WORKSHEET 3.

BIOLOGICAL MACROMOLECULES
(Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids and Nucleic Acids)
I. CARBOHYDRATES

The word carbohydrate may be broken down to carbon and hydrate. From the chemical formula of carbohydrate,
notice that the ratio of C:H:O is 1:2:1, which can be rewritten as Cn(H2O)n. Carbohydrates can be seen as hydrates
of carbon. This is a traditional but incorrect understanding of carbohydrates but it still presents a useful picture of the
molecule. Another term for carbohydrate is saccharide. This term is derived from the Latin word saccharum referring
to sugar--a common carbohydrate.
Carbohydrates are classified either as simple or complex. Simple sugars are monosaccharides and disaccharides.
Complex sugars are polysaccharides.

Part A. Study Figure 1.1. The Fischer structure and chemical formula of glucose
on the right. Then, answer the questions.
1. What elements do you see in the structure/ formula?
2. What do you notice with the chemical formula of glucose?

Part B. Study Figure 1.2. The different structures of Haworth carbohydrates of

monosaccharide, disaccharide, and polysaccharide below. Then, answer the
questions that follow.

C6H12O6 or C6(H2O)6
Figure 1.1. Fisher structure and chemical formula
of glucose

Monosaccharide Disaccharide
Polysaccharide
Figure 1.2
1. What similarities do you see in the structures?
2. What differences do you see in the structures?
Part 3. Study the Haworth structure of different carbohydrates then identify what type they are under.
Amylopectin- Like amylose but has more branches attached; Storage form of glucose in plants
Cellulose- Composed of glucose units connected via β-1-4 glycosidic bond, linear chain arranged in a parallel manner;
Structural material in plants--cell wall in wood, wood fiber; Cannot be digested by humans
Fructose- Found in fruits and honey
Galactose-Found in milk and milk products

Glucose- Used in dextrose, blood sugar; the form utilized by the human body
Glycogen- Composed of more glucose, more highly branched (same type of bond as amylopectin); Storage form of
glucose in animals, stored in the liver and muscles
Lactose-Found in milk and milk products
Maltose- Found in malt
Starch/Amylose-Composed of 250 - 400 glucose molecules connected; Storage form of glucose in plants
Sucrose-Found in regular table sugar, sugar cane, sugar beet

MONOSACCHARIDE DISACCHARIDE POLYSACCHARIDE

II. PROTEINS
The word protein came from the Greek term proteios meaning first. One can think of protein as the beginning of life. From
egg albumin being pure protein to sperm and egg cells, we all start from proteins. Proteins are composed of four elements,
namely, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Proteins are composed of amino acids in the similar way that
carbohydrates are composed of saccharides. Depending on the sequence of the different amino acids, proteins will
acquire certain structure and functions. An amino acid is a molecule that has an amine and a carboxyl group. Below is the
structure of an amino acid:

There are 20 amino acids. The combination of many amino acids creates protein. Amino acids are joined together with a
peptide bond. Proteins are also called polypeptides. The different kinds of this biomolecule based on their functions are
structural, enzyme, transport, storage and antibody.

Below is a list of some examples of amino acids. Read their descriptions and classify them according to their functions.
Sucrase - also called invertase, help in the digestion of sugars and starches
Immunoglobulins- are proteins manufactured by the body that help fight against foreign substances called antigens. When
an antigen enters the body, it stimulates the immune system to produce immunoglobulins. (The immune system is the body's
natural defense system.) The immunoglobulins attach, or bind, themselves to the antigen and inactivate it.
Lipase - help in digestion of fats
Keratin- is a protein found in hair, skin, and nails. It is a highly cross-linked protein containing α-helix and β-pleated sheets.
Sheep’s wool is made largely of keratin.
Fibroin / Silk protein-found in silk. Silk has a smooth and soft texture. It is one of the strongest natural fibers that have high
resistance to deformation. It is also a good insulation. Silk is primarily composed of β-pleated sheets. The long polypeptide
chain doubles back on its own running parallel connected together by H-bonds.
Myoglobin- a polypeptide that stores oxygen in muscles. It is a globular protein comprised of 153 amino acids in a single
polypeptide chain. It contains a heme group which has an iron (II) ion at its center. This is where the oxygen is stored.
Collagen- is a major insoluble fibrous protein found in connective tissues such as tendons, ligaments, skin, cartilage and the
cornea of the eye. It comprises as much as 30% of proteins in animals. Its strength is attributed to its triple helix structure
comprising of α-helices braided together. When several triple helices combine, they form the fibrils that make up
connective tissues.
Hemoglobin- a globular protein that carries oxygen from the lungs to the bloodstream. It is composed of four sub-units,
each containing a heme group that enables it to transport four oxygen molecules at a time.
Pepsin - help in breaking down proteins into peptides (smaller units)

STRUCTURAL ENZYME TRANSPORT STORAGE ANTIBODY

III. LIPIDS
- The word lipid comes from the Greek word lipos which means fat. Lipids are a family of biomolecules having varied
structures. They are grouped together simply because of their hydrophilic property (water-fearing). They are soluble in non-
polar solvents such as ether, acetone, and benzene. Lipids can be classified into four categories:
Triglycerides (fat and oil), Phospholipids, Wax, and Steroid
-Contains C, H, O, can be with P for phospholipids
-Functions are source of energy, maintaining body heat, aid in digestion, material for cell membrane, and signal molecules
- Can be found in Oil, butter, nuts, fish
- The building blocks of lipids are one glycerol molecule and at least one fatty acid, with a maximum of three fatty acids.
-Examples of lipids are Canola oil, palm oil, margarine, butter, etc.
1. Compare the two kinds of fatty acids below. What is their difference?

2. Study the image on the right. This is Triglyceride. Fat and oil are the most common
examples of lipids. How many fatty acids are attached to the glycerol molecule?
IV. NUCLEIC ACIDS: DNA and RNA
Read the information below. Then, answer the questions that follow.
Nucleic acids play an essential role in the storage, transfer, and expression of genetic information. Nucleic acid was
discovered by a twenty-four- year-old Swiss physician named Friedrich Miescher in 1868. He was puzzled that an unknown
substance in white blood cells did not resemble carbohydrates, proteins, or lipids. He was able to isolate the substance from
the nucleus and initially called it nuclein. He eventually was able to
break down nuclein into protein and nucleic acids. He found out that
nucleic acids contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and
phosphorus.
The most common examples of nucleic acids are DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA(ribonucleic acid). DNA is a nucleic
acid that carries the genetic code of organisms. It is fondly termed as
the blueprint of life. RNA, on another hand, carries the information from
the DNA to the cellular factories for the synthesis of proteins. If
carbohydrates are composed of saccharide units, proteins of amino
acids, and lipids of fatty acids, nucleic acids are composed of
nucleotides. Nucleic acids are also known as polynucleotides. A
nucleotide has three parts:
a. Nitrogenous base
b. Five-carbon carbohydrate or sugar
c. Phosphate group
The nitrogenous bases of DNA and RNA are:

DNA’s : Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C), and Thymine (T)
RNA’s : Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C), and Uracil (U)
DNA has a different sugar group than RNA. DNA has deoxyribose
while RNA has ribose.

The drawing on the right shows that DNA is double stranded and
RNA is single stranded. The bases are paired up as can be seen in
DNA. The bases C and G have three H-bonds between them, and
A and T have two. Hydrogen bonding is greatly responsible for the
shape of both RNA and DNA. The different nucleotides are
connected in a chain via phosphodiester bonds.
The sequence of the base pairs in one’s DNA is unique for every
organism (except for identical twins). The DNA and the cell
containing it determine the kind of protein that will be synthesized. The different proteins are then responsible for the
processes that carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and other substances in the body undertake.

QUESTIONS:
1. Why are nucleic acids named so?

2. What comprises nucleic acids?

3. What is another term for nucleic acids?

4. What are the three parts of a nucleotide?

5. What are common examples of nucleic acids?

6. What is the primary role of DNA?

7. How does RNA help in protein synthesis?

8. What are the bases of DNA? of RNA?

9. How are DNA and RNA similar?

10. How are DNA and RNA different?