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Latin American Mathematics Series
UFSCar subseries
José Natário
An Introduction
to Mathematical
Relativity
Latin American Mathematics Series
Latin American Mathematics Series – UFSCar
subseries
Series Editors
Shiferaw Berhanu, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
Ugo Bruzzo, SISSA – Scuola Internazionale Superiore di Studi Avanzati, Trieste,
Italy
Irene Fonseca, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
Published under the Latin American Mathematics Series, which was created to
showcase the new, vibrant mathematical output that is emerging from this region,
the UFSCar subseries aims to gather high-quality monographs, graduate textbooks,
and contributing volumes based on mathematical research conducted at/with the
Federal University of São Carlos, a technological pole located in the State of São
Paulo, Brazil. Submissions are evaluated by an international editorial board and
undergo a rigorous peer review before acceptance.
An Introduction to
Mathematical Relativity
José Natário
Department of Mathematics
Instituto Superior Técnico
University of Lisbon
Lisbon, Portugal
Mathematics Subject Classification: 53-XX, 83-XX, 35-XX, 83-01, 83Cxx, 35Q75, 83C05, 83C22,
83C57, 83C35
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland
AG 2021
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Preface
v
vi Preface
Finally, I thank the many colleagues and students who read this text, or parts
of it, for their valuable comments and suggestions. Special thanks are due to my
colleague and friend Pedro Girão.
1 Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Special Relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Differential Geometry: Mathematicians vs Physicists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 General Relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2 Exact Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1 Minkowski Spacetime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2 Penrose Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3 The Schwarzschild Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.4 Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.5 Matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.6 Oppenheimer–Snyder Collapse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3 Causality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.1 Past and Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.2 Causality Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4 Singularity Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.1 Geodesic Congruences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.2 Energy Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.3 Conjugate Points. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.4 Existence of Maximizing Geodesics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.5 Hawking’s Singularity Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.6 Penrose’s Singularity Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5 Cauchy Problem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.1 Divergence Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.2 Klein–Gordon Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.3 Maxwell’s Equations: Constraints and Gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
vii
viii Contents
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Chapter 1
Preliminaries
In this initial chapter we give a very short introduction to special and general
relativity for mathematicians. In particular, we relate the index-free differential
geometry notation used in mathematics (e.g. [O’N83, dC93, Boo03, GN14]) to the
index notation used in physics (e.g. [MTW73, Wal84, HE95]). As an exercise in
index gymnastics, we derive the contracted Bianchi identities.
Consider an inertial frame S moving with velocity v with respect to another inertial
frame S along their common x-axis (Fig. 1.1). According to classical mechanics, the
coordinate x of a point P in the frame S is related to its x coordinate in the frame
S by
x = x − vt.
t = t.
y y P
vt x
dx dx − vdt dx
= = − v.
dt dt dt
This is in conflict with the experimental fact that the speed of light is the same
in every inertial frame, indicating that classical mechanics is not correct. Einstein
solved this problem in 1905 by replacing the Galileo transformation by the so-called
Lorentz transformation:
x = γ (x − vt)
.
t = γ (t − vx)
Here
1
γ =√ ,
1 − v2
and we are using units such that the speed of light is c = 1 (for example, measuring
time in years and distance in light-years). Note that if |v| is much smaller than the
|v| 1, then γ 1, and we retrieve the Galileo transformation
speed of light,
(assuming v xt 1).
Under the Lorentz transformation velocities transform as
dx γ (dx − vdt) dt − v
dx
= = .
dt γ (dt − vdx) 1 − v dx
dt
In particular,
dx dx 1−v
=1⇒ = = 1,
dt dt 1−v
that is, the speed of light is the same in the two inertial frames.
In 1908, Minkowski noticed that
1.1 Special Relativity 3
that is, the Lorentz transformations could be seen as isometries of R4 with the
indefinite metric
v, v = 0 ⇔ −(v 0 )2 + (v 1 )2 + (v 2 )2 + (v 3 )2 = 0.
∂
∂t
null vector ∂
∂y
p ∂
spacelike vector ∂x
Fig. 1.2 Minkowski geometry (traditionally represented with the t-axis pointing upwards)
4 1 Preliminaries
1
The length | v, v | 2 of a timelike (resp. spacelike) vector v ∈ R4 represents
the time (resp. distance) measured between two events p and p + v in the inertial
frame where these events happen in the same location (resp. are simultaneous). If
c : [a, b] → R4 is a timelike curve, then its length
b 1
τ (c) = | ċ(s), ċ(s) | 2 ds
a
represents the proper time measured by the particle between events c(a) and c(b).
We have:
Proposition 1.3 (Twin Paradox) Of all timelike curves connecting two events
p, q ∈ R4 , the curve with maximal length is the line segment (representing inertial
motion).
Proof We may assume p = (0, 0, 0, 0) and q = (T , 0, 0, 0) on some inertial frame,
and parameterize any timelike curve connecting p to q by the time coordinate:
Therefore
T 1 T 1 T
2 2 2 2
τ (c)= −1+ẋ + ẏ + ż dt=
2 2
1 − ẋ − ẏ − ż
2 2
dt ≤ 1dt=T .
0 0 0
Most problems in special relativity can be recast as questions about the geometry
of the Minkowski spacetime.
Proposition 1.4 (Doppler Effect) An observer moving with velocity v away from
a source of light of period T measures the period to be
1+v
T = T .
1−v
Proof Figure 1.3 represents two light signals emitted by an observer at rest at x = 0
with a time difference T . These signals are detected by an observer moving with
velocity v, who measures a time difference T between them. Now, if the first signal
is emitted at t = t0 , its history is the line t = t0 + x. Consequently, the moving
observer detects the signal at the event with coordinates given by the solution of
⎧ ⎧ t0
⎪ ⎪
⎪ t=
⎨ t = t0 + x
⎪ ⎪
⎨ 1−v
⇔ .
⎪
⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎩x = vt ⎪
⎩x = vt0
1−v
1.1 Special Relativity 5
Similarly, the second light signal is emitted at t = t0 + T , its history is the line
t = t0 +T +x, and it is detected by the moving observer at the event with coordinates
given by
⎧
⎪t = t0 + T
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨ 1−v
.
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪ v(t0 + T )
⎩x =
1−v
Therefore the time difference between the signals as measured by the moving
observer is
2
t0 + T t0 v(t0 + T ) vt0 2
T = − − −
1−v 1−v 1−v 1−v
T2 v2T 2 1 − v2 1+v
= − =T =T .
(1 − v) 2 (1 − v) 2 (1 − v) 2 1−v
In particular, two observers at rest in an inertial frame measure the same
frequency for a light signal (Fig. 1.4). However, because the gravitational field
couples to all forms of energy (as E = mc2 ), one expects that a photon climbing in
a gravitational field to lose energy, hence frequency. In 1912, Einstein realized that
this could be modelled by considering curved spacetime geometries, so that equal
line segments in a (flat) spacetime diagram do not necessarily correspond to the
same length.
6 1 Preliminaries
T =T
∇X Y − ∇Y X = [X, Y ];
X · Y, Z = ∇X Y, Z + Y, ∇X Z ,
for all vector fields X, Y, Z. The curvature of this connection is then given by the
operator
R(X, Y )Z = ∇X ∇Y Z − ∇Y ∇X Z − ∇[X,Y ] Z.
The formulas above were written using the abstract notation usually employed by
mathematicians. It is often very useful (especially when dealing with contractions)
to use the more explicit notation usually adopted by physicists, which emphasizes
the indices of the various objects when written in local coordinates:
1.2 Differential Geometry: Mathematicians vs Physicists 7
1 αβ
α
μν = g ∂μ gνβ + ∂ν gμβ − ∂β gμν ,
2
and in turn be used to compute the components of the Riemann curvature tensor:
μ μ γ μ
Rαβ ν = dx μ R(∂α , ∂β )∂ν = ∂α βν − ∂β μ
αν + μ
αγ βν − βγ
γ
αν .
∇X(Y ) = ∇Y X.
1 We use Einstein’s summation convention, with Greek indices running from 0 to 3 and Latin
indices running from 1 to 3.
8 1 Preliminaries
= (∂μ ων − α μ ν
μν ωα )X Y ,
that is,
∇μ ων = ∂μ ων − α
μν ωα .
The generalization for higher rank tensors is obvious: for instance, if T is a (2, 1)-
tensor, then
∇α Tμν
β
= ∂α Tμν
β
+ β γ
αγ Tμν − γ β
αμ Tγ ν − γ β
αν Tμγ .
Note that the condition of compatibility of the Levi-Civita connection with the
metric is simply
∇g = 0.
In particular, the operations of raising and lowering indices commute with covariant
differentiation.
As an exercise in index gymnastics, we will now derive a series of identities
involving the Riemann curvature tensor. We start by rewriting its definition in the
notation of the physicists:
μ α β ν
Rαβ νX Y Z =
In other words,
μ ν
Rαβ νZ = (∇α ∇β − ∇β ∇α )Z μ ,
or, equivalently,
2∇[α ∇β] Zμ = Rαβμν Z ν , (1.1)
2 Thus T[αβ] = 1
2 Tαβ − Tβα , T[αβγ ] = 1
6 Tαβγ + Tβγ α + Tγ αβ − Tβαγ − Tαγβ − Tγβα , etc.
1.2 Differential Geometry: Mathematicians vs Physicists 9
Let us choose
Zμ = ∇μ f ≡ ∂μ f
because
This is the so-called first Bianchi identity, and is key for obtaining the full set of
symmetries of the Riemann curvature tensor:
∇γ Z ν ≡ ∂γ Z ν + ν
γ δZ
δ
= 0.
3 In the formula below the indices between vertical bars are not anti-symmetrized.
10 1 Preliminaries
This is the so-called second Bianchi identity. In the notation of the mathematicians,
it is written as
Rμν = Rαμ αν .
The trace of the Ricci tensor, in turn, is known as the scalar curvature:
R = g μν Rμν .
The contracted Bianchi identity is equivalent to the statement that the Einstein
tensor
1
Gμν = Rμν − Rgμν
2
is divergenceless:
∇ μ Gμν = 0.
d 2xi d 2xi
m = −m∂ i φ ⇔ = −∂i φ.
dt 2 dt 2
1.3 General Relativity 11
Note that all free-falling particles follow the same trajectories (an observation dating
back to Galileo). The gravitational potential is determined from the matter mass
density ρ by the Poisson equation
φ = 4πρ
(using units such that Newton’s gravitational constant is G = 1; this choice, together
with c = 1, defines the so-called geometrized units, where lengths, time intervals,
and masses all have the same dimensions).
To implement his idea of describing gravity via a curved four-dimensional
Lorentzian manifold (M, g), Einstein had to specify (1) how free-falling particles
would move on this manifold, and (2) how to determine the curved metric g.
Since free particles move along straight lines in the Minkowski spacetime, Einstein
proposed that free-falling particles should move along timelike geodesics. In other
words, he suggested replacing the Newtonian equation of motion by the geodesic
equation
μ α β
ẍ μ + αβ ẋ ẋ = 0.
∇ μ Tμν = 0.
This inspired Einstein to propose that g should satisfy the so-called Einstein field
equations:
Here is a constant, known as the cosmological constant. Note that the Ein-
stein field equations imply, via the contracted Bianchi identity, that the energy–
momentum tensor is divergenceless.
As a simple example, we consider a pressureless perfect fluid, known as dust. Its
energy–momentum tensor is
Tμν = ρUμ Uν ,
where ρ is the dust rest density and U is a unit timelike vector field tangent to the
histories of the dust particles. The equations of motion for the dust can be found
from
∇ μ Tμν = 0 ⇔ ∇ μ (ρUμ ) Uν + ρUμ ∇ μ Uν = 0
⇔ div(ρU )U + ρ∇U U = 0.
12 1 Preliminaries
in the support of ρ. These are, respectively, the equation of conservation of mass and
the geodesic equation. Thus the fact that free-falling particles move along geodesics
can be seen as a consequence of the Einstein field equations (at least in this model).
1.4 Exercises
(1) Twin paradox: Two twins, Alice and Bob, are separated on their 20th birthday.
While Alice remains on Earth (which is an inertial frame to a very good
approximation), Bob departs at 80% of the speed of light towards Planet X,
8 light-years away from Earth. Therefore Bob reaches his destination 10 years
later (as measured on the Earth’s frame). After a short stay, he returns to Earth,
again at 80% of the speed of light. Consequently Alice is 40 years old when she
sees Bob again.
(a) How old is Bob when they meet again?
(b) How can the asymmetry in the twins’ ages be explained? Notice that from
Bob’s point of view he is at rest in his spaceship and it is the Earth which
moves away and then back again.
(c) Imagine that each twin watches the other trough a very powerful telescope.
What do they see? In particular, how much time do they experience as they
see 1 year elapse for their twin?
(2) A particularly simple matter model is that of a smooth massless scalar field
φ : M → R, whose energy–momentum tensor is
1
Tμν = ∂μ φ ∂ν φ − (∂α φ ∂ α φ)gμν .
2
Show that if the Lorentzian manifold (M, g) satisfies the Einstein equations
with this matter model, then φ satisfies the wave equation
φ = 0 ⇔ ∇ μ ∂μ φ = 0.
where ρ is the fluid’s rest density, p is the fluid’s rest pressure, and U is a unit
timelike vector field tangent to the histories of the fluid particles. Show that:
(a) Tμν = diag(ρ, p, p, p) in any orthonormal frame including U ;
(b) the motion equations for the perfect fluid are
div(ρU ) + p div U = 0
,
(ρ + p)∇U U = −(grad p)⊥
In this chapter we present a number of exact solutions of the Einstein field equations,
construct their Penrose diagrams, and analyze their matching across a timelike
hypersurface. These solutions will be used as examples or counter-examples when
discussing the theorems in the subsequent chapters. A different perspective on
Penrose diagrams can be found in [HE95].
The simplest solution of the Einstein field equations with zero cosmological con-
stant in vacuum (i.e. with vanishing energy–momentum tensor) is the Minkowski
spacetime, that is, R4 with the metric
ds 2 = −dt 2 + dx 2 + dy 2 + dz2 .
Since this metric is flat, its curvature vanishes, and so do its Ricci and Einstein
tensors. It represents a universe where there is no gravity whatsoever. Transforming
the Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z) to spherical coordinates (r, θ, ϕ) yields
ds 2 = −dt 2 + dr 2 + r 2 dθ 2 + sin2 θ dϕ 2 .
we obtain
ds 2 = −du dv + r 2 dθ 2 + sin2 θ dϕ 2 ,
where
1
r(u, v) = (v − u).
2
The coordinates (u, v) are called null coordinates: their level sets are null cones
formed by outgoing/ingoing null geodesics emanating from the center. Note that
they are subject to the constraint
r ≥ 0 ⇔ v ≥ u.
1
ds 2 = − d ũ d ṽ + r 2 dθ 2 + sin2 θ dϕ 2 ,
1 − ũ2 1 − ṽ 2
where now
1
r (ũ, ṽ) = (arctanh ṽ − arctanh ũ)
2
and
Because (ũ, ṽ) are also null coordinates, it is common to represent their axes tilted
by 45◦ . The plane region defined by (2.2) is then represented in Fig. 2.1.
This region is usually called the Penrose diagram for the Minkowski spacetime.
If we take each point in the diagram to represent a sphere S 2 of radius r (ũ, ṽ),
the diagram itself represents the full spacetime manifold, in a way that makes
causality relations apparent: any causal curve is represented in the diagram by a
curve with tangent at most 45◦ from the vertical. In Fig. 2.2 we represent some level
hypersurfaces of t and r in the Penrose diagram. The former approach the point i 0
in the boundary of the diagram, called the spacelike infinity, whereas the later go
from the boundary point i − (past timelike infinity) to the boundary point i + (future
timelike infinity). Finally, null geodesics start at the null boundary line I − (past
2.2 Penrose Diagrams 17
I+
r=0 i0
I−
i−
null infinity) and end at the null boundary line I + (future null infinity). These
boundary points and lines represent ideal points at infinity, and do not correspond to
actual points in the Minkowski spacetime.
The concept of Penrose diagram can be easily generalized for any spherically
symmetric spacetime. Such spacetimes have metric
ds 2 = gAB dx A dx B + r 2 dθ 2 + sin2 θ dϕ 2 , r = r(x 0 , x 1 ),
18 2 Exact Solutions
This can be seen locally as follows: choose a spacelike line S, a coordinate u along
it, and a coordinate w along a family of null geodesics emanating from S, so that S
corresponds to w = 0 (Fig. 2.3). Then near S we have
∂ ∂
guu = , >0
∂u ∂u
and
∂ ∂
gww = , = 0.
∂w ∂w
2guw
du + dw = f dv
guu
for suitable functions f and v. Note that f cannot vanish, because (u, w) are local
coordinates. Moreover, we can assume f < 0 by replacing v with −v if necessary.
Choosing 2 = −f guu then yields (2.3).
We then see that any spherically symmetric metric can be written as
ds 2 = −2 du dv + r 2 dθ 2 + sin2 θ dϕ 2 (2.4)
2.2 Penrose Diagrams 19
and similarly for v. In other words, the null coordinates u and v are solutions of the
wave equation in the 2-dimensional Lorentzian manifold:
u = v = 0.
u = 0, (du)p = 0,
dv = du. (2.5)
Here is the Hodge star, which for generic orientable n-dimensional pseudo-
Riemannian manifolds is defined as follows: if {ω1 , . . . , ωn } is any positively
oriented orthonormal coframe, then
(ω1 ∧ · · · ∧ ωk ) = ω1 , ω1 · · · ωk , ωk ωk+1 ∧ · · · ∧ ωn .
d du = d du = (u) = 0.
v = d dv = d du = d(−du) = 0.
20 2 Exact Solutions
Finally,
1
du = dv =
for some local function > 0, and so the metric is written is these coordinates as
ds 2 = 2 du2 + dv 2 .
If we try to solve the vacuum Einstein field equations with zero cosmological
constant for a spherically symmetric Lorentzian metric, we obtain, after suitably
rescaling the time coordinate, the Schwarzschild metric
2M 2M −1 2
ds 2 = − 1 − dt 2 + 1 − dr + r 2 dθ 2 + sin2 θ dϕ 2
r r
1
t1 2M 2M −1 2 2
τ= 1− − 1− ṙ − r θ̇ − r sin θ ϕ̇
2 2 2 2 2
dt,
t0 r r
where ṙ = dr
dt , etc. The integrand LS is the Lagrangian for geodesic motion in
the Schwarzschild spacetime when parameterized by the time coordinate. Now for
motions with speeds much smaller than the speed of light we have ṙ 2 1, etc.
Assuming Mr 1 as well we have
1
2M 2M −1 2 2
LS = 1 − − 1− ṙ − r θ̇ − r sin θ ϕ̇
2 2 2 2 2
r r
M 1 2
1− − ṙ + r 2 θ̇ 2 + sin2 θ ϕ̇ 2 = 1 − LN ,
r 2
2.3 The Schwarzschild Solution 21
where
1 2 M
LN = ṙ + r 2 θ̇ 2 + r 2 sin2 θ ϕ̇ 2 +
2 r
is precisely the Newtonian Lagrangian for the motion of a particle in the gravi-
tational field of a point mass M. The Schwarzschild solution should therefore be
considered the relativistic analogue of this field.
To write the Schwarzschild metric in the form (2.4) we note that the quotient
metric is
2M 2M −1 2
ds = − 1 −
2
dt + 1 −
2
dr
r r
2M 2M −2 2
=− 1− dt − 1 −
2
dr
r r
2M 2M −1 2M −1
=− 1− dt − 1 − dr dt + 1 − dr
r r r
2M
=− 1− du dv,
r
where we define
2M −1
u=t− 1− dr = t − r − 2M log |r − 2M|
r
and
2M −1
v=t+ 1− dr = t + r + 2M log |r − 2M|.
r
Consequently, by applying the coordinate rescaling (2.1) we obtain the full square,
instead of a triangle (Fig. 2.4). Besides the infinity points and null boundaries also
present in the Penrose diagram for the Minkowski spacetime, there are two new null
boundaries, H − (past event horizon) and H + (future event horizon), where
r = 2M.
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Lailaa pyöritettiin ympäri.
*****
Osmo oli päässyt äidin kanssa maalle, ja kesä oli kulunut hauskasti
kylän lasten kanssa leikeissä ja onkimatkoilla. Keskikesä meni niin,
ettei sitä oikein huomannutkaan ja joutui marjojen aika. Osmokin oli
jo saanut maistaa äidin poimimia ahomansikoita, ja eräänä päivänä
halusi hän lähteä itsekin äitiä auttamaan marjojen poiminnassa.
— Punikkien?
Osmo oli kovin halukas kuulemaan, mitä äiti sanoisi. Ainakin kaksi
poikaa, joita toiset sanoivat tuolla rumalta kuuluvalta nimeltä, olivat
oikein ahkeria ja eteviä poikia. Opettajatkin heitä kiittivät. Oli tosin
joukossa sellaisiakin poikia, jotka sanoivat taas vuorostaan
toverejaan porvareiksi, ja sanoipa joku poika lahtariksikin muuatta
toveriaan, mutta sai siitä karsseria. Osmo ei tietänyt, rangaistiinko
poikia punikki-nimityksestä, mutta ainakin kerran hän kuuli rehtorin
opettajahuoneessa ankarasti nuhtelevan muuatta poikaa sen
johdosta.
— Kyllä kai, mutta he niin harvoin sitä kuulevat, jos joku koulun
pihassa niin sanoo, virkkoi Osmo.
— Silläpä se saa jatkuakin. Ja sellainen on kovin rumaa aikuisille
ja vielä rumempaa lapsille.
— Eikö joku paha ole yhtä rumaa lapsille kuin aikuisillekin? kysyi
Osmo.
Äiti naurahti.
— Kyllä, minä koetan olla. Mutta sanohan äiti vielä yksi asia
minulle, pyysi Osmo.
— No mikä se olisi?
— Ketkä sinun mielestäsi, äiti, tekevät oikeata työtä?
*****
— Jos minä lähden sinun kanssasi mar-rljaan, niin sinun pitää olla
siivolla minun kanssani, muuten minä mätkäytän har-rltijasi tanter-
rleeseen, sanoi hän Osmolle.
— Taitaa olla, mutta kun isä ja äitikin kir-rloaa, niin siitä on opittu
mekin puoskat noituilemaan. Isä noituu syödessäänkin, jatkoi hän.
— Vaikka isä tekee niin, niin elä sinä enää kiroa milloinkaan,
etkös?
— Silloin.
— Kyllä minä vielä saan astiani täyteen, pidä sinä vain omasi.
Osmo pelkäsi.
— Joo, joo!
Lassi selitti:
— Voi, jos nyt olisi tervaa, niin minäkin saisin nahkani kauniiksi,
arveli Jaakko.
— Ei siitä ole puutetta. Venheen kokkatuhdon alta löydät
tervakipon.
Vedä vain nahkaasi!
— Entäs, jos vene menee niin kauaksi, ettei pojat saa sitä kiinni?
Tämä taitaa olla vähän vaarallista peliä.
— Mikä?