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Making the Team:

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Brief content
Part 1 The Basics of Teamwork 17

Chapter 1 Teams in Organizations: Facts and Myths 19
Chapter 2 Performance and Productivity: Team Performance Criteria
and Threats to Productivity 38
Chapter 3 Rewarding Teamwork: Compensation and Performance
Appraisals 61
Part 2 Internal Dynamics 89

Chapter 4 Designing the Team: Tasks, People, and Processes 91
Chapter 5 Team Identity, Emotion, and Development 120
Chapter 6 Sharpening the Team Mind: Communication and Collective
Intelligence 146
Chapter 7 Team Decision Making: Pitfalls and Solutions 178
Chapter 8 Conflict in Teams: Leveraging Differences to Create
Opportunity 211
Chapter 9 Creativity: Mastering Strategies for High Performance 231
Part 3 External Dynamics 261

Chapter 10 Networking, Social Capital, and Integrating across
Teams 263
Chapter 11 Leadership: Managing the Paradox 293
Chapter 12 Interteam Relations: Balancing Competition and
Cooperation 322
Chapter 13 Teaming Across Distance and Culture 346
Appendix 1 Managing Meetings: A Toolkit 374

Appendix 2 Tips for Meeting Facilitators 382
Appendix 3 A Guide for Creating Effective Study Groups 386
Appendix 4 Example Items from Peer Evaluations and 360-Degree
Performance Evaluations 390
References 397
Name and Author Index 457
Subject Index 471

Contents
Preface 15
Part 1 The Basics of Teamwork 17
Chapter 1 Teams in Organizations: Facts and Myths 19

What Is a Team? 20
Why Should Organizations Have Teams? 21
Information Technology 22
Competition 23
Globalization and Culture 23
Multigenerational Teams 24
Types of Teams in Organizations 24
Manager-Led Teams 24
Self-Managing Teams 25
Self-Directing Teams 26
Self-Governing Teams 28
Some Observations About Teams and Teamwork 29
Teams Are Not Always the Answer 29
Managers Fault the Wrong Causes for Team Failure 29
Managers Fail to Recognize Their Team-Building
Responsibilities 30
Experimenting with Failures Leads to Better Teams 30
Conflict Among Team Members Is Not Always a Bad Thing 30
Strong Leadership Is Not Always Necessary for Strong
Teams 30
Good Teams Can Still Fail Under the Wrong
Circumstances 31
Retreats Will Not Fix All the Conflicts Between Team Members 31
What Leaders Tell Us About Their Teams 32
Most Common Type of Team 32
Team Size 32
Team Autonomy Versus Manager Control 32
Team Longevity 33
The Most Frustrating Aspect of Teamwork 33
Developing Your Team-Building Skills 35
Skill 1: Accurate Diagnosis of Team Problems 35
5

6 Contents
Skill 2: Research-Based Intervention 36

Skill 3: Expert Learning 36
A Warning 37
Chapter Capstone 37
Chapter 2 Performance and Productivity: Team

Performance Criteria and Threats to
Productivity 38
An Integrated Model of Successful Team Performance 39
Team Context 39
Essential Conditions for Successful Team Performance 42
Performance Criteria 55
The Team Performance Equation 59
Chapter Capstone 60
Chapter 3 Rewarding Teamwork: Compensation

and Performance Appraisals 61
Types of Team Pay 62
Incentive Pay 64
Recognition 66
Profit Sharing 69
Gainsharing 70
Teams and Pay for Performance 71
Team Performance Appraisal 72
What Is Measured? 72
Who Does the Measuring? 74
Developing a 360-Degree Program 75
Rater Bias 77
Inflation Bias 78
Extrinsic Incentives Bias 78
Homogeneity Bias 80
Halo Bias 80
Fundamental Attribution Error 80
Communication Medium 80
Experience Effect 80
Reciprocity Bias 81
Bandwagon Bias 81
Primacy and Recency Bias 81
Conflict of Interest Bias 81

Contents 7
Ratee Bias 82
Egocentric Bias 82
Intrinsic Interest 82
Social Comparison 83
Fairness 83
Listening to Advice 84
Guiding Principles 85
Principle 1: Goals Should Cover Areas That Team Members Can
Directly Affect 85
Principle 2: Balance the Mix of Individual and Team-Based Pay 86
Principle 3: Consult the Team Members Who Will Be Affected 86
Principle 4: Avoid Organizational Myopia 86
Principle 5: Determine Eligibility (Who Qualifies for the Plan) 87
Principle 6: Determine Equity Method 87
Principle 7: Quantify the Criteria Used to Determine Payout 87
Principle 8: Determine How Target Levels of Performance Are
Established and Updated 87
Principle 9: Develop a Budget for the Plan 87
Principle 10: Determine Timing of Measurements and
Payments 87
Principle 11: Communicate with Those Involved 88
Principle 12: Plan for the Future 88
Chapter Capstone 88
Part 2 Internal Dynamics 89
Chapter 4 Designing the Team: Tasks, People,

and Processes 91
Building the Team 92
The Task: What Work Needs to Be Done? 93
Is the Goal Clearly Defined? 93
How Much Authority Does the Team Have? 94
What Is the Focus of the Work the Team Will Do? 95
What Is the Degree of Task Interdependence Among Team
Members? 98
Is There a Correct Solution That Can Be Readily Demonstrated
and Communicated to Members? 100
Are Team Members’ Interests Perfectly Aligned
(Cooperative), Opposing (Competitive), or Mixed-Motive
in Nature? 100

8 Contents
How Big Should the Team Be? 101

Time Pressure: Good or Bad? 102
The People: Who Is Ideally Suited to Do the Work? 104
Member-Initiated Team Selection 105
Diversity 106
Processes: How to Work Together? 114
Team Structure 114
Team Norms 114
Team Coaching 117
Chapter Capstone 119
Chapter 5 Team Identity, Emotion, and

Development 120
Are We a Team? 121
Group Entitativity 121
Group Identity 121
Self-verification and Group-verification 123
Group-Serving Attributions 124
Group Potency and Collective Efficacy 125
Group Mood and Emotion 126
How Emotions Get Shared in Groups 126
Emotional Intelligence in Teams 130
Leadership and Group Emotion 131
Group Cohesion 131
Cohesion and Team Behavior 132
Building Cohesion in Groups 132
Trust 134
Types of Trust 135
Psychological Safety 137
Status 138
Perceptions of Status 138
Status Competition 139
Team Development and Socialization 139
Group Socialization 139
The Phases of Group Socialization 140
Old-Timers’ Reactions to Newcomers 143
Newcomer Innovation 143
Turnover and Reorganizations 144

Contents 9
Chapter 6 Sharpening the Team Mind: Communication

and Collective Intelligence 146
Team Communication 147
Message Tuning 148
Message Distortion 149
Saying Is Believing 149
Biased Interpretation 149
Perspective-Taking Failures 149
Illusion of Transparency 150
Indirect Speech Acts 150
Uneven Communication 151
Absorptive Capacity 151
The Information Dependence Problem 153
The Common Information Effect 154
Hidden Profile 156
Best Practices for Optimal Information Sharing 158
Collaborative Problem Solving 163
Collective Intelligence 164
Team Mental Models 164
The Team Mind: Transactive Memory Systems 166
Team Learning 173
Learning from the Environment 174
Learning from Newcomers and Rotators 174
Learning from Vicarious Versus In Vivo Experience 174
Learning from Threat, Change, and Failure 174
Team Longevity: Routinization Versus Innovation Trade-Offs 175
Chapter 7 Team Decision Making: Pitfalls and

Solutions 178
Decision Making in Teams 179
Individual Decision-Making Biases 179
Framing Bias 180
Overconfidence 180
Confirmation Bias 181
Decision Fatigue 182
Individual Versus Group Decision Making in Demonstrable
Tasks 183
Group Decision Rules 185

10 Contents
Decision-Making Pitfall 1: Groupthink 187

Learning from History 189
How to Avoid Groupthink 191
Decision-Making Pitfall 2: Escalation of Commitment 194
Project Determinants 195
Psychological Determinants 196
Social Determinants 196
Structural Determinants 197
Avoiding Escalation of Commitment to a Losing Course
of Action 197
Decision-Making Pitfall 3: The Abilene Paradox 198
How to Avoid the Abilene Paradox 200
Decision-Making Pitfall 4: Group Polarization 201
The Need to Be Right 203
The Need to Be Liked 203
Conformity Pressure 204
Decision-Making Pitfall 5: Unethical Decision Making 206
Rational Expectations Model 206
False Consensus 207
Vicarious Licensing 207
Desensitization 207
Chapter 8 Conflict in Teams: Leveraging Differences

to Create Opportunity 211
Types of Conflict 212
Relationship, Task, and Process Conflict 212
Proportional and Perceptual Conflict 215
Types of Conflict and Work Team Effectiveness 216
Conflict in Teams 217
Power and Conflict 218
Conflict in Cross-Functional Teams 218
Minority and Majority Conflicts in Teams 219
Conflict in Culturally Diverse Teams 221
Work–Family Conflict in Teams 222
Conflict Management Approaches 222
The Managerial Grid 222
A Contingency Theory of Task Conflict and Performance
in Teams 224

Contents 11
Interests, Rights, and Power Model of Disputing 225

Wageman and Donnenfelds’ Conflict Intervention Model 226
Fairness and Conflict 228
Norms of Fairness 228
Distributive and Procedural Justice 230
Chapter 9 Creativity: Mastering Strategies for High

Performance 231
Creative Realism 232
Measuring Creativity 234
Convergent and Divergent Thinking 236
Exploration and Exploitation 237
Creative People or Creative Teams? 238
Brainstorming 239
Brainstorming on Trial 240
Threats to Team Creativity 242
Social Loafing 242
Conformity 242
Production Blocking 243
Performance Matching 244
What Goes on during a Typical Group Brainstorming Session? 244
Enhancing Team Creativity 245
Cognitive-Goal Instructions 245
Social-Organizational Methods 249
Structural-Environmental Methods 253
Electronic Brainstorming 256
Advantages of Electronic Brainstorming 256
Disadvantages of Electronic Brainstorming 258
Part 3 External Dynamics 261

Chapter 10 Networking, Social Capital, and Integrating
across Teams 263
Team Boundaries 264
Insulating Teams 265
Broadcasting Teams 267
Marketing Teams 267
Surveying Teams 267
X-Teams 268

12 Contents
External Roles of Team Members 269

Networking: A Key to Successful Teamwork 271
Communication 271
Human Capital and Social Capital 272
Boundary Spanning 274
Cliques Versus Boundary-Spanning Networks 275
Team Social Capital 277
Leadership Ties 278
Increasing Your Social Capital 279
Analyze Your Social Network 280
Identify Structural Holes in Your Organization 281
Expand the Size of the Network 282
Diversify Networks 282
Build Hierarchical Networks 284
Understand Gender Scripts in Networks 284
Multiteam Systems 285
Types of Ties in Teams 287
Knowledge Valuation 289
Chapter 11 Leadership: Managing the Paradox 293

The Leadership Paradox 294
Leadership and Management 295
Leaders and the Nature–Nurture Debate 296
Trait Theories of Leadership 297
Incremental Theories of Leadership 299
Leadership Styles 300
Task Versus Person Leadership 301
Transactional Versus Transformational Leadership 301
Autocratic Versus Democratic Leadership 303
Leader Mood 305
What Teams Expect of Leaders 306
Implicit Leadership Theories 306
Status, Uncertainty, and Leadership Expectations 307
Perceptions of Male and Female Leaders 307
Leader–Member Exchange 309
Key Attributes that Influence Differential Treatment 309
Advantages of Differential Treatment 310
Disadvantages of Differential Treatment 311

Contents 13
Leadership and Power 311

Sources of Power 312
Using Power 313
Encouraging Participative Management 314
Task Delegation 317
Parallel Suggestion Involvement 317
Job Involvement 319
Organizational Involvement 320
Chapter 12 Interteam Relations: Balancing Competition

and Cooperation 322
Personal and Team Identity 323
Individual, Relational, and Collective Selves 324
Independent Versus Interdependent Self-Orientation 324
Self-Interest Versus Group Interest 326
In-Groups and Out-Groups 326
Optimal Distinctiveness Theory 328
Balancing the Need to Belong and the Need to Be Distinct 328
Intrateam and Interteam Respect 329
Interteam Relationships 329
Social Comparison 329
Team Discontinuity Effect 330
Team Rivalry 330
Postmerger Behavior 331
Intergroup Conflict 332
Biases Associated with Intergroup Conflict 335
Stereotyping 335
Categorization: Us Versus Them 335
In-Group Bias (or “We Are Better Than Them”) 336
Racism and Racial Discrimination 338
Denial 338
Out-Group Homogeneity Bias 339
Out-Group Approach Bias 340
Reducing Intergroup Conflict 340
Contact 340
Perspective Taking and Perspective Giving 343
Apology and Help 344
Affirmation 344

14 Contents
Chapter 13 Teaming Across Distance and Culture 346

Place–Time Model of Social Interaction 347
Face-to-Face Communication 348
Same Time, Different Place 350
Different Time, Same Place 353
Different Place, Different Time 354
Information Technology and Social Behavior 356
Reduced Status Differences: The “Weak Get Strong” Effect 356
Equalization of Participation 357
Increased Time to Make Decisions 357
Communication 358
Risk Taking 358
Social Norms 359
Task Performance and Decision Quality 359
Trust and Rapport 360
Virtual Teams 360
Threats to Virtual Teamwork 362
Strategies for Enhancing Virtual Teamwork 363
Cross-Cultural Teamwork 368
Cultural Intelligence 368
Work Ways 369
Cultural Values 370
Managing Multicultural Teams 371
Appendix 1 Managing Meetings: A Toolkit 374

Appendix 2 Tips for Meeting Facilitators 382
Appendix 3 A Guide for Creating Effective Study Groups 386
Appendix 4 Example Items from Peer Evaluations and 360-Degree Performance
Evaluations 390
References 397
Name and Author Index 457
Subject Index 471

Preface
When I wrote Making the Team in 2000, my intent was to introduce leaders, managers,
and executives to practical research on groups and teams. This enterprise required an
integration of theory, research, and application. Five professors—Jeanne Brett, Tanya
Menon, Keith Murnighan, Mark Rittenberg, and I—offer a 3-day course for executives
in team leadership at the Kellogg School of Management at Northwestern University.
Moreover, Kellogg offers a full-term course on teamwork to our MBA students. This
book is dedicated to the students of Kellogg’s executive program and MBA program.
Making the Team has two audiences: leaders and team members. For the leader, the
book directs itself toward how teams can be designed to function optimally; for the team
members, the book focuses on the skills necessary to be a productive team member.
Since the publication of the first four editions, many advances have occurred in
team and group research. Every chapter has new information, new research, updated
examples, and more. Specifically, I have made the following major changes to the fifth
edition of Making the Team:
1. Important topics and theories: The majority of chapters contain new theories,
research, and topics, such as intergenerational team issues (in Chapter 1), deci-
sion fatigue (in Chapter 7), work–family conflict (in Chapter 8), incremental versus
entity theory of leadership (in Chapter 11), moral decision making (Chapter 7), and
an expanded discussion of virtual teams (in Chapter 13).
2. New, updated research: True to the book’s defining characteristic—providing man-
agers with the most up-to-date research in a digestible fashion—I have included
the latest research on teamwork and group behavior, thus keeping the book up-to-
date and true to its strong research focus and theory-driven approach.
3. Surveys of managers and executives: The updated research also reports on the
survey of executives that we have conducted at Kellogg for the past 17 years.
The survey in the first edition reported the responses of 149 managers and
executives; the fifth edition has a database of more than 1,200 team managers.
4. New research studies: More than 180 new research studies have been cited.
5. More case studies: I have included more examples and illustrations of effective
(as well as ineffective) teamwork. More than 150 new case studies and examples
of actual company teams have been added. And, each chapter has a new, updated
opening example.
6. Illustrations and examples: Many of the concepts and techniques in the c hapters are
supplemented with illustrations and examples from real teams, both c ontemporary
and historical. I do not use these examples to prove a theory; rather, I use them to
illustrate how many of the concepts in the book are borne out in real-world situations.
New exercises, cases, and supplemental material: The supplemental material and
teaching support materials have been greatly improved so as to complement the text.
This allows students to have a more integrated experience inside and outside of the
classroom. The book strongly advocates experientially based teaching, and the instruc-
tor now has even more options for making the concepts come alive in the classroom.
All of the supplements are available on www.pearsongloableditions.com. Contact your
Pearson Sales Representative to be assigned your user name and password. 15

16 Preface
In addition to the changes discussed, which affect all chapters and sections of the
book, several chapters have undergone updates as new theory and research have bro-
ken ground and as our world has been shaped by numerous events. The revision was
sparked not only by advances—as well as calamities—in the corporate world but also,
even more so, by the great scientific research on teamwork that my colleagues have relent-
lessly contributed to the field of management science in the years since the first edition
was published.
One of the reasons why I love this field is that there are so many wonderful people
with whom to collaborate. The following people have had a major impact on my thinking
and have brought joy and meaning to the word collaboration: Cameron Anderson, Linda
Babcock, Max Bazerman, Terry Boles, Jeanne Brett, Susan Brodt, John Carroll, Hoon-Seok
Choi, Taya Cohen, Jennifer Crocker, Susan Crotty, Hal Ersner-Hershfield, Gary Fine, Craig
Fox, Adam Galinsky, Wendi Gardner, Dedre Gentner, Robert Gibbons, Kevin Gibson,
James Gillespie, Rich Gonzalez, Deborah Gruenfeld, Brian Gunia, Erika Hall, Reid Hastie,
Andy Hoffman, Elizabeth Seeley Howard, Molly Kern, Peter Kim, Shirli Kopelman,
Rod Kramer, Laura Kray, Terri Kurtzburg, Sujin Lee, Geoffrey Leonardelli, John Levine,
Allan Lind, George Loewenstein, Jeff Loewenstein, Bob Lount, Denise Lewin Loyd, Brian
Lucas, Beta Mannix, Kathleen McGinn, Vicki Medvec, Tanya Menon, Dave Messick,
Terry Mitchell, Don Moore, Michael Morris, Keith Murnighan, Janice Nadler, Maggie
Neale, Erika Petersen, Kathy Phillips, Jason Pierce, Robin Pinkley, Jo-Ellen Pozner, Mark
Rittenberg, Ashleigh Rosette, Ken Savitsky, Vanessa Seiden, Marwan Sinaceur, Ned
Smith, Harris Sondak, Tom Tyler, Leaf Van Boven, Kimberly Wade-Benzoni, Cindy Wang,
Juinwen Wang, Laurie Weingart, Judith White, and Elizabeth Ruth Wilson.
The revision of this book would not have been possible without the dedication,
organization, and creativity of Joel Erickson, Larissa Tripp, and most especially Ellen
Hampton, who created the layout, organized the information, edited the hundreds of
drafts, mastered the figures, organized the permissions for the exhibits in each chapter,
and researched many of the case studies for this book.
In the book, I talk quite a bit about the “power of the situation” and how strongly
the environment shapes behavior. The Kellogg School of Management is one of the most
supportive, dynamic environments that I have ever had the pleasure to be a part of.
My colleagues across the Kellogg School are uniquely warm, constructive, and gener-
ous. Directing the KTAG (Kellogg Team and Group) Center has been a pleasure beyond
compare. I am very grateful for the generous grants I have received through the years
from the National Science Foundation’s Decision, Risk and Management Program, the
Kellogg Team and Group Center, and its sister, the Dispute Resolution Research Center.
This book is very much a team effort of the people I have mentioned here; their
talents are diverse, broad, and extraordinarily impressive. I am deeply indebted to my
colleagues and students, and I feel very grateful that they have touched my life. I would
also like to thank the reviewers of the fifth edition: Claus Langfred, George Mason
University, School of Management; Elaine Hollensbe, University of Cincinnati; Patricia
Galdeen; Lourdes University, MI and Roger W. Hutt, Arizona State University, College of
Technology and Innovation. The valuable feedback they provided is greatly appreciated.

P a r t
I
The Basics of Teamwork
M01_THOM0781_05_GE_C01.indd 17 14/11/14 10:13 AM

M01_THOM0781_05_GE_C01.indd 18 14/11/14 10:13 AM
c h a p t e r
1
Teams in Organizations
Facts and Myths
On July 4, 1976, around 200 Israeli Defense Forces commandos

stormed Uganda’s Entebbe airport. Their mission—to rescue more
than a 100 Air France flight passengers held hostage for a week by
pro-Palestinian hijackers. The hijackers had the military support of
Uganda’s dictator, Idi Amin. A few days earlier, some hostages had
been freed, but 100 more, mostly Israeli or other Jewish passengers,
remained captive. To rescue them, a daring operation was put into
motion. Israeli agents met the freed hostages to collect vital information
about the location of the hijacked plane and hostages, and the hijackers’
behavior and dress. An elite task force of three units—ground
command and control, securing units, and a 29-member assault
team—was put together. The plan was to kill the hijackers, deal with
the Ugandan soldiers, free and transport the hostages to safety, and
destroy Ugandan fighter planes to prevent them from catching up.
The assault team was going to storm the terminal where the hostages
were held. It was divided into squads and led by Lieutenant Colonel.
Yonatan Netanyahu. This task force went through intensive planning,
tactics sessions, and mock operations for two days to prepare for their
mission which was to take place in an unfamiliar terrain over 2,000
miles away from home. Once there, the task force achieved its aim of
freeing the hostages in less than an hour of landing at Entebbe airport,
killing the hijackers and 20 Ugandan soldiers.1
1
BBC (1976, July 4). Israelis rescue Entebbe hostages. BBC News. bbc.co.uk.
19
M01_THOM0781_05_GE_C01.indd 19 14/11/14 10:13 AM

20 Part 1 • The Basics of Teamwork
The rescue of the hostages is an example of effective teamwork: careful selection

and recruitment of team members, relentless planning, rehearsal, timelines, and
deliverables. These elements—as well as a shared goal and an interdependent group of
people—are the defining characteristics of teams. Whereas most businesspeople do not
complete operations like that of the rescue of hostages, they do engage in missions that
involve significant economic and social stakes.
Virtually everyone who has worked in an organization has been a member of
a team at one time or another. Good teams are not a matter of luck; they result from
hard work, careful planning, and commitment from the sponsoring organization.
Designing effective teams is a skill that requires a thorough understanding of teams
to ensure that the team works as designed. Although there are no guarantees, under-
standing what makes teams work will naturally lead to better and more effective
teams. This book introduces a systematic approach that allows leaders, managers,
executives, trainers, and professionals to build and maintain excellent teams in their
organizations.
Our systematic approach is based upon scientific principles of learning and change.
Implementing change requires that managers audit their own behavior to see where
mistakes are being made, consider and implement new techniques and practices, and
then examine their effects. Unfortunately, accomplishing these tasks in a typical orga-
nization is not easy. This chapter sets the stage for effective learning by defining what
a team is—it’s not always clear! We distinguish four types of teams in organizations
in terms of their authority. We expose the most common myths about teamwork and
share some observations from team leaders. We provide the results of our assessment on
how teams are used in organizations and the problems with which managers are most
concerned. The problems cited by these managers cut across industries, from doughnut
companies to high-tech firms.
What Is a Team?
A work team is an interdependent collection of individuals who share responsibility
for specific outcomes for their organizations. Not everyone who works together or
is in proximity belongs to a team. A team is a group of people who are interdepen-
dent with respect to information, resources, and skills and who seek to combine their
efforts to achieve a common goal. As is summarized in Exhibit 1-1, teams have five
key defining characteristics. First, teams exist to achieve a shared goal. Simply put,
teams have work to do. Teams produce outcomes for which members have collec-
tive responsibility and reap some form of collective reward. Second, team members
are interdependent regarding a common goal. Interdependence is the hallmark of
teamwork. Interdependence means that team members cannot achieve their goals
single-handedly, but instead must rely on each other to meet shared objectives.
There are several kinds of interdependencies, as team members must rely on oth-
ers for information, expertise, resources, and support. Third, teams are bounded and
remain relatively stable over time. Boundedness means the team has an identifiable
membership; members, as well as nonmembers, know who is on the team. Stability
refers to the tenure of membership. Most teams work together for a meaningful
M01_THOM0781_05_GE_C01.indd 20 14/11/14 10:13 AM

Chapter 1 • Teams in Organizations 21
• Teams exist to achieve a shared goal.

• Team members are interdependent regarding some common goal.
• Teams are bounded and stable over time.
• Team members have the authority to manage their own work and internal processes.
• Teams operate in a social system context.
Exhibit 1-1 Five Key Characteristics of Teams

Source: Alderfer, C. P. (1977). Group and intergroup relations. In J. R. Hackman & J. L. Suttle (Eds.),
Improving life at work (pp. 227–296). Palisades, CA: Goodyear; Hackman, J. R. (1990). Introduction:
Work teams in organizations: An oriented framework. In J. Hackman (Ed.), Groups that work and
those that don’t. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
length of time—long enough to accomplish their goal. Fourth, team members have
the authority to manage their own work and internal processes. We focus on teams in
which individual members can, to some extent, determine how their work gets done.
Thus, although a prison work crew may be a team in some sense, the prisoners have
little authority in terms of managing their own work. Finally, teams operate in a larger
social system context. Teams are not islands unto themselves. They do their work in
a larger organization, often alongside other teams. Furthermore, teams often need to
draw upon resources from outside the team and vice versa—something we discuss in
Part III of this book.
A working group, by contrast, consists of people who learn from one another,
share ideas but are not interdependent in an important fashion, and are not working
toward a shared goal. Working groups share information, perspectives, and insights;
make decisions; and help people do their jobs better, but the focus is on individual goals
and accountability. For example, a group of researchers who meet each month to share
their new ideas is a working group.
Why Should Organizations Have Teams?

Teams and teamwork are not novel concepts. In fact, teams and team thinking have
been around for years at companies such as Procter & Gamble and Boeing. In the
1980s, the manufacturing and auto industries strongly embraced a team-oriented
approach when U.S. companies retooled to compete with Japanese companies that
were quickly gaining market share.2 For example, during collaboration on the B-2
stealth bomber between the U.S. Air Force, Northrop, and 4,000 subcontractors and
suppliers in the early 1980s, teams were employed to handle different parts of the
project.3
2
Nahavandi, A., & Aranda, E. (1994). Restructuring teams for the reengineered organization. Academy of
Management Review, 8(4), 58–68.
3
Kresa, K. (1991). Aerospace leadership in a vortex of change. Financier, 15(1), 25–28.
M01_THOM0781_05_GE_C01.indd 21 14/11/14 10:13 AM

Managers discovered a large body of research indicating that teams can be more
effective than the traditional corporate hierarchical structure for making decisions
quickly and efficiently. Even simple changes such as encouraging input and feedback
from workers on the line can make a dramatic improvement. For instance, quality
control (QC) circles and employee involvement groups encourage employee partici-
pation.4 It is a mark of these programs’ success that this kind of thinking is considered
conventional wisdom nowadays. Although these QC teams were worthy efforts at fos-
tering the use of teams in organizations, the teams needed for the restructuring and
reengineering processes of the future may be quite different. According to one study,
team-based projects fail 50 to 70 percent of the time.5
At least four challenges suggest that building and maintaining effective teams is
of paramount importance.
Information Technology
As recently as 10 years ago, virtual teams were rather novel; now they are standard
fare. In the collaboration economy, employees are knowledge workers and teams are
knowledge integrators. One of the challenges of the information era is in finding the
information that is located within the company, or connecting and communicating
with others who may be working half way across the globe. What do people look for
in experts? They look for expertise, trustworthiness, communication skills, willing-
ness to help, years of experience, and awareness of other resources. For example, at
AT&T, internal activities and interactions happen on TSpace, which includes blogs,
wikis, forums and SharePoint sites. Because many people are reluctant to learn new
technologies, professional training on new media increases internal adoption.6
In the collaboration economy, the role of managers has shifted accordingly; they
are no longer primarily responsible for gathering information from employees working
below them in the organizational hierarchy and then making command decisions based
on this information. Their new role is to identify the key resources that will best imple-
ment the team’s objectives and then to facilitate the coordination of those resources for
the company’s purposes.
The jobs of the team members have also changed significantly. This can be
viewed as a threat or a challenge. For example, in 2012, the U.S. Census Bureau esti-
mated that 13.4 million people, or 9.5 percent of all workers, worked from home at
least 1 day per week. That’s up from 7 percent of the workforce in 1999.7 Decisions
may now be made far from their traditional location; indeed, sometimes they are even
made by contractors, who are not employees of the company. This dramatic change in
structure requires an equally dramatic reappraisal of how companies structure the
work environment.
4
Cole, R. E. (1982). Diffusion of participating work structures in Japan, Sweden and the United States. In P. S.
Goodman et al. (Eds.), Change in organizations (pp. 166–225). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
5
Greenberg, J., & Baron, R. A. (2008). Behavior in organizations (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson
Education.
6
Miller, L. (2011, January 25). Getting past ‘no’ on your way to a social media ‘yes’. PR Daily Europe. prdaily.com
7
U.S. Census Bureau. (2012, October 4). Census Bureau report shows steady increase in home-based workers since 1999.
census.gov.
M01_THOM0781_05_GE_C01.indd 22 14/11/14 10:13 AM

Competition
Information technology has also allowed customers and clients to gain immediate access
to knowledge and information about products and services. This knowledge creates
greater competition among companies vying for customers and market share. At least
65 percent of a typical company’s business comes from existing customers, and it costs
five times as much to attract a new customer than to keep an existing customer satisfied.8
With so much at stake, companies aggressively compete in a winner-take-all battle for
market share. Thus, bringing out the best in teams within the company has become even
more important. This means that people can be expected to specialize more, and these
areas of expertise will get ever more narrow and interdependent. This is the core structure
of a team-based approach to work. For example, the Apple iPhone holds 73 percent of cell
phone profits worldwide.9 The team that developed the iPhone included over 200 engi-
neers and involved thousands of others. This coordinated task was difficult because the
applications had to work together. Thus teamwork was critical to coordinate activities of
the various groups. Engineers who developed the iPhone worked through the night on
coding, hardly sleeping for days. Product managers worked hard to make deadlines, and
the tension was high in the office as doors were slammed and arguments broke out in the
hallways.10
Globalization and Culture

Another challenge is globalization. An increasingly global and fast-paced economy
requires people with specialized expertise, yet the specialists within a company need
to work together. As acquisitions, restructurings, outsourcing, and other structural
changes take place, the need for coordination becomes all the more salient. Changes
in corporate structure and increases in specialization imply that there will be new
boundaries among the members of an organization. Boundaries both separate and
link teams within an organization, although the boundaries are not always obvious.11
These new relationships require team members to learn how to work with others to
achieve their goals. Team members must integrate through coordination and syn-
chronization with suppliers, managers, peers, and customers. Teams of people are
required to work with one another and rarely (and, in some cases, never) interact
in a face-to-face fashion. With the ability to communicate with others anywhere on
the planet (and beyond!), people and resources that were once remote can now be
reached quickly, easily, and inexpensively. This has facilitated the development of
the virtual team—groups linked by technology so effectively it is as if they are in the
same building. Furthermore, cultural differences, both profound and nuanced, can
threaten the ability of teams to accomplish shared objectives.
8
U.S. Small Business Administration. (2012). Keeping customers satisfied. sba.gov.
9
Elmer-DeWitt, P. (2012, May 3). With 8.8% market share, Apple has 73% of cell phone profits. CNN Money.
cnnmoney.com
10
Vogelstein, F. (2008, January 9). The untold story: How the iPhone blew up the wireless industry. Wired.
wired.com
11
Alderfer, C. P. (1977). Group and intergroup relations. In J. R. Hackman & J. L. Suttle (Eds.), Improving life at
work (pp. 227–296). Palisades, CA: Goodyear; Friedlander, F. (1987). The design of work teams. In J. W. Lorsch
(Ed.), Handbook of organizational behavior. Upper Saddle, NJ: Pearson Education.
M01_THOM0781_05_GE_C01.indd 23 14/11/14 10:13 AM

Multigenerational Teams
Multigenerational teams refer to the fact that people of different generations work in
fundamentally different ways and have dramatically different norms when it comes to
collaborating and teaming. This is largely due to the shaping experiences some genera-
tions have had with technology at a young age that have affected how they think and
work. For example, born in the mid-1980s and later, Generation Y professionals (also
known as millennials) are the fastest-growing segment of the workforce.12 Sometimes,
communicating with someone from a different generation can be as challenging as com-
municating with someone from a different culture. Unless managers and companies
take the time to understand the different work and value systems of the other genera-
tions, they are doomed to be disappointed and frustrated. Moreover, mixed generations
in the office can often lead to awkward face-to-face interactions. For example, millenni-
als have been referred to as the “new office moron” by Businessweek because they don’t
know how to dress, use a landline, or be professional in a meeting—using their cell
phones to text or browse the Internet.13 Values to consider in teams composed of differ-
ent generations are as follows: the importance of family, achievement orientation, team
versus individual orientation, and the need for feedback, attention, and coaching.
Types of Teams in Organizations

Organizations rely on team-based arrangements to improve quality, productivity,
c ustomer service, and the experience of work for their employees. However, teams
differ greatly in their degree of autonomy and control vis-à-vis the organization.
Specifically, how is authority distributed in the organization? Who has responsibility
for the routine monitoring and management of group performance processes? Who has
responsibility for creating and fine-tuning the design of the group?14 Consider the
four levels of control depicted in Exhibit 1-2.
Manager-Led Teams
The most traditional type of team is the manager-led team. In the manager-led team,
the manager acts as the team leader and is responsible for defining the goals, methods,
and functioning of the team. The team itself is responsible only for the actual execution
of their assigned work. Management is responsible for monitoring and managing
performance processes, overseeing design, selecting members, and interfacing with
the organization. Examples of manager-led work teams include automobile assembly
teams, surgery teams, sports teams, and military teams. A manager-led team typically
has a dedicated, full-time, higher-ranking supervisor, as in a coal-mining crew.
Manager-led teams provide the greatest amount of control over team members
and the work they perform; they allow the leader to have control over the process and
products of the team. In addition, they can be efficient, in the sense that the manager
12
Kane, S. (2012). Generation Y. about.com
13
Why etiquette schools are thriving. (2010, October 14). Businessweek. businessweek.com
14
Hackman, J. R. (1987). The design of work teams. In J. W. Lorsch (Ed.), Handbook of organizational behavior.
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
M01_THOM0781_05_GE_C01.indd 24 14/11/14 10:13 AM

Design of the
Organizational Context
Design of the Team as Area of Management

a Performing Unit Responsibility
Monitoring and Area of Team

Managing Performance Responsibility
Processes
Executing the Task
Manager-Led Self-Managing Self-Designing Self-Governing

Work Teams Work Teams Work Teams Work Teams
Exhibit 1-2 Authority of Four Illustrative Types of Work Teams
Source: Hackman, J. R. (1987). The design of work teams. In J. W. Lorsch (Ed.), Handbook
of organizational behavior. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
does the work of setting the goals and outlining the work to be done. In manager-led
teams, managers don’t have to passively observe the team make the same mistakes they
did. These teams also have relatively low start-up costs. However, there can be some key
disadvantages, such as diffusion of responsibility and conformity to the leader. In short,
members have less autonomy and empowerment. Manager-led teams may be ideally
suited for simple tasks in which there is a clear goal, such as task forces or fact-finding
teams. The rescue of the Entebbe hostages, presented in the chapter-opening vignette,
is an example of a manager-led team, with Lieutenant Colonel Yonatan Netanyahu in
charge of the assault force. Other examples include surgical teams, flight crews, and
stage crews.
Self-Managing Teams
In self-managing or self-regulating teams, a manager or leader determines the overall
purpose or goal of the team, but the team is at liberty to manage the methods by
which to achieve that goal. Self-managed teams are increasingly common in organiza-
tions. Examples include executive search committees and managerial task forces. Self-
managing teams improve productivity, quality, savings, and employee morale, as well
M01_THOM0781_05_GE_C01.indd 25 14/11/14 10:13 AM

as contribute to reductions in absenteeism and turnover.15 These benefits have been

observed in both manufacturing and service settings. For example, gaming develop-
ment company Double Fine was headed for bankruptcy after their most popular game
was cancelled. In an unprecedented self-managing move, the owner assigned people
to several teams and gave each team 2 weeks in which they were free to develop new
game prototypes. The process was called Amnesia Fortnight. Notably, team members
were not locked into any one specific job; rather, programmers could become produc-
ers and artists could become designers. Staffers were able to explore their capabilities
and discover hidden talents. After the 2 weeks ended, Double Fine developed four
new games, which saved their company.16
Ruth Wageman formally studied 43 self-managing teams in the Xerox service
organization.17 According to Wageman, seven defining features emerged in the superbly
performing teams but not in the ineffective teams, including the following: clear
direction, a team task, rewards, material resources, authority to manage their work,
goals, and strategic norms (see Exhibit 1-3).
A study of self-managing companies revealed that they performed much bet-
ter than did others when the recession of 2008 hit, and they also created more jobs.18
Self-managing teams build commitment, offer increased autonomy, and often enhance
morale. The disadvantage is that the manager has much less control over the process
and products, making it difficult to assess progress. Self-managing teams can also be
more time consuming.
Self-Directing Teams
Self-directing or self-designing teams determine their own objectives and the meth-
ods by which to achieve them. Management has responsibility only for the team’s
organizational context. Self-directed teams offer the most potential for innovation,
enhance goal commitment and motivation, and provide opportunity for organiza-
tional learning and change. However, self-directed or self-designing teams are
extremely time consuming, have the greatest potential for conflict, and can be very
costly to build. (For a step-by-step guide to setting up self-designing teams, see The
New Self-Directed Work Teams.19) Furthermore, it can be extremely difficult to moni-
tor their progress. Other disadvantages include marginalization of the team and
lack of team legitimacy. However, self-directed teams are often capable of great
accomplishments.
Self-designing teams may be ideally suited for complex, ill-defined, or ambiguous
problems and next-generation planning. Some companies have “free time” policies that
15
Stewart, G. I., & Manz, C. C. (1995). Leadership and self-managing work teams: A typology and integrative
model. Human Relations, 48(7), 747–770.
16
Makuch, E. (2012, March 8). How amnesia fortnight saved Double Fine. gamespot. gamespot.com
17
Wageman, R. (1997b, Summer). Critical success factors for creating superb self-managing teams. Organizational
Dynamics, 26(1), 49–61.
18
Groom, B. (2012, July 2). Expansion: Chief executives express caution about pace of growth in the sector.
Financial Times. ft.com
19
Orsburn, J. D., Moran, L., Musselwhite, E., & Zenger, J. H. (2000). The new self-directed work teams. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
M01_THOM0781_05_GE_C01.indd 26 14/11/14 10:13 AM

1. Clear direction
• Can team members articulate a clear direction, shared by all members, of the basic purpose that
the team exists to achieve?
2. A real team task
• Is the team assigned collective responsibility for all the team’s customers and major outputs?
• Is the team required to make collective decisions about work strategies (rather than leaving it
to individuals)?
• Are members cross-trained, able to help each other?
• Does the team get team-level data and feedback about its performance?
• Is the team required to meet frequently, and does it do so?
3. Team rewards
• Counting all reward dollars available, are more than 80 percent available to teams only and not
to individuals?
4. Basic material resources
• Does the team have its own meeting space?
• Can the team easily get basic materials needed for work?
5. Authority to manage the work
• Does the team have the authority to decide the following (without first receiving special authority):
• How to meet client demands
• Which actions to take and when
• Whether to change their work strategies when they deem necessary
6. Team goals
• Can the team articulate specific goals?
• Do these goals stretch their performance?
• Have they specified a time by which they intend to accomplish these goals?
7. Strategy norms
• Do team members encourage each other to detect problems without the leader’s intervention?
• Do members openly discuss differences in what members have to contribute to the team?
• Do members encourage experimentation with new ways of operating?
• Does the team actively seek to learn from other teams?
Exhibit 1-3 Critical Success Factors for Self-Managing Teams

Source: Wageman, R. (1997b, Summer). Critical success factors for creating superb self-managing teams.
Organizational Dynamics, 26(1), 49–61.
allow employees to pursue novel projects they feel passionate about. According to
Google, by allowing employees to have “20 percent time” for their projects, several suc-
cessful launches including Gmail electronic mail service, the Google News service,
Google Maps, and social networking site Orkut were possible. Similarly, at Southwest
Airlines, self-directing teams are a core value. The company limits the emphasis on for-
mal organizational structure and instead trusts decision making to the individual
worker or management committee. When a well-known author forgot his identification
card needed to board the plane, the empowered team member was able to assure his
identity from the back cover of one of his books, and permitted the author to board
the plane, preventing a dreaded flight delay. In a traditional top–down structure, the
team member would have to call her manager, who then may have to call another
manager, but the power of the self-directing team circumvented the bureaucratic
M01_THOM0781_05_GE_C01.indd 27 14/11/14 10:13 AM

hassle.20 By reducing bureaucracy, self-directed teams help the bottom line. At W.L.
Gore company, 9,500 employees across 50 locations work without formal hierarchies,
no bosses, and minimal job titles. Associates choose their work and negotiate roles with
team members. Manufacturing facilities are capped around 200 workers to keep the
focus on “we decided” instead of “they decided.” The company scores high in annual
lists of best places to work and innovation leaders.21
Self-Governing Teams
Self-governing teams and boards of directors are usually responsible for executing a
task, managing their own performance processes, designing the group, and designing
the organizational context. They have wide latitude of authority and responsibility. In
many companies, the president or chief operating officer has been replaced with an exec-
utive, self-governing team.22 For example, LPN Founder Dov Seidman stood in front of
his executive team and tore up the traditional organizational chart and announced that
all members would now “report” to the company mission. The company is managed
through elected employee councils and is responsible for recruiting, performance and
resource management, and conflict resolution.23
Yet, there are trade-offs involved with each of these four types of teams. Self-
governing and self-directed teams provide the greatest potential in terms of commit-
ment and participation, but they are also at the greatest risk of misdirection. When
decisions are pushed down in organizations, team goals and interests may be at odds
with organizational interests. Unless everyone in the organization is aware of the com-
pany’s interests and goals, poor decisions (often with the best of intentions) may be
made. An organization that chooses a manager-led group is betting that a manager can
run things more effectively than a team can. If it is believed that the team can do the
job better, a self-governing or self-designing team may be appropriate. One implica-
tion of this is that the manager’s traditional role as a collector of information is less and
less important. However, it is important to think about the direction of movement. One
investigation tested predictions from Structural Adaptation Theory on the longitudi-
nal effects of centralizing versus decentralizing decision-making structures in teams.24
Results from 93 4-person teams documented that it was more difficult for teams to adapt
to a centralized decision-making structure after formally working within a decentral-
ized structure than it was to adapt in the opposite direction.
20
Nayab, N. (2011, August 24). How employee empowerment has pushed companies ahead. Bright Hub.
brighthub.com
21
LaBarre, P. (2012, March 5). When nobody (and everybody) is the boss. CNNMoney. management.fortune.
cnn.com.
22
Ancona, D. G., & Nadler, D. A. (1989). Top hats and executive tales: Designing the senior team. Senior
Management Review, 31(1), 19–28.
23
Seidman, D. (2012, June 26). Work in progress: Working in a self-governing office. Financial Times. financial-
times.com
24
Hollenbeck, J. R., Aleksander, P. J., Ellis, S. E., Humphrey, A. S, Garza, & Ilgen, D. R. (2011). Asymmetry
in structural adaptation: The differential impact of centralizing versus decentralizing team decision-making
structures, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 114(1), 64–74.
M01_THOM0781_05_GE_C01.indd 28 14/11/14 10:13 AM

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
PATTIES À LA PONTIFE. (ENTRÉE.)
(A fast day, or Maigre dish.)

Mince, but not very small, the yolks of six fresh hard-boiled eggs;
mince also and mix with them a couple of fine truffles,[120] a large
saltspoonful of salt, half the quantity of mace and nutmeg, and a
fourth as much of cayenne. Moisten these ingredients with a
spoonful of thick cream, or béchamel maigre (see page 109), or with
a dessertspoonful of clarified butter; line the patty-moulds, fill them
with the mixture, cover, and bake them from twelve to fifteen minutes
in a moderate oven. They are excellent made with the cream-crust of
page 347.
120. The bottled ones will answer well for these.
Yolks hard-boiled eggs, 6; truffles, 2 large; seasoning of salt,
mace, nutmeg, and cayenne; cream, or béchamel maigre, 1
tablespoonful, or clarified butter, 1 dessertspoonful: baked moderate
oven, 12 to 15 minutes.
Obs.—A spoonful or two of jellied stock or gravy, or of good white
sauce, converts these into admirable patties: the same ingredients
make also very superior rolls or cannelons. For Patties à la
Cardinale, small mushroom-buttons stewed as for partridges,
Chapter XIII., before they are minced, must be substituted for
truffles; and the butter in which they are simmered should be added
with them to the eggs.
EXCELLENT MEAT ROLLS.
Pound, as for potting (see page 305), and with the same
proportion of butter and of seasonings, some half-roasted veal,
chicken, or turkey. Make some forcemeat by the receipt No. 1,
Chapter VI., and form it into small rolls, not larger than a finger; wrap
twice or thrice as much of the pounded meat equally round each of
these, first moistening it with a teaspoonful of water; fold them in
good puff-paste, and bake them from fifteen to twenty minutes, or
until the crust is perfectly done. A small quantity of the lean of a
boiled ham may be finely minced and pounded with the veal, and
very small mushrooms, prepared as for a partridge (page 329), may
be substituted for the forcemeat.
SMALL VOLS-AU-VENTS, OR PATTY-CASES.
These are quickly and easily made with two round paste-cutters,
of which one should be little more than half the size of the other: to
give the pastry a better appearance, they should be fluted. Roll out
some of the lightest puff-paste to a half-inch of thickness, and with
the larger of the tins cut the number of patties required; then dip the
edge of the small shape into hot water, and press it about half
through them. Bake them in a moderately quick oven from ten to
twelve minutes, and when they are done, with the point of a sharp
knife, take out the small rounds of crust from the tops, and scoop all
the crumb from the inside of the patties, which may then be filled
with shrimps, oysters, lobster, chicken, pheasant, or any other of the
ordinary varieties of patty meat, prepared with white sauce. Fried
crumbs may be laid over them instead of the covers, or these last
can be replaced.
For sweet dishes, glaze the pastry, and fill it with rich whipped
cream, preserve, or boiled custard; if with the last of these put it back
into a very gentle oven until the custards are set.
ANOTHER RECEIPT FOR TARTLETS.
For a dozen tartlets, cut twenty-four rounds of paste of the usual

size, and form twelve of them into rings by pressing the small cutter
quite through them; moisten these with cold water, or white of egg,
and lay them on the remainder of the rounds of paste, so as to form
the rims of the tartlets. Bake them from ten to twelve minutes, fill
them with preserve while they are still warm, and place over it a
small ornament of paste cut from the remnants, and baked gently of
a light colour. Serve the tartlets cold, or if wanted hot for table put
them back into the oven for one minute after they are filled.
A SEFTON, OR VEAL CUSTARD.
Pour boiling, a pint of rich, clear, pale veal gravy on six fresh eggs,
which have been well beaten and strained: sprinkle in directly the
grated rind of a fine lemon, a little cayenne, some salt if needed, and
a quarter-teaspoonful of mace. Put a paste border round a dish, pour
in, first two ounces of clarified butter, and then the other ingredients;
bake the Sefton in a very slow oven from twenty-five to thirty
minutes, or until it is quite firm in the middle, and send it to table with
a little good gravy. Very highly flavoured game stock, in which a few
mushrooms have been stewed, may be used for this dish with great
advantage in lieu of veal gravy; and a sauce made of the smallest
mushroom buttons, may be served with it in either case. The mixture
can be baked in a whole paste, if preferred so, or in well buttered
cups; then turned out and covered with the sauce before it is sent to
table.
Rich veal or game stock, 1 pint; fresh eggs, 6; rind, 1 lemon; little
salt and cayenne; pounded mace, 1/4 teaspoonful; butter, 2 oz.:
baked, 25 to 30 minutes, slow oven.
APPLE CAKE, OR GERMAN TART.
Work together with the fingers, ten ounces of butter and a pound
of flour, until they resemble fine crumbs of bread; throw in a small
pinch of salt, and make them into a firm smooth paste with the yolks
of two eggs and a spoonful or two of water. Butter thickly, a plain tin
cake, or pie mould (those which open at the sides, see plate, page
344, are best adapted for the purpose); roll out the paste thin, place
the mould upon it, trim a bit to its exact size, cover the bottom of the
mould with this, then cut a band the height of the sides, and press it
smoothly round them, joining the edge, which must be moistened
with egg or water, to the bottom crust; and fasten upon them, to
prevent their separation, a narrow and thin band of paste, also
moistened. Next, fill the mould nearly from the brim with the following
marmalade, which must be quite cold when it is put in. Boil together,
over a gentle fire at first, but more quickly afterwards, three pounds
of good apples with fourteen ounces of pounded sugar, or of the
finest Lisbon, the strained juice of a large lemon, three ounces of
fresh butter, and a teaspoonful of pounded cinnamon, or the lightly
grated rind of a couple of lemons: when the whole is perfectly
smooth and dry, turn it into a pan to cool, and let it be quite cold
before it is put into the paste. In early autumn, a larger proportion of
sugar may be required, but this can be regulated by the taste. When
the mould is filled, roll out the cover, lay it carefully over the
marmalade that it may not touch it; and when the cake is securely
closed, trim off the superfluous paste, add a little pounded sugar to
the parings, spread them out very thin, and cut them into leaves to
ornament the top of the cake, round which they may be placed as a
sort of wreath.[121] Bake it for an hour in a moderately brisk oven;
take it from the mould, and should the sides not be sufficiently
coloured put it back for a few minutes into the oven upon a baking
tin. Lay a paper over the top, when it is of a fine light brown, to
prevent its being too deeply coloured. This cake should be served
hot.
121. Or, instead of these, fasten on it with a little white of egg, after it is taken from
the oven, some ready-baked leaves of almond-paste (see page 355), either
plain or coloured.
Paste: flour, 1 lb.; butter, 10 oz.; yolks of eggs, 2; little water.
Marmalade: apples, 3 lbs.; sugar, 14 oz. (more if needed); juice of
lemon, 1; rinds of lemons, 2; butter, 3 oz.: baked, 1 hour.
TOURTE MERINGUÉE, OR TART WITH ROYAL ICING.[122]
122. The limits to which we are obliged to confine this volume, compel us to omit
many receipts which we would gladly insert; we have, therefore, rejected
those which may be found in almost every English cookery book, for such as
are, we apprehend, less known to the reader: this will account for the small
number of receipts for pies and fruit tarts to be found in the present chapter.
Lay a band of fine paste round the rim of a tart-dish, fill it with any
kind of fruit mixed with a moderate proportion of sugar, roll out the
cover very evenly, moisten the edges of the paste, press them
together carefully, and trim them off close to the dish; spread equally
over the top, to within rather more than an inch of the edge all round,
the whites of three fresh eggs beaten to a quite solid froth and mixed
quickly at the moment of using them with three tablespoonsful of dry
sifted sugar. Put the tart into a moderately brisk oven, and when the
crust has risen well and the icing is set, either lay a sheet of writing-
paper lightly over it, or draw it to a part of the oven where it will not
take too much colour. This is now a fashionable mode of icing tarts,
and greatly improves their appearance.
Bake half an hour.
A GOOD APPLE TART.
A pound and a quarter of apples weighed after they are pared and
cored, will be sufficient for a small tart, and four ounces more for one
of moderate size. Lay a border of English puff-paste, or of cream-
crust round the dish, just dip the apples into water, arrange them
very compactly in it, higher in the centre than at the sides, and strew
amongst them from three to four ounces of pounded sugar, or more
should they be very acid: the grated rind and the strained juice of
half a lemon will much improve their flavour. Lay on the cover rolled
thin, and ice it or not at pleasure. Send the tart to a moderate oven
for about half an hour. This may be converted into the old-fashioned
creamed apple tart, by cutting out the cover while it is still quite hot,
leaving only about an inch-wide border of paste round the edge, and
pouring over the apples when they have become cold, from half to
three-quarters of a pint of rich boiled custard. The cover divided into
triangular sippets, was formerly stuck round the inside of the tart, but
ornamental leaves of pale puff-paste have a better effect. Well-
drained whipped cream may be substituted for the custard, and be
piled high, and lightly over the fruit.
TART OF VERY YOUNG GREEN APPLES. (GOOD.)
Take very young apples from the tree before the cores are formed,
clear off the buds and stalks, wash them well, and fill a tart-dish with
them after having rolled them in plenty of sugar, or strew layers of
sugar between them; add a very small quantity of water and bake
the tart rather slowly, that the fruit may be tender quite through. It will
resemble a green apricot-tart if carefully made. We give this receipt
from recollection, having had the dish served often formerly, and
having found it very good.
BARBERRY TART.
Barberries, with half their weight of fine brown sugar, when they
are thoroughly ripe, and with two ounces more when they are not
quite so, make an admirable tart. For one of moderate size, put into
a dish bordered with paste three quarters of a pound of barberries
stripped from their stalks, and six ounces of sugar in alternate layers;
pour over them three tablespoonsful of water, put on the cover, and
bake the tart for half an hour. Another way of making it is, to line a
shallow tin pan with very thin crust, to mix the fruit and sugar well
together with a spoon before they are laid in, and to put bars of paste
across instead of a cover; or it may be baked without either.[123]
123. The French make their fruit-tarts generally thus, in large shallow pans.
Plums, split and stoned (or if of small kinds, left entire), cherries and currants
freed from the stalks, and various other fruits, all rolled in plenty of sugar, are
baked in the uncovered crust; or this is baked by itself, and then filled
afterwards with fruit previously stewed tender.
THE LADY’S TOURTE, AND CHRISTMAS TOURTE À LA
CHÂTELAINE.
To make this Tourte, which, when filled, is

of pretty appearance, two paste-cutters are
requisite, one the size, or nearly so, of the
inside of the dish in which the entremets is
Lady’s Tourte. to be served, the other not more than an
inch in diameter, and both of them fluted, as
will be seen by the engraving. To make the
paste for it, throw a small half saltspoonful of salt into half a pound of
the finest flour, and break lightly into it four ounces of fresh butter,
which should be firm. Make these up smoothly with cold milk or
water, of which nearly a quarter of a pint will be sufficient, unless the
butter should be very hard, when a spoonful or two more must be
added. Roll the paste out as lightly as possible twice or thrice if
needful, to blend the butter thoroughly with it, and each time either
fold it in three by wrapping the ends over each other, or fold it over
and over like a roll pudding. An additional ounce, or even two, of
butter can be used for it when very rich pastry is liked, but the tourte
will not then retain its form so well. Roll it out evenly to something
more than three-quarters of an inch in thickness, and press the large
cutter firmly through it; draw away the superfluous paste, and lay the
tourte on a lightly floured baking-tin. Roll the remainder of the paste
until it is less than a quarter of an inch thick, and stamp out with the
smaller cutter—of which the edge should be dipped into hot water, or
slightly encrusted with flour—as many rounds as will form the border
of the tourte. In placing them upon it, lay the edge of one over the
other just sufficiently to give a shell-like appearance to the whole;
and with the finger press lightly on the opposite part of the round to
make it adhere to the under paste. Next, with a sharp-pointed knife,
make an incision very evenly round the inside of the tourte nearly
close to the border, but be extremely careful not to cut too deeply
into the paste. Bake it in a gentle oven, from twenty to thirty minutes.
When it is done, detach the crust from the centre, where it has been
marked with the knife, take out part of the crumb, fill the space high
with apricot-jam, or with any other choice preserve, set it again for an
instant into the oven, and serve it hot or cold. Spikes of blanched
almonds, filberts, or pistachio-nuts, may be strewed over the
preserve, when they are considered an improvement; and the border
of the pastry may be glazed or ornamented to the fancy; but if well
made, it will generally please in its quite simple form. It may be
converted into a delicious entrée, by filling it either with oysters, or
sliced sweetbreads, stewed, and served in thick, rich, white sauce,
or béchamel. Lobster also prepared and moulded as for the new
lobster patties of page 359, will form a superior dish even to these.
Obs.—Six ounces of flour, and three of butter, will make sufficient
paste for this tourte, when it is required only of the usual moderate
size. If richer paste be used for it, it must have two or three additional
turns or rollings to prevent its losing its form in the oven.
Christmas Tourte à la Châtelaine.—Make the case for this tourte
as for the preceding one, and put sufficient mincemeat to fill it
handsomely into a jar, cover it very securely with paste, or with two
or three folds of thick paper, and bake it gently for half an hour or
longer, should the currants, raisins, &c., not be fully tender. Take out
the inside of the tourte, heap the hot mincemeat in it, pour a little
fresh brandy over; just touch it with a strip of lighted writing-paper at
the door of the dining-room, and serve it in a blaze; or if better liked
so, serve it very hot without the brandy, and with Devonshire cream
as an accompaniment.[124]
124. Sufficient of cream for this purpose can easily be prepared from good milk.
GENOISES À LA REINE, OR HER MAJESTY’S PASTRY.
Make some nouilles (see page 5), with the yolks of four fresh
eggs, and when they are all cut as directed there, drop them lightly
into a pint and a half of boiling cream (new milk will answer quite as
well, or a portion of each may be used), in which six ounces of fresh
butter have been dissolved. When these have boiled quickly for a
minute or two, during which time they must be stirred to prevent their
gathering into lumps, add a small pinch of salt, and six ounces of
sugar on which the rinds of two lemons have been rasped; place the
saucepan over a clear and very gentle fire, and when the mixture
has simmered from thirty to forty minutes take it off, stir briskly in the
yolks of six eggs, and pour it out upon a delicately clean baking-tin
which has been slightly rubbed in every part with butter; level the
nouilles with a knife to something less than a quarter of an inch of
thickness, and let them be very evenly spread; put them into a
moderate oven, and bake them of a fine equal brown: should any air-
bladders appear, pierce them with the point of a knife. On taking the
paste from the oven, divide it into two equal parts; turn one of these,
the underside uppermost, on to a clean tin or a large dish, and
spread quickly over it a jar of fine apricot-jam, place the other half
upon it, the brown side outwards, and leave the paste to become
cold; then stamp it out with a round or diamond-shaped cutter, and
arrange the genoises tastefully in a dish. This pastry will be found
delicious the day it is baked, but its excellence is destroyed by
keeping. Peach, green-gage, or magnum bonum jam, will serve for it
quite as well as apricot. We strongly recommend to our readers this
preparation, baked in pattypans, and served hot; or the whole
quantity made into a pudding. From the smaller ones a little may be
taken out with a teaspoon, and replaced with some preserve just
before they are sent to table; or they may thus be eaten cold.
Nouilles of 4 eggs; cream or milk, 1-1/2 pint; butter, 6 oz.; sugar 6
oz.; rasped rinds of lemons, 2; grain of salt: 30 to 40 minutes. Yolks
of eggs, 6: baked from 15 to 25 minutes.
ALMOND PASTE.
For a single dish of pastry, blanch seven ounces of fine Jordan

almonds and one of bitter;[125] throw them into cold water as they
are done, and let them remain in it for an hour or two; then wipe, and
pound them to the finest paste, moistening them occasionally with a
few drops of cold water, to prevent their oiling; next, add to, and mix
thoroughly with them, seven ounces of highly-refined, dried, and
sifted sugar; put them into a small preserving-pan, or enamelled
stewpan, and stir them over a clear and very gentle fire until they are
so dry as not to adhere to the finger when touched; turn the paste
immediately into an earthen pan or jar, and when cold it will be ready
for use.
125. When these are objected to, use half a pound of the sweet almonds.
Jordan almonds, 7 oz.; bitter almonds, 1 oz.; cold water, 1
tablespoonful; sugar, 7 oz.
Obs.—The pan in which the paste is dried, should by no means be
placed upon the fire, but high above it on a bar or trevet: should it be
allowed by accident to harden too much, it must be sprinkled
plentifully with water, broken up quite small, and worked, as it
warms, with a strong wooden spoon to a smooth paste again. We
have found this method perfectly successful; but, if time will permit, it
should be moistened some hours before it is again set over the fire.
TARTLETS OF ALMOND PASTE.
Butter slightly the smallest-sized pattypans, and line them with the
almond-paste rolled as thin as possible; cut it with a sharp knife
close to their edges, and bake or rather dry the tartlets slowly at the
mouth of a very cool oven. If at all coloured, they should be only of
the palest brown; but they will become perfectly crisp without losing
their whiteness if left for some hours in a very gently-heated stove or
oven. They should be taken from the pans when two-thirds done,
and laid, reversed, upon a sheet of paper placed on a dish or board,
before they are put back into the oven. At the instant of serving, fill
them with bright-coloured whipped cream, or with peach or apricot
jam; if the preserve be used, lay over it a small star or other
ornament cut from the same paste, and dried with the tartlets. Sifted
sugar, instead of flour, must be dredged upon the board and roller in
using almond paste. Leaves and flowers formed of it, and dried
gradually until perfectly crisp, will keep for a long time in a tin box or
canister, and they form elegant decorations for pastry. When a fluted
cutter the size of the pattypans is at hand, it will be an improvement
to cut out the paste with it, and then to press it lightly into them, as it
is rather apt to break when pared off with a knife. To colour it,
prepared cochineal, or spinach-green, must be added to it in the
mortar.
FAIRY FANCIES.
(Fantaisies de Fées.)
A small, but very
inexpensive set of
tin cutters must be
had for this pretty
form of pastry,
which is, however,
quite worthy of so slight a cost. The short crust, of page 349,
answers for it better than puff paste. Roll it thin and very even, and
with the larger tin, shaped thus, cut out a dozen or more of small
sheets; then, with a couple of round cutters, of which one should be
about an inch in diameter, and the other only half the size, form four
times the number of rings, and lay them on the sheets in the manner
shown in the engraving. The easier mode of placing them regularly,
is to raise each ring without removing the small cutter from it, to
moisten it with a camel’s hair brush dipped in white of egg, and to lay
it on the paste as it is gently loosened from the tin When all the
pastry is prepared, set it into a very gentle oven, that it may become
crisp and yet remain quite pale. Before it is sent to table, fill the four
divisions of each fantaisie with preserve of a different colour. For
example: one ring with apple or strawberry jelly, another with apricot
jam, a third with peach or green-gage, and a fourth with raspberry
jelly. The cases may be iced, and ornamented in various ways
before they are baked. They are prettiest when formed of white
almond-paste, with pink or pale green rings: they may then be filled,
at the instant of serving, with well-drained whipped cream.
MINCEMEAT.
(Author’s Receipt.)
To one pound of an unsalted ox-tongue, boiled tender and cut free
from the rind, add two pounds of fine stoned raisins, two of beef
kidney-suet, two pounds and a half of currants well cleaned and
dried, two of good apples, two and a half of fine Lisbon sugar, from
half to a whole pound of candied peel according to the taste, the
grated rinds of two large lemons, and two more boiled quite tender,
and chopped up entirely, with the exception of the pips, two small
nutmegs, half an ounce of salt, a large teaspoonful of pounded
mace, rather more of ginger in powder, half a pint of brandy, and as
much good sherry or Madeira. Mince these ingredients separately,
and mix the others all well before the brandy and the wine are
added; press the whole into a jar or jars, and keep it closely covered.
It should be stored for a few days before it is used, and will remain
good for many weeks. Some persons like a slight flavouring of
cloves in addition to the other spices; others add the juice of two or
three lemons, and a larger quantity of brandy. The inside of a tender
and well-roasted sirloin of beef will answer quite as well as the
tongue.
Of a fresh-boiled ox-tongue, or inside of roasted sirloin, 1 lb.;
stoned raisins and minced apples, each 2 lbs.; currants and fine
Lisbon sugar, each 2-1/2 lbs.; candied orange, lemon or citron rind, 8
to 16 oz.; boiled lemons, 2 large; rinds of two others, grated; salt, 1/2
oz.; nutmegs, 2 small; pounded mace, 1 large teaspoonful, and
rather more of ginger; good sherry or Madeira, 1/2 pint; brandy, 1/2
pint.
Obs.—The lemons will be sufficiently boiled in from one hour to
one and a quarter.
SUPERLATIVE MINCEMEAT.
Take four large lemons, with their weight of golden pippins pared
and cored, of jar-raisins, currants, candied citron and orange-rind,
and the finest suet, and a fourth part more of pounded sugar. Boil the
lemons tender, chop them small, but be careful first to extract all the
pips; add them to the other ingredients, after all have been prepared
with great nicety, and mix the whole well with from three to four
glasses of good brandy. Apportion salt and spice by the preceding
receipt. We think that the weight of one lemon, in meat, improves
this mixture; or, in lieu of it, a small quantity of crushed macaroons
added just before it is baked.
MINCE PIES. (ENTREMETS.)
Butter some tin pattypans well, and line them evenly with fine puff
paste rolled thin; fill them with mincemeat, moisten the edges of the
covers, which should be nearly a quarter of an inch thick, close the
pies carefully, trim off the superfluous paste, make a small aperture
in the centre of the crust with a fork or the point of a knife, ice the
pies or not, at pleasure, and bake them half an hour in a well-heated
but not fierce oven: lay a paper over them when they are partially
done, should they appear likely to take too much colour.
1/2 hour.

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Making the Team:

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Part 1 The Basics of Teamwork 17

Part 2 Internal Dynamics 89

Part 3 External Dynamics 261

Appendix 1 Managing Meetings: A Toolkit 374

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Part 1 The Basics of Teamwork 17

Chapter 1 Teams in Organizations: Facts and Myths 19

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Skill 2: Research-Based Intervention 36

Chapter 2 Performance and Productivity: Team

Chapter 3 Rewarding Teamwork: Compensation

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Part 2 Internal Dynamics 89

Chapter 4 Designing the Team: Tasks, People,

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How Big Should the Team Be? 101

Chapter 5 Team Identity, Emotion, and

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Chapter 6 Sharpening the Team Mind: Communication

Chapter 7 Team Decision Making: Pitfalls and

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Decision-Making Pitfall 1: Groupthink 187

Chapter 8 Conflict in Teams: Leveraging Differences

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Interests, Rights, and Power Model of Disputing 225

Chapter 9 Creativity: Mastering Strategies for High

Part 3 External Dynamics 261

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External Roles of Team Members 269

Chapter 11 Leadership: Managing the Paradox 293

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Leadership and Power 311

Chapter 12 Interteam Relations: Balancing Competition

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Chapter 13 Teaming Across Distance and Culture 346

Appendix 1 Managing Meetings: A Toolkit 374

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