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    Chapter 2

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    camumendo

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    of 44
    oxroRp INTRODUCTION . ‘Among the many mineral resources provided naturally by the Earth are highly valuable Foss fuels coal, ol, and natural gas) They are hugely important to pecple because they ware and are the basis for industrial and economic growth, and thay led toa anspor revolution. “The Industial Revolution bagan inthe UKiin about 1750. twas based on coal. The technolagical breakthrough came with the invention ofthe steam engine, capable of driving ‘allway engines, ships, and factory machinery. However, economic growth in the second half ‘of the 20° century depended more and more on oil instead of coal Boing aliquid rather than a solid gives oil many advantages over coal tis cheaper to obtain by drilling than by mining, cheaper and easiar to move long distances by pipelines and tankers, and easier to control in use in enginas and machinery. In particular, oll enabled the 20" century transport revolution (ears, trucks, container ships, and airrat to grow. Together, ‘hese developments have allowed local, national, and global movements of people and goods on a scale not known, nor over imagined, in previous centuries ‘Only inthe last 25 years have there been serious attempts to break away from total dependence on fossil uals by searching for altamative sources of energy, most of them renewable, Reasons for this change in attitude are 2 mixture of negative and positive. Negative foctors: ay = Concern about the lacal and ) andboiiers ate shops, public ena enero buldings at} clean ash decay Flours 2.28 Hectly nde roducd rom burg gaboge ‘Another way of making power from recycling isto collect waste oil for example, from fast food autlets and Renewables CChange from fossil fuels to renewables has been slow. But itis persistent and will continu, Everyone is waiting forthe next big technological breakthrough. ‘What willit be? Whe knows? (One suggestion is cheep, light, long-life bateries. What great problem with renewables will that sive? restaurant kitchens. This canbe filtered and cleaned o become biafusl. Then a small percentage can be added ‘to new fue! ol for usa in engines anc machines. Inallthese examples, education is important. Most people (individuals and companies) once they are wall informed ‘bout recycling, are wiling to cooperate, especially if ‘governments ancl city authorities take the lead and provide recycling facies, Pressure from ervirenmental ‘group and the EU is strong n Europe and is growing elsewhere. Not aniy are businesses required to draw up their own targets for conservation and reducing emissions, butthay are now under greater pressure to deliver what they have promised. 11 Make a large version of the table below and fil itn Terms Definition and Advantages Problems examples Recych Energy efficiency aa Energy conservation 2 (a) Describe the methods that hotels, ike the Hotel Victoria in Freiburg, can use ‘to conserve energy use (b) Suggest reasons why many hotels, shops, and offices do litle to conserve energy use. 3 Investigation (2) Atpresent what do) you and your family and (il) the authorities in your home area do to reduce energy consumption? (©) Can anything be done to reduce energy consumption further? Explain your 4 Tasue@s4 How lect was ented infourAon countesin 20508) =a i SaudiArabia 64 36 Pakistan «32-506 1 " 5 india 28758 1 4 2 Jepn 4223-7 ; 5 3 Choose two ofthe counties. (a) Draw two pie graphs to show the percentages for each ofthem, (b) Whatis similar about electricity generation between the two countries? (¢)_ State one difference and suggest reasons fort. gxroRD o © j r : i i ' xzonp Fracking is very controversial. The torm frackng refers to how shale rackis fractured (forced)! ‘part by high pressure to release the gos and olnside it, Water, sand and chemicels are injected into the rock a high pressure, widening the spaces inthe rack, which allows the ‘rapped gat and ol ta flow outto the top ofthe well Figure 2.29). Ninety percent af what is forced down the wall i water, hence the use ofthe term hydraulic fracturing on the diagram. water snd, and alijeced Froune 2.29 Salegasetaconby faking Thisis euting-edge technology (i.e. new, beyond anything that has bean achieved previously, andi still being developed and improved). The big technological breakthrough ‘was horizortaldiling so thatthe well could follow the gas-bearing layer of shale rock. Envrormertal campaigners say that fracking is encouraging more reliance on fossil fuels at , the expente of renewables, Obtaining more ol and gas by racking will increase the number ‘of years other resources wil last compared with the estimates in Figure 2.2. Advantages of fracking Disadvantages of fracking «= Allows dling ofhard-toeach gas There are significant environmental and ol resources. concerns including: 1 tthas significantly boosted oll = use of vast amounts of water: production inthe USA and Canads. | scale used may escape and * Increased supply contributed tothe contaminate ground water. fallin world market prices of ol and 92s from 2014. There are worries thatthe fracking process can cause small earth tremors. Energysndtheenironmert 6 Explain what is meant by feacking. (b) How isititferent from diling for oll and gas? t what makes fracking such a controversial (€) People either love it or hate energy issue? Impact of oil pollution . ‘Although the increasing signe of pollution in the open oceans are a great concern, many ‘parts are stil relatively clean compared with coastal regions. This is because over 75 per cent ‘of marine pollution comes fram the land: the est mainly comes frem dumping from ships, {and from offshore mining and oil production, Tame 2.8 Soucescfmaineci paluton Land (abou 50%) ‘wanspor heavy machinery, and industry Shipping about 33%) cil tanker operations and other shipping discharges Offshore cilindustries driling and well leaks, ranspor spils For as ong as oil has been dilled, there have been accidents and oll pis. The mining industry has always been associated with making a quick profit and moving on before the ‘environmental damage becomes obvious to all. For many years environmental issues were given alow priority bythe oll companies in thair drive to make money. Over the yeas, however, although offen as a result of pressure from environmental groups plus government safety regulations the ol companies have had to become more safety conscious and risk averse. In one way naw technology has helped; leaks and spills are more avoidable than fever. another way, ihas allowed drilling operations to move into more challenging fenvizonments, such as deep-water ocean dling, where risks are higher. One esult was the Doopwater Horizon wall blowout inthe Gulf of Mesic in 2010 (Case study, pages 68-70). “The rsk of oi pollution s presenta all stages of oll company operations. A Diling for oil-from wall leaks ol seeping tothe surface, well Blowouts B Transporting the crude oi-from pipeline leaks, pipeline sabotage (deliberate breaking ofthe pipes due to war, terrorism, or hostility of local communities), tanker accidents (especially in coastal areas) Cilrefining-loaks into coastal waters and explosions 2 a {millions of gallons) 260 240 220 200 180 160 140 120 100 o 8 8S Foon Valier tanker soil, Aska 1989 Toney Amoco ABT——Castllo. Nowra — elo eapuater Oi Canyon Cigiz_ Summer deliver ole Exgress—well——Honzon terminals tanker tinker tanker” tanker aban taker” ‘ewout, wallow: tankers spi sil, spill South Gufs Mero out, Gulf ein the Britany itary Angola aca” 1983—Tabago, 1979 of tenico Gulla, 195789198 we 201991 Flovre2.80 Same majermainel sis (1967-2010) ‘The impact ef marine oi spills immediate and easy to observe (Figure 2.30) Marine ie is devastated throughout the area affected. Tourist beachos are ruined; the smells strong and Unpleasant, and lingers for along time, keeping visitors away. Fishing is another coastal ‘economic activity which is wiped out by an ol spill. ook atthe Deepwater Horizon case study to discover the many impacts (environmental economic, and social that a large oil spill ean cause ‘The impact ef cil spil lasts longest in cold environments, whore ecological recovery is slow. Long-term consequences are serious because only slow growth is possible, for a short period each jear. The amount of ol spilled from the Exxon Valdez into Prince Willam Sound In Alaska in 1989, one ofthe richest fishing areas inthe word, was relatively smal (Figure 2.30). Yet 25 yoars later, the coastal and marine ecosystems have not made aul recovery, INFORMATION BOX Impacts of oil spills on ecosystems * Birds: oil covers th reduces insulating properties, impedes flight, andthe ability to seek out food * Marine mammals: il can smother small mammal, reducing Insulating properties of fur affected are sea surface anim ike sea otters. * Coral reefs: il can kill orimpede reproduction and growth, depending on amount of spill and length of time the spill last; also affects many species of ish and crabs that live and around the reefs 1 Beach life ol spills smother shoreline creatur like shelifch, and stop many bird species from feeding: fight and mobility of shore-based wading birds are ‘greatly reduced ‘Which areas are most at risk? Pollation risks are highest in sheltered bays and river estuaries, share wave action is weak so that pollutants ‘ean concentrate more easily. Narrow and ‘enclosed soas and gulls are athigh risk because water flows ore resticted. The Arabian Gulf anc Mediterranean Sea are examples “The Arabian Gulf isthe worlds largest ail producing region; its many ol rigs-and znker terminals ae potential sources of marine pollution ona large scale, Political instability in the region is another factor: deliberate sabotage of Kuwait cil fields by Iraq during the Gulf Warn 1997 showed how vinerable the Gulf is toa major pollution disaster. The Mediterranean is an almast enclosed sea. tis ‘one ofthe world's most important shipping routes for ol tankers between the Suez Canal and Swaits of Gibrakar. Egypt has recently increased the size ofthe Suez Canal enabling more, and larger, supertankers to pass ‘through. Lge rvers auch asthe Nile and Rhone empty pollutants a= wall as water into the sea Since the Mediterranean Bazin is highly populated and a great tourist destination, risks ta economic activities are ever present. a oxroep 11 Study Figure 2.30 and answer these questions. (9) Which happens more frequently-tanker sills or well low-outs? {(b) Which leaks the most oil-tanke spills orwell blow-outs? {@)_ Stggest reasons for the answers to these two questions. 2 Use information from here, and from later case studies of Deepwater Horizon in the Gu of Mexico and Niger Delta. Describe with examples the impact of oil pills ‘on( he natural environment and (b) natural ecosystems. Management of oil pollution . Marine pollution isa global problem. All the world’s oceans are linked and ocean currents transfer water between them, Therefore international agreements ae essential. Tho IMO {International Mertime Organization) is a United Nations agency In order to prevent and reduce polltion from ships, the MARPOL (Intemational Convention forthe Prevention of Palltion from Ships) Protocol of 1978 was issued. k was @ response to a number of serious ‘tanker accidents. Since then thas been amended and updated. One ofthe most important ‘amendments was made in 1992, making it campulsory for all new tankers tobe Built with double hullsFigure 2:32). Previously, over half ofthe world’s tankers were single-hulled. ‘This meant that ol began to spill ut as soon asthe hull was breached after hitting a rock oF coliding wth another ship. Frovention is always beter than cure. Looking at igure 2.30, is there any evidence that the MARPOL Pretocol has helped to reduce oil pollution from tanker spills? Single bull Double hil ‘Sut of 0 fhe wos tankers ae sil ‘Altankeruit since 1996 ae sinle-uled oublehlled The lls breachedihe contents ofthealdsilloutinto thee, ‘Froune 2.32. Single and double ulin toners ouster Energy andthe rronment Dealing with oil spills . “The main methods ae illustrated in Figure 2.33. The immediate task is damage limitation by confining the oil slick using booms. The next job isto disperse the lager slicks by using detergent sprays. Some of the remaining oil can be removed by skimmers. ll hree ‘methods were used ta manage the pollution in the Despwater Horizon event (see Managing the pollution, , B, and C, page 70), i drown up absorbent bet, rolsscape and squeezecilito calling tak tbl tubes Floating inflatable prevent sich rom spreading. polit drapes, lagers Froune 2.38 Metdsoftadingsn ali 11 Ahigh percentage of oll tankers now in use have double hulls. Explain why tankers with double hulls are less likely to cause cil pollution than those with single hulls 2 (a) Explain how each ofthe three methods of dealing with oil spills in Figure 2.33 works. (b) Why is more than one method needed for dealing with large ol pills? (©) Hove environmentally friendly are these three methods? Explain whet you think 3. Why is prevention of ol pollution always better than cure? 6 RD Case Study: Oil pollution in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria The problem © Anarea with enormous cil and gas deposits but with up to 300 cil spills arge and smal) per year, and ‘occasional very big leaks ike | shetts Bomo well blowout n 2008, ore old; frequentleaks ‘rom the Trans Niger pipeline to the portof Bonny ‘Sabotage isa problem: groups blow up pipelines, people steal oi 1 Many terrorist attacks on pipelines in 2016; estimated losses 700,000 barrels ‘The impact Some are highly visible: black lakes, black waterways, deposits of black tar ® Spills ike Bomo have affected thousands of hectares of mangroves. ‘= Residents in the town of Bodo complain of headaches and eyesight problems. ® Local water courses needed for drinking water are contaminated, ‘Dead fish fishermen lose their livelihoods, prices offsh the main food) shoot up. ‘= Fatmers complain about 75% reductions incl palm yields. Fioune2.84 The iger Delt, calle The gel ptf ol pout by enitonmental ups Management ‘= Environmental laws ond regulations are weak In Nigeria, = Those which exist officials are bribed, = Local peaple complain that pipeline and well maintenance standards are low. Unlike the Gulf of Mexico, ther site independent monitoring of el spills. ‘not properly enforced: ‘= After the Bomo lea, it took Shel six years to ‘admit lability and agree on compensation. = Onlyin 2015, after years of legal battles, did dividuals in the Bodo community receive ‘compensation from Shell fr their economic losses. And only then did the oil company pledge to clean up Bodo Creek 11 Make brief notes for this ease study, as iffor exam revision, Pick out the key points, usful in examination answers, following the guidance given below. (a) State three causes ofthe frequent cil pil inthe Niger Dota (b) Give examples ofthe impact of ol spills using these headings: (environmental i (ii) soci (€) Give three reasons why clean-up ‘of the oil spills has been slow and poor, 2 Look ahead to the DeepwaterHorizon case study. (2) Identity similarities and differences between the cil spills inthe Niger Delta and inthe Gulf ‘of Mexico from the Deepwater Horizon disaster. (b) Inwhich location was management ofthe ol pllution more effective? Explain your o Case Study: Deepwater Horizon oil spill, Gulf of Q Mexico, 2010 1 ‘Thisis the worlds largest accidental ol spl to date. Cl from the drilng well owned by BF, \which blew out in April 2010, flowed for 87 days until mid-June. Almost Sm barrels (over ‘909m litres) of cil wore released into the sea Elevan workers lost their lives. Fioure 2-88 Location of ol well and extent fspil was an explo 10 metres belo he limits of known dilling technology a snded, the blowout would not have happer Impacts 1a large area in the Gulf of Mexico (over 18 ken 1 800km of the affecting five Gulf states; most badly affected was th siana, Oil covered atest cereal oie eet marin life ly young bottlenose dolphins and shellfish talimpacts had severe economic cons forthe Gulf main e ling, fehing, ernment bar w dling in tr fishing Fioune2.86 Gisckinthe Gulf Meko-bid's eye vew Managing the pollution Three main dratagios wore employed; A: containment: dispersal, and C: removal 'A. Boomswere built to hold back (contain) he oil Barirs were made try to stop the oil reschirg bosches, marshes, mangroves, shellfish ferms, and other ecologically sensitive areas. They were partly effective, but some ol was weshad aver them by strong waves. Chemicals, expecially Corot were sprayed on the slckto break itup. Dispersing the cil makes it easier fr ol-eating microbes inthe water to digest. The microbes did a ‘900d job. Some Gulf residents, however, complained of heath problems caused by these cremical. Overtwo and a quarter billion litres of ol were collected from the surface by using skimmer. Some ofthe oil was set alight and burnt off (flared. twas worth doing s0, bur onl small part of he total spill could be skimmed up off the surface. In addition there was the land-based clean up. On beaches, the sand was sited and tar balls were removed. Inthe marshes, low pressure flushing was used to remove the oil Atthe peak ofthe cleanup operations inthe summer of 2010, 47,000 people and 7000 vessels wore involved. The total clean-up costs for BP were over USS1Sbn. It was fortunate thatthe ‘company was big enough to have the resources to limit the environmental impact and reduce the economic impacts for businesses in the Gulf of Mexico region. Five years later, in 2015 ‘The environmental catastrophe was nat as bad, or as total, as was first feared. With time, ‘nature is shewing its resilience and gradually repairing the man-made damage. What has been destiofed and what has been recovered, however, is a matter for debate. tall depends whois doing the talking, ‘Some fihermen wore reporting oyster catches back up to pre-disster levels; others ‘maintained thet catches were so poor thet it was not worth carrying on. There are residents ‘who continue to believe that thelr il-heath was due to the chemicals used. Scientists studying the marine and coastal ecosystems have found it dffcultto distinguish between the effect of the ol spill and pollution from the land which had been geting worse for years before the soil 41 Make short notes forthe case study ofa pollution event using these headings. (a) Causes (b) Impacts (effects) (0) Attempts to reduce impacts (d)_ Effectiveness ofthese impacts ‘Why do people in 2015 disagree about how grest are the effect ofthe Deepwater Horizen oll spill that happened in 20107 Explain as fully 2s you can, Using information from page 61 onwards Impact of cl pollution) andl from the ‘case studies of the Niger Delta and Deepwater Horizon in the Gulf of Mexico,

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