tied in the inevitable cloth on their mothers’ backs,
have gone through the whole performance along with them. In this
confined, hot, and often enough dirty receptacle, they sleep, wake or
dream, while the mother wields the heavy pestle, pounding the maize
in the mortar, or grinds the meal on the stone, while she breaks the
ground for sowing, hoes up the weeds or gathers in the crops, while
she carries the heavy earthen water-jar on her head from the distant
spring, and while, as now, she sways to and fro in the dance. No
wonder if, under such circumstances, the native baby is thoroughly
familiar with the national step and rhythm even before he has left the
carrying-cloth and the maternal breast. The sight of tiny shrimps of
three and four moving with absolute certainty through the mazes of
the grown people’s dance, would almost of itself be worth the journey
to East Africa.
And now come the very profound words accompanying this dance
which seems so full of meaning and poetry. The spectator standing
by and watching the varied and graceful movements of the women—
perhaps working the cinematograph at the same time—is apt, in spite
of all previous resolutions, to pay too little heed to the words sung.
When, the dance over, he arranges the performers before the
phonograph, he is tempted to believe that his ears have deceived
him, so utterly inane are these words. I have made records of the
likwata at a number of different places, but never succeeded in
getting any other result than the following—
[10]
The reader will agree that no undue amount of intellect has been
lavished on this ditty, but this is a trait common to all native songs
here in the South. Even those acknowledged virtuosi, my
Wanyamwezi, cannot do very much better in this respect. Here we
have really every right to say, “We Wazungu are better singers after
all!”
MOUNTAINS NEAR MASASI. DRAWN BY SALIM MATOLA
CHAPTER V
LOOKING ROUND
Masasi, July 25, 1906.
I have been here at Masasi quite a week. My abode is a hut in the

purest Yao style, built by the natives under the orders of the Imperial
District Commissioner, expressly for the benefit of passing European
travellers. This hut—or, I suppose I ought to say, this house, for it is a
sizeable building of some forty feet by twenty—lies outside the boma
which shelters the local police force. It is an oval structure whose
roof is exactly like an overturned boat. The material of the walls is, as
everywhere in this country, bamboo, and wood, plastered inside and
out with dark grey clay. My palace is superior to the abodes of the
natives in the matter of windows, though they are not glazed. At
night, before I creep under my mosquito-net into the camp bed, the
openings are closed with shutters constructed of strong pieces of
bamboo. The floor, as in all native huts, is of beaten earth, which can
in general be kept quite clean, but is not calculated for the sharp
edges of European boot-heels, which soon play havoc with its
surface. The interior forms an undivided whole, only interrupted by
the two posts standing as it were in the foci of the ellipse, and
supporting the heavy thatched roof. This projects outward and
downward far beyond the wall of the house, its outer edge being
carried by a further ellipse of shorter posts, and so makes a broad
shady passage round the whole house, such as, under the name of
baraza is an essential part of every East African residence.
The natives give the name of Masasi to a whole district alike
interesting from the point of view of geography, geology, botany or
geography.
Almost immediately after passing Nyangao, as one comes from the
coast, begins the “open bush and grass steppe” already mentioned,
while at the same time the edges of the Makonde plateau on the
south and of the high ground to the north of the Lukuledi retreat
further and further. As one walks on, day after day, across a perfectly
horizontal plain covered with the same monotonous vegetation, the
journey is by no means exciting. Then, suddenly, at a turn of the
path, we see a huge cliff of glittering grey. We draw a long breath and
forget all our fatigue in presence of this new charm in the landscape.
Even the heavy-laden carriers step more lightly. Suddenly the bush,
which has become fresher and greener as we approach the rock,
ceases, and instead of the one cliff we now see a whole long range of
rocky peaks, which seem to stand as a barrier right across our path.
This, however, is not the case, for close to the foot of the first
mountain the road turns sharply to S.S.E., running parallel and close
to the range. When the range ends, the road ends too, for there,
embosomed in a circle of “hill-children,”—as the native would say in
his own language, i.e., low hills of a few thousand feet or under,—lies
the military station of Masasi.
The dome-shaped gneiss peaks of Masasi are celebrated in
geological literature: they are, in fact, unique, not in their
petrographic constituents, but in the regularity of their serried ranks.
Orographically this whole region of East Africa which I am now
traversing is characterized by insular mountains (Inselberge), as they
are called by the geologist Bornhardt. The name is very appropriate,
for, if the land were to sink some three hundred feet, or the Indian
Ocean to rise in the same degree, the valleys of the Lukuledi,
Umbekuru and Rovuma, as well as, in all probability, several rivers
in Portuguese East Africa, and also the whole vast plain west of the
Mwera and Makonde plateaus would form one great lake. Here in the
west, only these lumpy, heavy gneiss peaks would rise as tiny islands
above the waters, while towards the coast the plateaus just
mentioned would so to speak represent the continents of this piece of
the earth’s surface.
THE INSULAR MOUNTAIN OF MASASI
In general these peaks are scattered irregularly over the whole

wide area of the country. If I climb one of the smaller hills
immediately behind my house, I can overlook an almost illimitable
number of these remarkable formations to north, west and south.
They are mostly single or in small clusters, but several days’ journey
further west a large number are gathered into a close cluster in the
Majeje country. The Masasi range in our immediate neighbourhood
is the other exception. Corresponding to their irregular distribution
is a great variety in height. Many are only small hillocks, while others
rise to a sheer height of 1,600 feet and over from the plain, which
here at Masasi is fully 1,300 feet above sea-level. The highest of these
hills thus attain about the middle height among our German
mountains.
As to the origin of these strange mountain shapes, not being a
geologist, I am in no position to form an opinion. According to
Bornhardt, who in his magnificent work on the earth-sculpture and
geology of German East Africa[11] has described the geological
features of this landscape with admirable vividness, all these insular
peaks testify to a primeval and never interrupted struggle between
the constructive activity of the sea and the denuding, eroding,
digging and levelling action of flowing water and of atmospheric
influences. He sees this tract in primordial times as an immense
unbroken plain of primitive gneiss. In this, in course of time, streams
and rivers excavated their valleys, all more or less in the same
direction. At the end of this long-continued process, long hill ridges
were left standing between the different valleys. Then came another
epoch, when stratification took the place of destruction. Whereas
formerly, rain, springs, brooks and rivers carried the comminuted
and disintegrated rock down to the sea, now, the sea itself overflowed
the land, filled the valleys, and probably covered the whole former
scene of action with its sediment. This sediment, again, in the course
of further ages became hardened into rock. Once more the scene
changed; again the land was left dry; and wind, rain and running
water could once more begin their work of destruction. But this time
their activity took a different direction. They had formerly carried the
detritus north or south, but now they swept it eastward, at right
angles to their former course, and so gradually ground and filed away
the whole of the later deposit, and also eroded the long ridges which
had survived from the first period of destruction. Finally, when even
this primitive rock had been worn away down to the bottom level of
the first valleys, nothing remained of the old sheet of gneiss except in
the angles formed by the crossing of the two lines of abrasion and
erosion. The superincumbent strata being swept away, the hard
gneiss cores of these angles of ground form the very insular peaks I
have been describing. Bornhardt’s theory is a bold one and assumes
quite immeasurable periods of time, but it has been generally
accepted as the most plausible of all attempts to explain the facts. In
any case it is a brilliant proof of the capacity for inductive reasoning
possessed by German scholars.
These mighty masses of rock, springing with an unusually steep
slope, direct from the plain, dominate their surroundings wherever
one comes across them, but where they appear in such a wonderfully
regular series as they do here—Mkwera, Masasi, Mtandi, Chironji,
Kitututu, Mkomahindo, and the rest of the lesser and greater
elevations within my horizon,—they present an incomparable and
quite unforgettable spectacle. When once the projected railway
across the Umbekuru basin is completed, the tourist agencies will
have no more popular excursion than that to the Masasi Range.
From a botanical point of view, also, the visitor finds himself well
repaid for his trouble. Once in the shadow of these hills, the
desolation of the pori is forgotten as if by magic; one plantation
succeeds another, and patches of all the different varieties of millet
bow their heavy cobs and plumes in the fresh morning breeze, which
is a real refreshment after the stifling heat of the long day’s march
through the bush. Beans of all kinds, gourds and melons, rejoice the
eye with their fresh green, on either side of the path the mhogo
(manioc) spreads its branches with their pale-green leaves and pink
stalks. Wherever there is an interval between these various crops, the
bazi pea rattles in its pod. This fertility (astonishing for the southern
part of German East Africa) is only rendered possible by the
geological constitution of the soil. Wherever we have set foot on the
main road, and north and south of the same, as far as the eye can
reach, the principal constituents of the upper stratum have been
loamy sand and sandy loam. In places where the action of water has
been more marked, we find an outcrop of bare, smooth gneiss rocks;
or the ground is covered with hard quartzite, crunching under foot.
Only where these mighty gneiss ranges break the monotony does
anyone examining the country with an eye to its economic value find
full satisfaction. Gneiss weathers easily and forms excellent soil, as
the natives have long ago discovered; and, though they by no means
despise the less fertile tracts, yet the most favoured sites for
settlements have always been those in the immediate vicinity of the
gneiss islands. Masasi, with its enormous extent, taking many hours
to traverse, is the typical example of such economic insight.
Since this would naturally attract people from all directions, it is
not to be wondered at if a question as to the tribal affinities of the
Masasi people should land one in a very chaos of tribes. Makua,
Wayao, Wangindo, a few Makonde, and, in addition a large
percentage of Coast men:—such are the voluntary immigrants to this
little centre of social evolution. To these we must add a
miscellaneous collection of people belonging to various tribes of the
far interior, who are here included under the comprehensive
designation of Wanyasa. These Wanyasa are the living testimony to
an experiment devised in the spirit of the highest philanthropy,
which, unfortunately, has not met with the success hoped for and
expected by its promoters. This very region was some decades ago
the scene of an extremely active slave-traffic; the trade, kept up by
the Zanzibar and Coast Arabs, preferred the route through this
easily-traversed and at that time thickly-populated country. The
situation of Kilwa Kivinje on a bay so shallow that Arab slave-dhows,
but not the patrolling gun-boats of rigidly moral Powers, can anchor
there, is to this day a speaking testimony to that dark period in the
not excessively sunny history of Africa.
In order to get at the root of the evil, English philanthropists have
for many years been in the habit of causing the unhappy victims
driven down this road in the slave-stick, to be ransomed by the
missionaries and settled on their stations as free men. The principal
settlement of this kind is that among the gneiss peaks of Masasi. The
Christian world cherished the hope that these liberated slaves might
be trained into grateful fellow-believers and capable men. But when
one hears the opinion of experienced residents in the country, it is
not possible without a strong dose of preconceived opinion to see in
these liberated converts anything better than their compatriots. The
fact remains and cannot by any process of reasoning be explained
away, that Christianity does not suit the native; far less, in any case
than Islam, which unhesitatingly allows him all his cherished
freedom.
Personally, however, I must say I have not so far noticed any
discreditable points in the character of the Masasi people; all who
have come in contact with me have treated me in the same friendly
fashion as the rest of those I have come across in this country. Such
contact has by no means been wanting in spite of the shortness of my
stay here, since I have thrown myself into my work with all the
energy of which I am capable, and am convinced that I have already
seen with my own eyes and heard with my own ears a large and
important part of the people’s life.
The very beginning of my studies was remarkably promising. The
Mission station of Masasi lies a short hour’s walk north north-
eastward from us, immediately under the precipitous side of Mtandi
Mountain. This Mtandi is the most imposing peak of the whole
range; it rises in an almost vertical cliff directly behind the straw huts
of the Mission, ending, at a height of nearly 3,100 feet in a flat dome.
District Commissioner Ewerbeck and I had already, when riding past
it on the day of our arrival, determined to visit this mountain; and we
carried out our project a day or two later. The trip was not without a
certain fascination. At 4.30 a.m. in a pitch-dark tropical night, we
were ready to march, the party consisting of two Europeans and half-
a-dozen carriers and boys, with Ewerbeck’s Muscat donkey and my
old mule. As quickly as the darkness allowed, the procession passed
along the barabara, turning off to the left as we approached Mtandi.
The animals with their attendants were left behind at the foot of the
mountain, while the rest of us, making a circuit of the Mission
grounds, began our climbing practice.
I had equipped myself for my African expedition with the laced
boots supplied by Tippelskirch expressly for the tropics. When I
showed these to “old Africans” at Lindi, they simply laughed at me
and asked what I expected to do in this country with one wretched
row of nails on the edge of the sole. They advised me to send the
things at once to Brother William at the Benedictine Mission, who
earns the gratitude of all Europeans by executing repairs on shoes
and boots. Brother William, in fact, very kindly armed my boots with
a double row of heavy Alpine hobnails, and I wore a pair the first day
out from Lindi, but never again on the march. They weighed down
my feet like lead, and it soon appeared that the heavy nails were
absolutely unnecessary on the fine sand of the barabara. After that
first day, I wore my light laced shoes from Leipzig, which make
walking a pleasure. Here, on the other hand, on the sharp ridges of
Mtandi, the despised mountain boots rendered me excellent service.
I prefer to omit the description of my feelings during this ascent. It
grew lighter, and we went steadily upwards, but this climbing, in
single file, from rock to rock and from tree to tree was, at any rate for
us two well-nourished and comfortable Europeans, by no means a
pleasure. In fact, we relinquished the ambition of reaching the
highest peak and contented ourselves with a somewhat lower
projection. This was sensible of us, for there was no question of the
magnificent view we had expected; the heights and the distant
landscape were alike veiled in thick mist, so that even the longest
exposure produced no effect to speak of on my photographic plates.

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A Textbook of Power Plant Engineering

5th Edition R. K. Rajput

A Textbook of Manufacturing Technology Second Edition

Thermal Power Plant: Pre-Operational Activities 1st

Textbook of Assisted Reproductive Techniques Volume 1

Thermal power plant cooling context and engineering 1st

Illustrated Textbook of Paediatrics 5th Edition Tom

Textbook of Cosmetic Dermatology 5th Edition Robert

Illustrated Textbook of Paediatrics 5th Edition Tom

On Cooking : A Textbook of Culinary Fundamentals,

Engineering Students of Various Disciplines

LAXMI PUBLICATIONS (P) LTD

© by Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd.

Typeset at Goswami Associates, Delhi

& Bengaluru 080-26 75 69 30

& Hyderabad 040-27 55 53 83, 27 55 53 93

INTRODUCTION TO SI UNITS AND CONVERSION FACTORS (xix)–(xxiv)

2. POWER PLANT CYCLES ... 20–57

3. STEAM POWER PLANT ... 58–217

3.20.10. Sources of air in condensers ... 161

4. DIESEL ENGINE POWER PLANT ... 218–264

4.7. Different Parts of I.C. Engines ... 220

5. GAS TURBINE POWER PLANTS ... 265–322

5.14. Effect of Operating Variables on Thermal Efficiency ... 278

6. HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER PLANT ... 323–394

6.7.7. Governing of hydraulic turbines ... 354

7. NUCLEAR POWER PLANT ... 395–431

7.5. Description of Reactors ... 410

8. COMBINED OPERATION OF DIFFERENT POWER PLANTS ... 432–441

9. ECONOMICS OF POWER GENERATION ... 442–493

10. NON-CONVENTIONAL POWER GENERATION AND DIRECT ENERGY

10.5. Geothermal Power Plants ... 516

11. PLANT INSTRUMENTATION ... 536–557

12. MAJOR ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT IN POWER PLANTS ... 558–629

13. POLLUTION AND ITS CONTROL ... 630–636

14. ‘GATE’ AND ‘UPSC’ EXAMINATIONS’ QUESTIONS (Latest-selected) WITH

OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS BANK ... 663–688

INDEX ... 689–691

STEAM TABLES AND MOLLIER DIAGRAM (SI UNITS) ... 1–20

Er. R.K. Rajput

Preface to The First Edition

Er. R.K. Rajput

Table 1. SI Base Units

Quantity Name Symbol

Table 2. Examples of SI Derived Units Expressed in Terms of Base Units

Table 3. SI Derived Units with Special Names

Table 4. Examples of SI Derived Units Expressed by Means of Special Names

dynamic viscosity pascal second Pa-s m–1.kg.s–1

Table 5. SI Supplementary Units

Table 6. Examples of SI Derived Units Formed by Using Supplementary Units

Factor Prefix Symbol Factor Prefix Symbol

C. IMPORTANT ENGINEERING CONSTANTS AND EXPRESSIONS

Engineering constants and expressions M.K.S. system SI Units

1. Value of g0 9.81 kg-m/kgf-sec2 1 kg-m/N-sec2

Much has been written in our Colonial publications with regard to

Masasi, July 25, 1906.

I have been here at Masasi quite a week. My abode is a hut in the

In general these peaks are scattered irregularly over the whole

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