INDEX “SNO. | NAME OF EXPERIMENT PAGE NO. [SIGN {1 | EXERCISES ON MANUAL CNC PART ee PROGRAMMING USING G& M CODES. CNC PROGRAMMING ON TURNING PROCESS |_,5 3 CNC PROGRAMMING ON MILLING PROCESS Weis 4 | EXPERIMENTS ON MICRO-MACHINING \o-1g ] | a STUDY AND EXPERIMENTATION WITH CMM | 19-24 4 6 EXPERIMENTS WITH NOT TECHNIQUES: as-ar I 7 | EXPERIMENTS WITH NON CONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESSES SUCH AS EDM,USM, [23° 33 | ABRASIVEMACHINING ETC...FUNDAMENTAL OF CNC PROGRAMMIMN CNC part program contains a combination of machine tool code and machine-specific instructions. It consists of: (a) Information about part geometry (b) Motion statements to move the cutting tool (c) Cutting speed (d) Feed (e) Auxiliary functions such as coolant on and off, spindle direction In this lecture, first we will understand the coordinate systems of the machine tools and how they work. +. CNC Machine Tool xy, ROMand Computer = aispiay monitor Control loop Figure 1 Schematic of a CNC machine Tool Figure 1 shows a schematic of a machine tool controlled by a computer. It consists of a Machine Control Unit (MCU) and machine tool itself. MCU, a computer is the brain of a CNC machine tool. It reads the part programs and controls the machine tools operations. Then it decodes the part program to provide commands and instructions to the various control loops of the machine axes of motion. The details regarding the construction and working of mechatronics based system have already been studied in last lectures. CNC systems have a limitation. if the same NC program is used on various machine tools, then it has to be loaded separately into each machine. This is time consuming and involves repetitive tasks. For this purpose direct numerical control (DNC) system is developed. Figure 2 shows the schematic of a DNC system. It consists of a central computer to which a group of CNC machine tools are connected via a communication network, The communication is usually carried out using a standard protocol such as TCP/IP or MAP. DNC system can be centrally monitored which is helpful when dealing with different operators, in different shifts, working on different machines. If the tool axis orientation varies with the tool motion in 3D, 3-axis machine gets converted into multi-axis orientation machine (4-, 5-, or 6-axis). Figure .6 shows the schematic of tool motion in a multi-axis CNC machine tool.Certtal computer Communication network Figure 2 Direct numerical control (DNC) system 2. Axes of CNC machine tool In CNC machine tool, each axis of motion is equipped with a driving device to replace the handwheel of the conventional machine tool, A axis of motion is defined as an axis where relative motion between cutting tool and workpiece occurs. The primary axes of motion are referred to as theX, Y,andZ axes and form the machine tool XYZ coordinate system. Figure 3shows the coordinate system and the axes of motion of a typical machine tool. Conventionally machine tools are designated by the number of axes of motion they can provide to control the tool position and orientation, 2.1 2-axis machine tool Tool axis Z-axis control Figure 3 Axes of motion of a machine toolChange in tool orientation _—— (tool axis can be inclined to the Z-axis) Figure 6 Multiple axes machine tool 3. CNC program structure There are four basic terms used in CNC programming. These are a follows: Character -> Word -> Block -> Program Character is the smallest unit of CNC program. It can have Digit / Letter / Symbol. Word is a combination of alpha-numerical characters. This creates a single instruction to the CNC machine. Each word begins with a capital letter, followed by a numeral, These are used to represent axes positions, federate, speed, preparatory commands, and miscellaneous functions. A program block may contain multiple words, sequenced in a logical order of processing. The program comprises of multiple lines of instructions, ‘blocks’ which will be executed by the machine control unit (MCU). synbol 00012 /Progran aunber and 10 Sample program structure for denonstration) —_//Pragram description N10 G2 (units serting K20 G40 G80 Gao Tnitial conmands N30 Ti //To0} TOL in waiting position NAO //replace present tool at spindle by 101 . fnear interpolation i interpolation x100, Linear interpolation: rapid mode M130 ¥20.¢ //inear interpolation at given feed rate R200 G80 240.0 Mog U/Cycle cancel N220 G28 240.0 MOS //Mone in 2 only 20GB XK. Yes //Moae in XY only N20 //énd of progras Stop codeFigure 7 Sample CNC program, Figure 7 shows a sample CNC program. It has basically three sections viz. initial commands section; main section and end commands section. In the initial commands section, the program number, its ID, initial safety preparatory codes such as ‘cancel all the activated cycles by previous program’ are to be specified. In the main section, commands/instructions related the machine tool axes movements, tool change etc. are to be mentioned. At the end, the commands instructing cancellation of cycles, homing the tool and program end are to be provided. The address G identifies a preparatory command, often called G-code. This is used to preset or to prepare the control system to a certain desired condition or to a certain mode or a state of operation. For example G01 presets linear interpolation at given feed but doesnot move any axis. 7 Postoning | Interpolation Jat Interpolation Circular Interpolation Dwell Imaginary Axis Designation Exact Stop Offset Value Setting XY Plane Selection 2X Plane Selection YZ plane Selection Input In Inches: Input In Millimeters Stored Stroke Limit On Stored Stroke Limit Off Reference Point Retum Check Retum To Reference Point Retum From Reference Point Retum To 2nd, 3rd and 4th Ref. Point Skip Cutting Thread Cutting Cutter Compensation Cancel Cutter Compensation Left Cutter Compensation Right Tool Length Compensation + Direction Lenath Compensation - Direction 01 Offset Increase Tool Offset Double Too! Offset Double Increase Tool Offset Double Decrease Too! Length Compensation Cancel Scaling Off Scaling On Local Coordinate System Setting Work Coordinate System 1 Selection Work Coordinate System2 Selection Work Coordinate System 3 Selectior Nork Coordinate System 4 Selection Work Coordinate System 5 Selection Work Coordinate System 6 Selection Single Direction Positioning Exact Stop Mode Cutting Mode ‘Custom Macro Simple Call ‘Custom Macro Modal Call Custom Macro Modal Call Cancel Coordinate System Rotation On Coordinate System Rotation Off Peck Drilling Cycle Counter Tapping Cycle Fine Boring Canned Cycle Cancel Driling Cycle, Spot Boring Driling Cycte, Counter Boring Pack Driling Cycle Tapping Cycle Boring Cycle Boring Cycle Back Boring Cycle Boring Cycle Boring Cycle Absolute Programming Incremental Programming Programming Of Absolute Zero Feed Per Minute Feed Per Revolution Constant Surface Speed Control Constant Surface Speed Control Cancel Retumm To Initial Point In Canned Cycles Retum To R Point In Canned Cycles Table .1. G code for Milling operationsThe address M in a CNC program specifies miscellaneous function. It is also called as machine function. These functions instruct the machine tool for various operations such as: spindle rotation, gear range change, automatic tool change, coolant operation, etc. The G and M codes are controller manufacturers’ specific. In this course, we will be following the G and M codes used for FANUC, Japan controller. Other controllers such as SINUMERIC, MITSUBHISH| etc. are also being used in CNC technology. It is suggested to the readers to study the following G and M codes for milling and turning operations. [HD —Frearam Stop 600 RapidLinearPositonin M01 Qptional Stop Sai LinearFeedinterpolaton M92 _ End of Program G02 Ch circular interpolation 1493 Spindle On Cw Gas Sew ireatarintepotation Spindle On COW Gos Dwell Spindle Stop GO7 Hypothetical Axis interpolation, Sine Curve: M96 Tool Change G09 ExactStop M07 — Mist Coolant On G10 Offset Value Setting 620 Inputin inches MaB__ Flood Coclant On ea o coolat 622 Stored Stroke Limiton M12 Spindle Orientation On G23. Stored Stroke Limitort M20 Spindle Onentation Off G27 Reference Point ReturnCheck M21 Tool Magazine Right G28 Return To Reference Point M22 Tool Magazine Left G29 Return FromReference Point '23. Tool Magazine Up G30 Retumn To 2ng, 37d, and.4tn Reference Point MBit Toettegeae Dem Se Saunt G32. ThreagCuting Tool Clamo G34 Variable Lead ThreadCutting M25 Tool Unclamp é G36 Automatic Tool Comp.X Mar Clutch Natal Op) G3? ‘AutomatieTeotComp.2 M28 Clutch Neutral Off G40 ToolNoseRad. Comp. Cancel M30 End Program, StopandRewind | G41 ToolNose Radius Comp. Left M98 Call Sub Program G42 _ToolNoseRadius Comp. Right M39_End Sub Program G50 Programming Of Absolute Zero G85. UserMacro Simple Cal Table 1.2 M code for Milling operations | G66 UserNMacrontodalCal | 967 UserMacrottogal Call Cancel G68 Mirrorimage For Double Turrets On G62 MirrorimageFor Double Turrets Off G70 Finishing Cycle G71 StockRemoval, Tuning G72 _StockRemoval, Facing G73 RepeatFattein | G74 PeckDriling, ZAxis G75 Grooving, XAxis G76 ThreadCuting Cycle G90 Cutting Cycle G92 ThreadCuting Cycle 684 Cutting Cycle 996 Constant Surtace Speed Control G67 ConstantSurtace Speed Cancel, G98 FeedPerhlinute G99 FeedPerRevolution G80 Absolute Programming G91 Incremental Programming Table 1.3 Gcode for Tuning operationsCNG PROGRAMMING FOR TURING OPERATIONS Figure 1 shows the final profile to be generated on a bar stock by using a CNC turning center. RAW MATERIAL: MS BAR OF DIAMETER 70 MM. AND LENGTH 160 iM DIAGRAM NOT TO SCALE ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN MM Figure 1 A component to be turned. After studying the required part geometry and features, the main program can be written as follows. ‘G2 ‘G40 CoO Ga For0o Saaz 965450 MOT X72 40 TOOT NOs rs} 910 Fons + Let us now see the meaning and significance of each block of the program,+ Block 1 to 4: Preparatory functions and commands. + Block 5: In CNC turning, only two axes viz. X and Z are used. X axis is along the radius of work part, whereas Z axis is along the length of the work part. Figure 7.4.2 shows the axes system used in CNC turning centers. The program zero will be set by using G54 command. The program zero is assumed to be located at the tip of work contour as shown in Figure. 1. Turet Tatetock ul + Figure.2 Axes system used in CNC turning center + Block 6: In turning programming the Tool is designated by an alphabet ‘T’ and four numerals. Out of the four numerals, first two indicates the tool number and the last signifies the wear offset number. In this block the tool number 1 is selected. + Block 7:G96 command maintains the constant surface speed during the reduction of diameter by using CNC turning. For efficient and proper cutting, it is essential to maintain a constant cutting speed (along the surface). It can be obtained by varying the spindle RPM according to the change in the diameter during the turning operation. Figure 7.4.3 shows that how the RPM of the spindle should be increased to maintain the constant surface speed.[375 min | Gee sare [6000 r/min | max. spindle 64.00 = 358 min | + 93.50 = 409 17min 93.00 = 477 rhmin 2.60 = 573 umn | | = 9200716 min 191.50 = 985 /min ——— 91.00 = 1432 min 0.8 2866 ymin ea = 90.00 = 6000 rrmin = spinale max. + Figure 7.4.3 Constant surface speed control Block 8: Prepare for the facing operation. During this stage, activate the tool nose radius compensation towards left when the tool moves along the radial direction (X). Also activate the wear compensation as per the offset value provided at wear offset register 01. Figure 7.4.4 shows the conventions to be followed for tool nose radius compensations in turning operations. 2p ace RIGHT ass -LeFT + Figure 7.4.4 Tool nose radius compensation Block 9: Carry out the facing operation. Block 10 and 11: Go to safe position X 72 andZ5. During this movement activate the tool nose radius compensation towards right side of the contour. Block 12 and 13: These blocks specify the stock removal cycle G71 for external roughing. This will obtain the required shape with an allowance kept for finishing operation. The syntax of this cycle command Is as follows:10 G7 UL R G71 Pu. Q@. UL. Wa. FS. First block: u = Depth of roughing cut R= Amount of retract from each cut Second block: First block number of finishing contour Last block number of finishing contour Stock amount for finishing on the X-axis diameter Stock left for finishing on the Z-axis Cutting feed-rate (in/rev or m/min) between P block and Q block Spindle speed (ft/min or m/min) between P block and Q block The points P and Q on the contour of the workpart can be defined as shown in the figure 7.4.5 Pp Q U w F s --—— 600 co + Figure 7.4.5 G71 cycle: P and Q points. Block 14 to 21: these blocks provide the coordinates of various points on the contour of the work part. Block 22: Go to a safe position. Block 23: In this block the finishing cycle G70 will be executed. The syntax for this cycle is as follows: G70 P.. Q First block © number of _— the _ finishing contour Last block — number of the _ finishing contour F Cutting feed rate (invrev or mm/rev) S = Spindle speed (fl/min or mimin) Block 24 to 27: Go to safe potion (home); cancel all activated cycles and stops the program. where," CNC PROGRAMMING FORMILLING OPERATIONS Figure 1 shows the final profile required to be finish-contoured and the holes to be drilled by using a CNC Vertical Machining Center. Write an EFFICIENT CNC part program for the same. Assume the finishing allowance of about 2 mm. ia.6 ieROLES RAW MATERIAL: CASTED 145 PLATE 20 taut THICK ALL HOLES ARE THROUGH THE PLATE DIAGRAM NOT To SCALE. ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN MILLIMETER Figure 1 A component to machined on a vertical machining center (VMC) After studying the required part geometry and features the following main program and its sub-program are prepared, Table 1 Process plan Operation | Operation Toolname | Tool Length Diameter no. number | register register number number 1 Contour finishing | End-mill TOL HO1 Doi 2 Drilling of dia. 6 End-mill TOL ‘HOI DO mun holes Drilling of dia 16 [Dalle | TO HOD DoD mm holes MAIN PROGRAM:swyuooud-sns ot oN 01Z Ort ord OTZ ON 189 08s SOIL 20H _O1Z ofA SLX TOL Ox Ox SO O1Z oot TooId OLA Stix oOo O9tN OTK StX O57: tet 0rz 01m 18D OFX O1Z Ox Sea OOTx O51 x StIA_ SIX Sta_ 10d 0x ost OCZ ‘D00TS, WON 10H O1Z OA OFX TOL a ee 069 _6FD 089 wuBlock X30 Nao Let us now see the meaning and significance of each block of the main program and its sub-program. Above programs have been prepared based on the process plan shown in Tabla Block 1 to 5: Preparatory instructions as discussed in the last lecture Block 6 to 8: Selection and change of tool as T01; go to a safe position. Block 9: Spindle on Block 10: Approach the depth at the given feed. Block 14: Ramp-on: approach the workpiece with cutter radius compensation towards left. In this work we are programming the contour points. MCU will automatically finds out the cutter location points and accordingly he guides the cutting tool in the machine volume. CNC milling may have extemal machining such as contouring/contour finishing or internal machining such pocket milling/contouring as shown in Figure 2. In such cases the programmer has to specify Fig 2 Tool motions in milling operations. the cutter radius offset direction by using G41/G42 commands as shown in Figure 7.3.3. Absence of these commands leads to inaccurate machining. The application of cutter radius compensation also depends upon type of milling operation14 being carried out. During Climb milling G41 is to be applied and for Up milling, G42 is to be used (see figure 4) Climb or DOWN [Milling method: | Conventional or UP CHIPTHICKNESS of CHIP THORNE: ) when the insert enters te part J when heinsert leaves the pat > Too! motion direction Figure 7.3.4 Cutter radius compensation in milling operations. Block 12 to 21: the contour of the work part is programmed by using linear (G01) and circular (G02/GO3) interpolation commands. These commands onceactivated then need not to be repeated in the subsequent blocks until a required change in them to be incorporated. These are called as MODAL commands. Block 22: Ramp-off: the cutting tool will completely come out of the contour. Block 23 and 24: Cutting tool will approach the next operation i.e. drilling three similar patterns of holes. Block 25: Drilling canned cycle is activated. Block 26 to 30:A sub-program 00002 is calied-on for execution. It is an advanced option used in CNC programming. This eliminates repetition of blocks for machining of similar features at various locations. It makes the program compact and enhances the efficiency of programming. Program 00002 facilitates the locations of the holes which are mentioned with incremental dimensions. This program can be executed to drill the shown pattern of holes anywhere on the work part. Block 31: Cancel the canned cycle and switch-off the coolant flow. Block 32 to 33: Go to home position safely and turn-off the spindle. Block 34 to 37: Make the Tool 2 ready for drilling dia. 16 mm hole; change the tool; and turn-on the spindle as well as coolant. Block 38 to 40: Execute the drilling canned cycle at three locations. Block 41 to 45: Send the cutting tool to home position safely; switch-off the spindle as well as coolant; and stop the program.EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION OF MICRO MACHINING As the demands for the manufacture of parts with complex micro-scale features increase for micro-components and systems, it is critical to develop technologies for processing engineering materials of high strength, good corrosion and wear resistance with good precisions. Micromachining, micro-milling in particular, due to its great process flexibility, has been implemented as an alternative technology to generate accurate three dimensional (3D) geometries. The size effect such that the material specific cutting force at the micro-scale is much higher than at the macro-scale makes micromachining of difficult-to-machine materials even more difficult. The high specific cutting force cannot be sustained by micro-sized tools, which usually results in a catastrophic failure of the tool and poor finished surface. Laser-Assisted Micro Machining (LAMM) is a promising technology offering desired capability of producing complex 3D and high aspect ratio micro features in various difficult-to-machine materials such as hardened steels, titanium alloys, and nickel-based superalloys. Softening the workpiece material using a controlled laser ahead of the cutting position reduces the cutting forces and has the potential for extending the practical applications of the process. Experimental evaluation of micro milling of hardened tool steel 1. This study is focused on experimental evaluation of micro-milling of hardened H13 tool steels. Micro-milling experiments were carried out on: 2. Three-axis CNC controlled micro-milling system that includes a Precise SC-40 spindle with a maximum rotation speed of 90k RPM and provides movement of the workpiece relative to the tool with a 1 um resolution, A flexible nozzie was attached to the spindle mounting fixture allowing for an adjustable flow of assist gas during machining. 3. A differential acoustic emission (AE) sensor with an operating frequency range of 100-1000 kHz was securely mounted to the workpiece vise, and was connected to a matching preamplifier and data acquisition card with Physical Acoustics software being used for all signal processing. The AE sensor was used as an indicator of tool contact and to collect qualitative data during the cutting process 4. Post-inspections after micro-milling experiments were carried out on surface integrity, machined part size and tool wear. A JEOL JSM-T330 scanning electron microscope (SEM) and a Zeiss optical microscope were used to examine machined workpieces and tools in this study. 3D surface maps and surface roughnessq measurements were obtained using a non-contact interferometric surface profiler (ADE Phase Shift Micro-XAM). Size Effect In micromachining, the cutting edge radius (r.) of the micro tools is comparable to the undeformed chip thickness (h). Ploughing eventually becomes dominant as r, increases to be much greater than h and no chip forms beyond this condition. ‘Material removed Material removed h | workpiece \vetsne fa)hor, (b)h=re (acre (a) SEM micrograph of anew tool (b) Tool dimensions in microns _(c) 3D overview R25, R50 Flute 2 Workpiece Flute LAMM Side Cutting of Difficult-to-Machine Alloys Core 1. This study is focused on numerical modeling analysis of laser-assisted micro- milling (LAMM) of difficult-to-machine alloys, such as Ti6AI4V, Inconel 718, and stainless steel AISI 422. Multiple LAMM tests are performed on these materials in side cutting of bulk and fin workpiece configurations with 100-300 ym diameter micro endmills. 2. A 3D transient finite volume prismatic thermal model is used to quantitatively analyze the material temperature increase in the machined chamfer due to laser- assist during the LAMM process. 3, Novel 2D finite element (FE) models are developed in ABAQUS to simulate the continuous chip formation with varying chip thickness with the strain gradient constitutive material models developed for the size effect in micro-milling,4, The steady-state workpiece and tool cutting temperatures after multiple milling cycles are analyzed with a heat transfer model based on the chip formation analysis and the prismatic thermal model predictions, 5. An empirical tool wear model is implemented in the finite element analysis to predict tool wear in the LAMM side cutting process. The FE model results are discussed in chip formation, flow stresses, temperatures and velocity fields to great details, which relate to the surface integrity analysis and built-up edge (BUE) formation in micro-milling. LAMM Side Cutting Two LAMM configurations: Laser beam on the side surface for bulk side cutting, and ‘on the top surface in fin side cutting. The narrow width of the fins allowed for a more uniform temperature profile. boa Toni, =|| | em (a) LAN optical path (b) Bulk workpiece (c)Fin workpiece Cutting Temperature Workpiece nodal temperature histories in conventional micro-milling and LAMM of 4228S. = Cutting phase Idling phase ry x B10 | Roi | Te | i | 2 0.0005 0.001 0.0015 0.002 Time(s) (a} CONV side cutting 422fin-1, V=28.3 m/min Cutting phase tcling phase é x Sana 4 oe Bao U % a i Tone’ Ta 220 soo feist rotation 2nd rotation) © 00005 0001 0001s 0.002 Time (3) (b) LAMM side cutting 422fin-2, V=28.3 m/minCOORDINATE MEASURING MACHINES (CMM) A coordinate measuring machine (CMM) is a device for measuring the physical geometrical characteristics of an object. This machine may be manually controlled by an operator or it may be computer controlled. Measurements are defined by a probe attached to the third moving axis of this machine. Probes may be mechanical, optical, laser, or white light, among others. A machine which takes readings in six degrees of freedom and displays these readings in mathematical form is known as a CMM. The typical 3D “bridge” CMM is composed of three axes, X, Y and Z. These axes are orthogonal to each other in a typical three-dimensional coordinate system. Each axis has a scale system that indicates the location of that axis. They are versatile in their capability to record measurement of complex profiles with high sensitivity (0.25 m) and speed. In this unit, we will discuss the principle and the working of a Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM). A coordinate measuring machine (CMM) is also a device used in manufacturing and assembly processes to test a part or assembly against the design intent. These points are collected by using a probe that is positioned manually by an operator or automatically via Direct Computer Control (DCC). DCC CMMs can be programmed to repeatedly measure identical parts, thus a CMM is a specialized form of industrial robot. Coordinate measuring machines are also called measuring machines Objectives After studying this unit, you should be able to * familiarize yourself with parts of a CMM, and * understand the principle and the working of a CMM DESCRIPTION OF PARTS Co-ordinate Measuring Machines are built rigidly and are very precise. They are equipped with digital readout or can be linked to computers for online inspection of parts. These machines can be placed close to machine tools for efficient inspection and rapid feedback for correction of processing parameter before the next part is made. They are also made more rugged to resist environmental effects in manufacturing plants such as temperature variations, vibration and dirt. Important features of the CMMs are : (i) To give maximum rigidity to machines without excessive weight, all the moving members, the bridge structure, Z-axis carriage, and Z-column are made of hollow box construction, (li) A map of systematic errors in machine is built up and fed into the computer system so that the error compensation is built up into the software. All machines are provided with their own computers with interactive dialogue facility and friendly software. Thermocouples are incorporated throughout the machine and interfaced with the computer to be used for compensation of temperature gradients and thus provide increased accuracy and repeatability. ACNM consists of three main elements :Qo 1. Main Structure The machine incorporates the basic concept of three coordinate axes so that precise movement in x, y, and z directions is possible. Each axis is fitted with a linear measurement Y > transducer. The transducers sense the direction of movement and gives digital display. Accordingly, there may be five types of arrangement |. Cantilever The cantilever construction combines easy access and Ts relatively small floor s++pace requirements. It is typically limited to | small and medium sized machines. Parts larger than the machine ‘ table can be inserted into the open side without inhibiting full machine travel. Figure 1 shows a cantilever structure Figure 1: Cantilever Structure ll, Bridge Type | | | The bridge arrangement over the table carries the quill (z- g all axis) along the x-axis and is sometimes referred to as a travelling bridge. It is claimed thatthe bridge construction provides better accuracy, although it may be offset by difficulty in making two members track in perfect alignment. This is by far the most popular CMM construction. Figure 2 shows a bridge structure. AL | as Ill. Column Type The column type machine is commonly referred to as a universal measuring machine rather than a CMM. These machines are usually considered gage room instruments rather than production floor machine. The direction of movements of the arms are as shown in Figure 3. The constructional difference in column type with the cantilever type is with x and y-axes movements. IV. Gantry In a gantry type arrangement, arms are held by two fixed k ' supports as shown in Figure 4. Other two arms are capable of | [pT sliding over the supports. Movements of the x, y and z-axes are | also as shown in Figure 4. The gantry type construction is | |]particularly suited for very large components and allows the operator to remain close to the area of inspection. Figure 4 : Gantry Structure V. Horizontal Figure 5 shows the construction of a horizontal structure. The open structure of this arrangement provides optimum accessibility for large objects such as dies, models, and car bodies. Some horizontal arm machines are referred to as layout machines. There are some horizontal machines where the probe arm can rotate like a spindle to perform tramming operations. Tramming refers to accurate mechanical adjustment of instrument or machine with the help of tram. Figure § : Horizontal Structure 2. Probing System It is the part of a CMM that sense the different parameters required for the calculation. Appropriate probes have to be selected and placed in the spindle of the CMM. Originally, the probes were solid or hard, such as tapered plugs for locating holes. These probes required manual manipulation to establish contact with the workpiece, at which time the digital display was read. Nowadays, transmission trigger- probes, optical transmission probes, multiple or cluster probes, and motorized probes are available. They are discussed in brief below: |. Inductive and Optical Transmission Probes ‘Machine |_Controt_j Inductive and optical transmission probes have been developed for automatic tool changing. Power is transmitted using inductive linking between modules fitted to the machine structure and attached to the =r probe. Figure 6 shows a schematic of the _ inductive transmission probe, The hard- 2 wired transmission probe shown is primarily for tool setting and is - mounted in a fixed position on the s machine structure. The optical rob transmission probe allows probe rotation between gaging moves, i 6 making it particularly useful for datuming the probe. The wide-angle system allows greater axial movement of the probe and is suitable for the majority of installation. Toolsetting <> probe a }ar Figure 6: Inductive Probe System and Automatic Probe Changing ll, Motorized probe With the motorized probe, 48 positions in the horizontal axis, 15 in the vertical axis. can be programmed for a total of 720 distinct probe orientations. Figure 8(b) shows some typical applications for motorized probe. It shows that with a range of light weight extensions, the head can reach into deep holes and recesses. The second diagram shows that head of the probe is sufficiently compact to be regarded as an extension of the machine quill. This enables the inspection of complex components that would otherwise be impossible or involve complex setups. (b) Typical Applications of Motorized Probe Figure7 lll. Multiple Styluses Probe Heads Wide ranges of styli have been developed to suit many different gaging applications. Some of the different styli available are shown mounted on a multiple gaging head in Figure 8. The selection of stylus is done based on the application for which the probe is to be usedFigure 8 : Multiple Stylus Probe Head with Variety of Styli 3. Machine Control and Computer Hardware The control unit allows manual measurement and self teach programming in addition to CNC operation. The control unit is microprocessor controlled. Usually a joystick is provided to activate the drive for manual measurement. Software for Three-dimensional Geometry Analysis In a CMM, the computer and the software are an inseparable part. They together represent one system. The efficiency and cost effectiveness of a CMM depend to a large extent on the software. The features that the CMM software should include + Measurement of diameter, center distances, lengths, geometrical and form errors in prismatic components, etc. * Online statistics for statistical information in a batch. + Parameter programming to minimize CNC programming time of similar parts. + Measurement of plane and spatial curves. * Data communications. * Digital input and output commands for process integration. * Program for the measurement of spur, helical, bevel and hypoid gears. + Interface to CAD software. CMM IN COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING CMM is a very essential and useful tool in CAM. The old standards in ‘communication in CAM were capable of only unidirectional communications, i.e. they translated data which were then converted into design form. But whether the design conforms to the specification could not be known from these standards. Dimensional Measurement Interface System (DMIS) is a new standard in communication used in CAM. It provides a bi-directional communication of inspection data between manufacturing systems and inspection equipment to see what has to be made and what has been made. CMMs enable DMIS bi-directional communication. The data-collecting unit in a CMM is the probe. Therefore, selection of probe and its positioning is very crucial. Instructions must be given to CMM system for the speed for positioning the probe, the path to be followed by the probe, angle at which the probe approaches eto. After a part has been produced on the CNC machine, finished part would be checked on a CMM with its inspection program. Then, the data about the checked part is sent back to the computer, where the original part geometry is stored. aaThe part geometry as designed is compared with the part produced and the resultant deviation could be identified. It helps in identifying problems in manufacturing, Figure 10 shows an interrelation among CNC machine tool, CAD system and a CMM. ADVANTAGES OF CMM CMM has got a number of advantages. The precision and accuracy given by a ‘CMM is very high. It is because of the inherent characteristics of the measuring techniques used in CMM. Following are the main advantages that CMM can offer : Fle v CMMs are essentially universal measuring machines and need not be dedicated to any particular task. They can measure almost any dimensional characteristic of a part configuration, including cams, gears and warped surfaces. No special fixtures or gages are required. Because probe contact is light, most parts can be inspected without being clamped to the table. Reduced Setup Time Part alignment and establishing appropriate reference points are very time consuming with conventional surface plate inspection techniques. Software allows the operator to define the orientation of the part on the CMM, and all subsequent data are corrected for misalignment between the parts-reference system and the machine coordinates Single Setup Most parts can be inspected in a single setup, thus eliminating the need to reorient the parts for access to all features. Improved Accuracy All measurements in a CMM are taken from a common geometrically fixed measuring system, eliminating the introduction and the accumulation of errors that can result with hand-gage inspection methods and transfer techniques. Reduced Operator Influence The use of digital readouts eliminate the subjective interpretation of readings common with dial or vernier type measuring devices. Operator “feel” is virtually eliminated with modem touch-trigger probe systems, and most CMMs have routine measuring procedures for typical part features, such as bores or centre distances. In computer assisted systems; the operator is under the control of a program that eliminates operator choice. In addition, automatic data recording, available on most machines, prevents errors in transcribing readings to the inspection report. This adds upto the fact that less skilled operators can be easily instructed to perform relatively complex inspection procedures.NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Nondestructive testing or Non-destructive testing (NDT) is a wide group of analysis techniques used in science and technology industry to evaluate the properties of a material, component or system without causing damage. The terms Nondestructive examination (NDE), Nondestructive inspection (NDI), and Nondestructive evaluation (NDE) are also commonly used to describe this technology. Because NDT does not permanently alter the article being inspected, it is a highly valuable technique that can save both money and time in product evaluation, troubleshooting, and research. Common NDT methods include ultrasonic, magnetic-particle, liquid penetrant, radiographic, remote visual inspection (RVI), eddy-current testing, and low coherence interferometry. NDT is commonly used in forensic engineering, mechanical engineering, petroleum engineering, electrical engineering, civil engineering, systems engineering, aeronautical engineering, medicine, and art. Innovations in the field of nondestructive testing have had a profound impact on medical imaging, including on echocardiography, medical ultrasonography, and digital radiography. Methods NDT methods may rely upon use of electromagnetic radiation, sound, and inherent properties of materials to examine samples. This includes some kinds of microscopy to examine external surfaces in detail, although sample preparation techniques for metallography, optical microscopy and electron microscopy are generally destructive as the surfaces must be made smooth through polishing or the sample must be electron transparent in thickness. The inside of a sample can be examined with penetrating radiation, such as X-rays, neutrons or terahertz radiation. Sound waves are utilized in the case of ultrasonic testing. Contrast between a defect and the bulk of the sample may be enhanced for visual examination by the unaided eye by using liquids to penetrate fatigue cracks. One method (liquid penetrant testing) involves using dyes, fluorescent or non-fluorescent, in fluids for non-magnetic materials, usually metals. ‘Another commonly used NDT method used on ferrous materials involves the application of fine iron particles (either liquid or dry dust) that are applied to a part while itis in an externally magnetized state (magnetic-particle testing). The particles will be attracted to leakage fields within the test object, and form on the objects surface. Magnetic particle testing can reveal surface & some sub-surface defects within the part. Thermoelectric effect (or use of the Seebeck effect) uses thermal properties of an alloy to quickly and easily characterize many alloys. The chemical test, or chemical spot test method, utilizes application of sensitive chemicals that can indicate the presence of individual alloying elements. Electrochemical methods, such as electrochemical fatigue crack sensors, utilize the tendency of metal structural material to oxidize readily in order to detect progressive damage. Analyzing and documenting a non-destructive failure mode can also be accomplished using a high-speed camera recording continuously (movie-loop) until the failure is detected. Detecting the failure can be accomplished using a sound detector or stress gauge which produces a signal to trigger the high-speed camera. These high- speed cameras have advanced recording modes to capture some non-destructive asfailures. After the failure the high-speed camera will stop recording. The capture images can be played back in slow motion showing precisely what happen before, during and after the non-destructive event, image by image. Applications NDT is used in a variety of settings that covers a wide range of industrial activity, with new NDT methods and applications, being continuously developed. Non- destructive testing methods are routinely applied in industries where a failure of a component would cause significant hazard or economic loss, such as in transportation, pressure vessels, building structures, piping, and hoisting equipment. YANN Weld verification _ a 1 . Section of material with a surface-breaking crack that is not visible to the naked eye. Penetrant is applied to the surface WN Excess penetrant is removed. a Developer is applied, rendering the crack visible. ean he i? Bel 3 4 BON In manufacturing, welds are commonly used to join two or more metal parts. Because these connections may encounter loads and fatigue during product lifetime, there is a chance that they may fail if not created to proper specification. For example, the base metal must reach a certain temperature during the welding process, must cool at a specific rate, and must be welded with compatible materials or the joint may not be strong enough to hold the parts together, or cracks may form in the weld causing it to fail, The typical welding defects (lack of fusion of the weld to the base metal, cracks or porosity inside the weld, and variations in weld density) could cause a structure to break or a pipeline to rupture. Welds may be tested using NDT techniques such as industrial radiography or industrial CT scanning using X-rays or gamma rays, ultrasonic testing, liquid penetrant testing, magnetic particle inspection or via eddy current. In a proper weld, these tests would indicate a lack of cracks in the radiograph, show clear passage of sound through the weld and back, or indicate a clear surface without penetrant captured in cracks. Structural mechanics Structure can be complex systems that undergo different loads during their lifetime, e.g. Lithium-ion batteries. Some complex structures, such as the turbo machinery in a liquid- fuel rocket, can also cost millions of dollars. Engineers will commonly model these structures as coupled second-order systems, approximating dynamic structure components with springs, masses, and dampers. The resulting sets of differentialequations are then used to derive a transfer function that models the behavior of the system. In NDT, the structure undergoes a dynamic input, such as the tap of a hammer or a controlled impulse. Key properties, such as displacement or acceleration at different points of the structure, are measured as the corresponding output. This output is recorded and compared to the corresponding output given by the transfer function and the known input. Differences may indicate an inappropriate model (which may alert engineers to unpredicted instabilities or performance outside of tolerances), failed components, or an inadequate control system. Methods and techniques The flexible high-resolution replicas allow surfaces to be examined and measured under laboratory conditions. A replica can be taken from all solid materials. NDT is divided into various methods of nondestructive testing, each based on a particular scientific principle. These methods may be further subdivided into various techniques. The various methods and techniques, due to their particular natures, may lend themselves especially well to certain applications and be of little or no value at all in other applications. Therefore, choosing the right method and technique is an important part of the performance of NDT. 1. Acoustic emission testing (AE or AT) 2, Blue Etch Anodize (BEA) 3, Dye penetrant inspection or Liquid penetrant Testing (PT or LPI) 4, Electromagnetic testing (ET) or Electromagnetic Inspection (commonly known as “EMI") Alternating current field measurement (ACFM) Alternating current potential drop measurement (ACPD) Barkhausen testing Direct current potential drop measurement (OCPD) Eddy-current testing (ECT) Magnetic flux leakage testing (MFL) for pipelines, tank floors, and wire rope g. Magnetic-particle inspection (MT or MP1) h, Magnetovision i. Remote field testing (RFT) Ellipsometry Endoscope inspection Guided wave testing (GWT) Hardness testing 8, Impulse excitation technique (IET) 10, Terahertz nondestructive evaluation(THz) 11, Infrared and thermal testing (IR) a, Thermographic inspection b. Infrared thermal microscopy ppeaege ai2, 13, 14, 16. 16. "7 18. 19, 20. 24 22. 23, 24, 25. 26. 27. 28, 29, 30. 34 32 ae Laser testing a. Electronic speckle pattern interferometry b. Holographic interferometry c. Low coherence interferometry 4. Profilometry e. Shearography Leak testing (LT) or Leak detection Absolute pressure leak testing (pressure change) Bubble testing Halogen diode leak testing Hydrogen leak testing Mass spectrometer leak testing |. Tracer-gas leak testing method Helium, Hydrogen and refrigerant gases Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and NMR spectroscopy Metallographic replicas Near-Infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) Optical microscopy Positive Material Identification (PMI) Radiographic testing (RT) (see also Industrial radiography and Radiography) a Computed radiography ». Digital radiography (real-time) c. Neutron Imaging d. SCAR (Small Controlled Area Radiography) e. X-ray computed tomography (CT) Resonant Inspection a. Resonant Acoustic Method (RAM) '"4) ‘Scanning electron microscopy Surface Temper Etch (Nital Etch) Ultrasonic testing (UT) a. ART (Acoustic Resonance Technology) Angle beam testing a. Electro Magnetic Acoustic Transducer (EMAT) (non-contact) ». Laser ultrasonics (LUT) c. Internal rotary inspection system (IRIS) ultrasonics for tubes d. Phased array ultrasonics Thickness measurement a. Time of flight diffraction ultrasonics (TOFD) b. Time of Flight Ultrasonic Determination of 3D Elastic Constants (TOF) Vibration Analysis Visual inspection (VT) a. Pipeline video inspection Weight and load testing of structures Corroscan/C-scan 3D Computed Tomography a. Industrial CT Scanning Heat Exchanger Life Assessment System RTJ Flange Special Ultrasonic TestingNON TRADITIONAL MACHINING PROCESSES Manufacturing processes can be broadly divided into two groups and they are primary manufacturing processes and secondary manufacturing processes. The former ones provide basic shape and size to the material as per designer’s requirement. Casting, forming, powder metallurgy are such processes to name a few. Secondary manufacturing processes provide the final shape and size with tighter control on dimension, surface characteristics etc. Material removal processes are mainly the secondary manufacturing processes. Material removal processes once again can be divided into mainly two groups and they are “Conventional Machining Processes” and “Non-Traditional Manufacturing Processes”. Examples of conventional machining processes are turning, boring, milling, shaping, broaching, slotting, grinding etc. Similarly, Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM), Ultrasonic Machining (USM), Water Jet and Abrasive Water Jet Machining (WJM and AWJM), Electro- discharge Machining (EDM) are some of the Non Traditional Machining (NTM) Processes. Clas: ‘ation of Non Traditional Machining Processes To classify Non Traditional Machining Processes (NTM), one needs to understand and analyse the differences and similar characteristics between conventional machining processes and NTM processes. Thus the major characteristics of conventional machining are: |. Generally macroscopic chip formation by shear deformation Il. Material removal takes place due to application of cutting forces — energy domain can be classified as mechanical UII. Cutting tool is harder than work piece at room temperature as well as under machining conditions Non Traditional Machining (NTM) Processes on the other hand are characterised as follows: I. Material removal may occur with chip formation or even no chip formation may take place. For example in AJM, chips are of microscopic size and in case of Electrochemical machining material removal occurs due to electrochemical dissolution at atomic level Il, In NTM, there may not be a physical tool present. For example in laser jet machining, machining is carried out by laser beam. However in Electrochemical Machining there is a physical too! that is very much required for machining IL. In NTM, the tool need not be harder than the work piece material. For example, in EDM, copper is used as the tool material to machine hardened steels. IV. Mostly NTM processes do not necessarily use mechanical energy to provide material removal. They use different energy domains to provide machining. For example, in USM, AJM, WIM mechanical energy is used to machine material, whereas in ECM electrochemical dissolution constitutes material removal. Thus classification of NTM processes is carried out depending on the nature of energy used for material removal. The broad classification is given as follows: ag1, Mechanical Processes i. Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM) ii. Ultrasonic Machining (USM) iii, Water Jet Machining (WJM) iv. Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWIM) Electrochemical Processes Electrochemical Machining (ECM) Electro Chemical Grinding (ECG) Electro Jet Drilling (EJD) 3. Electro-Thermal Processes i, _Electro-discharge machining (EDM) ji, Laser Jet Machining (LIM) ili. Electron Beam Machining (EBM) 4. Chemical Processes i. Chemical Milling (CHM) ii, Photochemical Milling (PCM) ete. usM ECM AJM EDM Fig. .1. Schematic representation of various metal cuning operations, Need for Non Traditional Machining i, Conventional machining sufficed the requirement of the industries over the decades, But new exotic work materials as well as innovative geometric design of products and components were putting lot of pressure on capabilities of conventional machining processes to manufacture thecomponents with desired tolerances economically. This led to the development and establishment ‘of NTM processes in the industry as efficient and economic alternatives to conventional ones. With development in the NTM processes, currently there are often the first choice and not an alternative to conventional processes for certain technical requirements. The following examples are provided where NTM processes are preferred over the conventional machining process: Intricate shaped blind hole ~ e.g. square hole of 15 mmx15 mm with a depth of 30 mm. ii, Difficult to machine material — e.g, same example as above in Inconel, Ti-alloys or carbides. iii, Low Stress Grinding — Blectrochemical Grinding is preferred as compared to conventional grinding iv. Deep hole with small hole diameter — e.g. o 1.5 mm hole with Vd = 20 v. Machining of composites 1. Abrasive Jet Machining In Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM), abrasive particles are made to impinge on the work material at ‘a high velocity. The jet of abrasive particles is carried by carrier gas or air. The high velocity stream of abrasive is generated by converting the pressure energy of the carrier gas or air to its kinetic energy and hence high velocity jet. The nozzle directs the abrasive jet in a controlled manner onto the work material, so that the distance between the nozzle and the work piece and the impingement angle can be set desirably. The high velocity abrasive particles remove the material by micro- cutting action as well as brittle fracture of the work material. Fig. schematically shows the material removal process. High velocity abrasive gas jet (150 ~ 300 nb/s) AJM AJM is different from standard shot or sand blasting, as in AJM, finer abrasive grits are used and the parameters can be controlled more effectively providing better control over product quality In AJM, generally, the abrasive particles of around 50 jum grit size would impinge on the work material at velocity of 200 m/s from a nozzle of L.D. of 0.5 mm with a stand off distance of around 2 mm. ‘The kinetic energy of the abrasive particles would be sufficient to provide material removal due to brittle fracture of the work piece or even micro cutting by the abrasives. a2. Electrical discharge machining Electrical discharge machining (EDM), sometimes colloquially also referred to as spark machining, spark eroding, burning, die sinking, wire burning or wire erosion, is a manufacturing process whereby a desired shape is obtained by using electrical discharges (sparks).'"! Material is removed from the workpiece by a series of rapidly recurring current discharges between two electrodes, separated by a dielectricliquid and subject to an electric voltage. One of the electrodes is called the tool-elecirode, or simply the "tool" or "electrode," while the other is called the workpiece-clectrode, or "workpiece." The process depends upon the tool and workpiece not making actual contact, When the voltage between the two electrodes is increased, the intensity of the electric field in the volume between the electrodes becomes greater than the strength of the dielectric (at least in some places), which breaks down, allowing current to flow between the two electrodes. This phenomenon is the same as the breakdown of a capacitor (condenser) (see also breakdown voltage). As a result, material is removed from the electrodes. Once the current stops (or is stopped, depending on the type of generator), new liquid dielectric is usually conveyed into the inter-electrode volume, enabling the solid particles (debris) to be carried away and the insulating properties of the dielectric to be restored. Adding new liquid dielectric in the inter-electrode volume is commonly referred to as "flushing." Also, after a current flow, the difference of potential between the electrodes is restored to what it was before the breakdown, so that a new liquid dielectric breakdown can occur. Ultrasonic machining Ultrasonic machining, or strictly speaking "Ultrasonic vibration machining", is a raction manufacturing process that removes material from the surface of a part through high frequency, low amplitude vibrations of a tool against the material surface in the presence of fine abrasive particles. The tool travels vertically or orthogonal to the surface of the part at amplitudes of 0.05 to 0.125 mm (0.002 to 0.005 in,).'"! The fine abrasive grains are mixed with \ater to form a slurry that is distributed across the part and the tip of the tool. Typical grain sizes of the abrasive material range from 100 to 1000, where smaller grains (higher grain number) produce smoother surface finishes." Ultrasonic vibration machining is typically used on brittle materials as well as materials with a high hardness due to the microcracking mechanics.Process An ultrasonically vibrating mill consists of two major components, a transducer and @ sonotrode, attached to an electronic control unit with a cable. An electronic oscillator in the control unit produces an alternating current oscillating at a high frequency, usually between 18 and 40 KHz in the ultrasonic range. The transducer usually consists of a cylinder made of piezoelectric ceramic. The oscillating voltage is applied to electrodes attached to the transducer, which converts the electrical energy into mechanical vibrations. The transducer then vibrates the sonotrode at low amplitudes and high frequencies.” The sonotrode is usually made of low carbon steel" A constant stream of abrasive slurry flows between the sonotrode and work picee. This flow of slurry allows debris to flow away from the cutting area, The slurry usually consists of water (20 to 60% by volume) and boron carbide, aluminum oxide and silicon carbide particles.The sonotrode removes material from the work piece by abrasion where it contacts it, sothe result of machining is to cut a perfect negative of the sonotrode's profile into the work piece. Ultrasonic vibration machining allows extremely complex and non-uniform shapes to be cut into the workpiece with extremely high precision.“! Machining time depends on the workpiece’s strength, hardness, porosity and fracture toughness; the slurry’s material and particle size; and the amplitude of the sonotrode's vibration."! The surface finish of materials after machining depends heavily on hardness and strength, with softer and weaker materials exhibiting smoother surface finishes. The inclusion of microcrack and microcavity features on the materials surface depend highly on the crystallographic orientation of the work piece's grains and the materials fracture toughness.)