Bright Public Higher Secondary School MPM
Biology Notes Created by
Waqar Ahmed Mirani
Chapter 01
Biomolecules
( Exercise )
( Short Questions )
Q:01:- Why water molecules are called amphoteric in nature ?
Ans :- Water molecules are amphoteric because they can act as both acids and
bases. This is due to their ability to donate or accept protons (H⁺ ions)
depending on the circumstances.
Q:02:- Why amino acids are named so ?
Ans :- Amino acids are named so because they contain both an amino group (-
NH2) and a carboxyl group (-COOH) in their molecular structure. The "amino"
part refers to the amino group, and the "acid" part refers to the carboxyl group,
which can release a hydrogen ion (H⁺) and act as an acid in solution.
Q:03:- How monosaccharides are classified ?
Ans :- Monosaccharides are classified based on the number of carbon atoms
they contain and the functional groups they have. They can be categorized into
three main groups:
1)Trioses: Monosaccharides with three carbon atoms.
2)Tetroses: Monosaccharides with four carbon atoms.
3)Pentoses: Monosaccharides with five carbon atoms.
Additionally, based on the functional groups they contain, monosaccharides
can be further classified as aldoses (containing an aldehyde group) or ketoses
(containing a ketone group).
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Q:04:- Enlist bio – elements make 98% of living system ?
Ans :- The bio – elements that make up approz: 98% of living system are :
Carbon , Hydrogen , Nitrogen and oxygen .
Q:05:- Why fats provide more energy than carbohydrates ?
Ans :- Fats provide more energy than carbohydrates because they contain more
carbon-hydrogen bonds, which store a lot of energy. When these bonds are
broken during metabolism, fats release more energy compared to the bonds in
carbohydrates.
Q:06:- How many steps involve in nucleotide formation ?
Ans :- Nucleotide formation typically involves three main steps:
1)Base Attachment: A nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, or
thymine/uracil) attaches to a sugar molecule (ribose or deoxyribose) to form a
nucleoside.
2)Phosphate Attachment: A phosphate group attaches to the nucleoside,
forming a nucleotide.
3)Phosphodiester Bond Formation: Nucleotides link together through
phosphodiester bonds between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate
group of another, forming a nucleic acid chain.
Q:07 ;- Distinguish between saturated and unsaturatewd
acylglycerol ?
Ans :- Saturated and unsaturated acylglycerols differ in the types of fatty acids
they contain and their chemical properties:
1)Saturated Acylglycerol:
=>Contains fatty acids with only single bonds between carbon atoms.
=>Has a straight structure.
=>Typically solid at room temperature.
Examples include butter, lard, and coconut oil.
2)Unsaturated Acylglycerol:
=>Contains fatty acids with one or more double bonds between carbon atoms.
=>Has a bent or kinked structure due to double bonds.
=>Typically liquid at room temperature.
Examples include olive oil, sunflower oil, and fish.
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( Long Questions )
Q:01:- Describe the properties and roles of starch , glycogen ,
cellulose and chitin .
Ans :- Starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin are all polysaccharides, but they
have different properties and roles in living organisms:
1)Starch:
Properties: Starch is a polysaccharide made of glucose units. It consists of two
main components: amylose, which is a linear chain of glucose molecules, and
amylopectin, which is a branched chain. Starch is insoluble in water and forms
granules.
Role: Starch serves as a storage polysaccharide in plants, where it is stored in
structures like seeds, roots, and tubers. It acts as an energy reserve, providing
glucose when needed for growth and metabolism.
2)Glycogen:
Properties: Glycogen is a highly branched polysaccharide made of glucose
units. It has a structure similar to amylopectin but with more frequent
branching points.
Role: Glycogen serves as a storage polysaccharide in animals, primarily in the
liver and muscles. It acts as a readily accessible source of glucose, especially
during times of high energy demand such as exercise or fasting.
3)Cellulose:
Properties: Cellulose is a linear polysaccharide made of glucose units linked by
β(1→4) glycosidic bonds. It forms long, straight chains that hydrogen bond with
each other, creating strong microfibrils.
Role: Cellulose is a major structural component of plant cell walls, providing
rigidity and strength to plant cells. It is one of the most abundant organic
compounds on Earth and serves as a dietary fiber for many organisms.
4)Chitin:
Properties: Chitin is a polysaccharide made of N-acetylglucosamine units
linked by β(1→4) glycosidic bonds. It has a similar structure to cellulose but
with nitrogen-containing groups.
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Role: Chitin is a structural polysaccharide found in the exoskeletons of
arthropods (such as insects and crustaceans), as well as in the cell walls of
fungi. It provides support and protection to these organisms.
Q:02:- What is nucleic acid ? Describe structure of a
mononucleotide (ATP) and dinucleotide (NAD) .
Ans :- Nucleic acids are macromolecules found in all living cells, which play
crucial roles in storing, transmitting, and expressing genetic information. They
are composed of nucleotides, which consist of three main components: a
nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group.
Structure of Mononucleotide (ATP - Adenosine Triphosphate):
Nitrogenous Base: Adenine (purine base)
Pentose Sugar: Ribose
Phosphate Groups: Three phosphate groups attached to the 5' carbon of the
ribose sugar.
Structure of Dinucleotide (NAD - Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide):
Nitrogenous Bases: Adenine (purine base) and Nicotinamide (a modified form of
niacin, a pyridine base)
Pentose Sugar: Ribose
Phosphate Groups: Two phosphate groups attached to the 5' carbon of the
ribose sugar.
Q:03:- What is amino acid ?Explain peptide linkage formation .
Ans :- An amino acid is a type of organic molecule that serves as the building
block of proteins. Each amino acid contains a central carbon atom (called the
alpha carbon) bonded to four different chemical groups:
1)Amino group (-NH2)
2)Carboxyl group (-COOH)
3)Hydrogen atom
4)Side chain (often denoted as "R", which varies among different amino acids)
The distinguishing feature of amino acids is their side chain, which gives each
amino acid its unique properties.
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Peptide linkage formation, also known as peptide bond formation, is the
process by which amino acids are joined together to form a peptide bond. This
occurs through a condensation reaction (also called dehydration synthesis)
between the carboxyl group (-COOH) of one amino acid and the amino group (-
NH2) of another amino acid.
During this reaction, a molecule of water (H2O) is removed, and the carbon
from the carboxyl group of one amino acid binds to the nitrogen from the amino
group of another amino acid, forming a covalent bond called a peptide bond.
This bond links the carboxyl group of one amino acid to the amino group of the
other amino acid, resulting in the formation of a dipeptide.
Peptide bond formation is central to the synthesis of proteins, as amino acids
are sequentially linked together through peptide bonds to form polypeptide
chains, which then fold into functional protein structures.
Q:04:- Explain classification of protein and list structural and
functional protein ?
Ans :- Proteins can be classified based on their three-dimensional shapes,
which are determined by the specific arrangement of amino acids within the
protein chain. Here are some common shapes and classifications:
1)Fibrous Proteins:
These proteins have elongated, thread-like shapes.
They are often insoluble in water and form strong, stable structures.
Examples include collagen, keratin, and fibroin (found in silk).
2)Globular Proteins:
These proteins have compact, spherical shapes.
They are usually soluble in water and are involved in metabolic functions.
Examples include enzymes, antibodies, and many hormones.
Table :- list of structural protein
Structural
Protein Function
Provides strength, support, and flexibility to connective
Collagen tissues such as skin, tendons, ligaments, and bones.
Forms the structural framework of hair, nails, and the
outer layer of skin (epidermis), providing protection
Keratin against mechanical damage and dehydration.
Actin Forms thin filaments in muscle cells and is involved in
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Structural
Protein Function
muscle contraction, cell movement, and maintenance of
cell shape.
Forms microtubules, which are structural components
of the cytoskeleton involved in cell shape, intracellular
Tubulin transport, and cell division (mitosis and meiosis).
Provides elasticity to tissues such as skin, blood
vessels, lungs, and ligaments, allowing them to stretch
Elastin and recoil without damage.
Found in the extracellular matrix and basement
membranes, laminin helps anchor cells to the
extracellular matrix and contributes to tissue
Laminin organization and structure.
Forms the structural framework of blood clots, providing
temporary scaffolding for platelets and other blood
Fibrin components during the clotting process (hemostasis).
Major component of thick filaments in muscle cells,
responsible for generating force during muscle
Myosin contraction by interacting with actin filaments.
Regulates the interaction between actin and myosin
during muscle contraction by binding to calcium ions
Troponin and initiating the contraction process.
Found in muscle cells, dystrophin helps anchor the
structural components of muscle fibers to the cell
membrane, maintaining the integrity and stability of
Dystrophin muscle cells.
Table :- List of Functional Protein
Functional Protein Function
Catalyze biochemical reactions by lowering the
activation energy required for the reaction to
occur. Examples include amylase (digestive
enzyme), DNA polymerase (involved in DNA
replication), and catalase (involved in breaking
Enzymes down hydrogen peroxide).
Transport oxygen from the lungs to tissues and
carbon dioxide from tissues to the lungs in the
Hemoglobin bloodstream.
Antibodies Recognize and neutralize foreign substances
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(antigens) such as bacteria, viruses, and
toxins, thereby playing a crucial role in the
(Immunoglobulins) immune response.
Regulate blood glucose levels by facilitating
the uptake of glucose into cells and promoting
its storage as glycogen in the liver and
Insulin muscles.
Stimulate growth and cell reproduction,
particularly in bones, muscles, and organs,
Growth Hormone during childhood and adolescence.
Facilitate the movement of ions (such as
sodium, potassium, calcium, and chloride)
across cell membranes, thereby regulating
membrane potential and electrical signaling in
Ion Channels cells.
Q:05:- What are lipids ? explain acylglycerol and waxes .
Ans :- Lipids are a diverse group of organic molecules that are insoluble in
water but soluble in organic solvents like ether, chloroform, or benzene. They
play crucial roles in living organisms, serving as energy storage molecules,
structural components of cell membranes, and signaling molecules. Lipids
include fats, oils, phospholipids, steroids, and waxes.
Acylglycerol: Acylglycerols are lipids made up of glycerol molecules bonded to
fatty acids. They serve as the primary constituents of fats and oils and are
crucial for energy storage in living organisms.
Waxes: Waxes are lipids composed of long-chain fatty acids esterified with
long-chain alcohols. They provide waterproofing and protection in plants and
animals, while also finding use in industrial applications like cosmetics and
polishes.
Q:06:- Explain terpenoids and its types ?
Ans :- Terpenoids are a large and diverse class of organic compounds derived
from the combination of multiple isoprene units. They are found abundantly in
plants and some animals, serving various functions such as attracting
pollinators, repelling herbivores, and acting as hormones. Terpenoids
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encompass a wide range of molecules, including terpenes. There are the types
of terpenoids :
1)Terpenes are a subset of terpenoids, specifically referring to the simpler
hydrocarbons derived from isoprene units. They often contribute to the aroma
and flavor of plants and are widely used in essential oils, perfumes, and
flavorings.
2)Steroids:
Steroids are a class of organic compounds characterized by a specific
molecular structure consisting of four interconnected rings of carbon atoms.
They play essential roles in biology, serving as hormones, signaling molecules,
and components of cell membranes. Examples of steroids include cholesterol,
estrogen, testosterone, and cortisol.
Carotenoids:
Carotenoids are pigments found in plants, algae, and some bacteria. They are
responsible for the red, orange, and yellow colors in many fruits and
vegetables, such as carrots, tomatoes, and pumpkins. Carotenoids have
antioxidant properties and are also important for photosynthesis in plants,
where they absorb light energy.
Prostaglandins:
Prostaglandins are a group of lipid compounds derived from fatty acids. They
act as signaling molecules in the body, regulating various physiological
processes such as inflammation, blood flow, and the contraction and
relaxation of smooth muscle tissue. Prostaglandins are involved in pain and
fever responses, and they play critical roles in reproductive processes, such as
inducing labor and controlling ovulation.
Q:07:- What are conjugated molecules ?Explain types of conjugated
molecules .
Ans :- conjugated molecules refer to molecules that contain alternating single
and multiple bonds (double or triple bonds) along their backbone structure.
These conjugated systems often result in unique electronic properties, such as
the ability to absorb light or conduct electricity. Conjugation can occur in
various types of biomolecules, including:
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1)Glycolipids:
Glycolipids are lipids (fats) that have a carbohydrate (sugar) moiety attached
to them. They are important components of cell membranes, where they
contribute to membrane stability and cell-cell recognition. Glycolipids consist
of a hydrophobic lipid tail and a hydrophilic carbohydrate head. Examples of
glycolipids include cerebrosides and gangliosides.
2)Glycoproteins:
Glycoproteins are proteins that have carbohydrate chains (glycans) attached to
them. These carbohydrate chains are covalently linked to specific amino acid
residues in the protein structure. Glycoproteins play diverse roles in biological
processes, including cell signaling, cell adhesion, and immune recognition.
Examples of glycoproteins include antibodies, hormones, and cell surface
receptors.
3)Lipoproteins:
Lipoproteins are complex molecules composed of both lipids and proteins.
They function primarily in the transport of hydrophobic lipids, such as
cholesterol and triglycerides, through the bloodstream. Lipoproteins consist of
a hydrophobic core of lipids surrounded by a shell of proteins, phospholipids,
and cholesterol molecules. The major classes of lipoproteins include
chylomicrons, very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL), low-density lipoproteins
(LDL), and high-density lipoproteins (HDL).
4)Nucleoproteins:
Nucleoproteins are complexes of proteins and nucleic acids (DNA or RNA).
They are essential components of chromosomes and play crucial roles in DNA
packaging, replication, transcription, and gene regulation. In chromatin,
nucleoproteins consist of histone proteins bound to DNA, forming
nucleosomes, which are the basic units of chromatin structure. Nucleoproteins
also include various proteins that interact with RNA to form ribonucleoprotein
complexes involved in processes such as mRNA splicing, translation, and RNA
stability.
