Measures Integrals and Martingales 2nd

Edition Ren L. Schilling

Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://textbookfull.com/product/measures-integrals-and-martingales-2nd-edition-ren-l
-schilling/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Measures Integrals and Martingales Solution Manual 2nd

Edition René L. Schilling

https://textbookfull.com/product/measures-integrals-and-
martingales-solution-manual-2nd-edition-rene-l-schilling/

Fourier Integrals in Classical Analysis 2nd Edition

Christopher D. Sogge

https://textbookfull.com/product/fourier-integrals-in-classical-
analysis-2nd-edition-christopher-d-sogge/

Positive Psychological Assessment A Handbook of Models

and Measures 2nd Edition Matthew W. Gallagher

https://textbookfull.com/product/positive-psychological-
assessment-a-handbook-of-models-and-measures-2nd-edition-matthew-
w-gallagher/

Geometry and Martingales in Banach Spaces 1st Edition

Wojbor A Woyczynski

https://textbookfull.com/product/geometry-and-martingales-in-
banach-spaces-1st-edition-wojbor-a-woyczynski/
Acceptance Sampling in Quality Control Third Edition
Edward G. Schilling

https://textbookfull.com/product/acceptance-sampling-in-quality-
control-third-edition-edward-g-schilling/

Brownian Motion Martingales and Stochastic Calculus 1st

Edition Jean-François Le Gall

https://textbookfull.com/product/brownian-motion-martingales-and-
stochastic-calculus-1st-edition-jean-francois-le-gall/

Brownian Motion Martingales and Stochastic Calculus 1st

Edition Jean-François Le Gall

https://textbookfull.com/product/brownian-motion-martingales-and-
stochastic-calculus-1st-edition-jean-francois-le-gall-2/

Workload measures Third Edition Gawron

https://textbookfull.com/product/workload-measures-third-edition-
gawron/

Network reliability: measures and evaluation 1st

Edition Chaturvedi

https://textbookfull.com/product/network-reliability-measures-
and-evaluation-1st-edition-chaturvedi/
MEASURES, INTEGRALS AND MARTINGALES

A concise yet elementary introduction to measure and integration theory, which

are vital in many areas of mathematics, including analysis, probability, mathemati-
cal physics and finance. In this highly successful textbook the core ideas of measure
and integration are explored, and martingales are used to develop the theory fur-
ther. Additional topics are also covered such as: Jacobi’s transformation theorem;
the Radon–Nikodym theorem; differentiation of measures and Hardy–Littlewood
maximal functions.
In this second edition, readers will find newly added chapters on Hausdorff
measures, Fourier analysis, vague convergence, and classical proofs of the Radon–
Nikodym and Riesz representation theorems. All proofs are carefully worked out
with utmost clarity to ensure full understanding of the material and its background.
Requiring few prerequisites, this book is a suitable text for undergraduate lec-
ture courses or self-study. Numerous illustrations and over 400 exercises help to
consolidate and broaden the reader’s knowledge. Full solutions to all exercises are
available on the author’s webpage at www.motapa.de.

RENÉ L. SCHILLING is a Professor of Mathematics at Technische Universität,

Dresden. His main research area is stochastic analysis and stochastic processes.
MEASURES, INTEGRALS
AND MARTINGALES
SECOND EDITION

RE N É L . S C HILLING
Technische Universität, Dresden
University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom
One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, NY 10006, USA
477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia
4843/24, 2nd Floor, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, Delhi – 110002, India
79 Anson Road, #06-04/06, Singapore 079906

Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.

It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of
education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence.

www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781316620243
DOI: 10.1017/9781316718339
© René L. Schilling 2005, 2017
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2005
Second edition 2017
Printed in the United Kingdom by Clays, St Ives plc
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library.
ISBN 978-1-316-62024-3 Paperback
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the presistence or accuracy
of URLs for external or third-party Internet Web sites referred to in this publication
and does not guarantee that any content on such Web sites is, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.
 Contents

List of Symbols page x

Prelude xiii
Dependence Chart xvii
1 Prologue 1
Problems 5
2 The Pleasures of Counting 6
Problems 14
3 σ-Algebras 16
Problems 21
4 Measures 23
Problems 28
5 Uniqueness of Measures 32
Problems 37
6 Existence of Measures 39
Existence of Lebesgue measure in R 46
Existence of Lebesgue measure in Rn 47
Problems 50
7 Measurable Mappings 53
Problems 58
8 Measurable Functions 60
Problems 69
9 Integration of Positive Functions 72
Problems 79

v
vi Contents

10 Integrals of Measurable Functions 82

Problems 87
11 Null Sets and the ‘Almost Everywhere’ 89
Problems 93
12 Convergence Theorems and Their Applications 96
Application 1: Parameter-Dependent Integrals 99
Application 2: Riemann vs. Lebesgue Integration 101
Improper Riemann Integrals 105
Examples 107
Problems 110
13 The Function Spaces Lp 116
Convergence in Lp and Completeness 120
Convexity and Jensen’s Inequality 125
Convexity Inequalities in R2+ 128
Problems 132
14 Product Measures and Fubini’s Theorem 136
Integration by Parts and Two Interesting Integrals 143
Distribution Functions 146
Minkowski’s Inequality for Integrals 148
More on Measurable Functions 149
Problems 149
15 Integrals with Respect to Image Measures 154
Convolutions 157
Regularization 160
Problems 162
16 Jacobi’s Transformation Theorem 164
A useful Generalization of the Transformation Theorem 170
Images of Borel Sets 172
Polar Coordinates and the Volume of the Unit Ball 176
Surface Measure on the Sphere 181
Problems 183
17 Dense and Determining Sets 186
Dense Sets 186
Determining Sets 191
Problems 194
 Contents vii

18 Hausdorff Measure 197

Constructing (Outer) Measures 197
Hausdorff Measures 202
Hausdorff Dimension 209
Problems 212

19 The Fourier Transform 214

Injectivity and Existence of the Inverse Transform 217
The Convolution Theorem 220
The Riemann–Lebesgue Lemma 221
The Wiener Algebra, Weak Convergence and Plancherel 223
The Fourier Transform in S(Rn ) 227
Problems 228

20 The Radon–Nikodým Theorem 230

Problems 236

21 Riesz Representation Theorems 238

Bounded and Positive Linear Functionals 238
Duality of the Spaces Lp (µ), 1 6 p < ∞ 241
The Riesz Representation Theorem for Cc (X ) 243
Vague and Weak Convergence of Measures 249
Problems 255

22 Uniform Integrability and Vitali’s Convergence Theorem 258

Different Forms of Uniform Integrability 264
Problems 272

23 Martingales 275
Problems 286

24 Martingale Convergence Theorems 288

Problems 298

25 Martingales in Action 300

The Radon–Nikodým Theorem 300
Martingale Inequalities 308
The Hardy–Littlewood Maximal Theorem 310
Lebesgue’s Differentiation Theorem 314
The Calderón–Zygmund Lemma 318
Problems 319
viii Contents

26 Abstract Hilbert Spaces 322

Convergence and Completeness 327
Problems 338
27 Conditional Expectations 341
Extension from L2 to Lp 345
Monotone Extensions 347
Properties of Conditional Expectations 349
Conditional Expectations and Martingales 355
On the Structure of Subspaces of L2 357
Separability Criteria for the Spaces Lp (X, A , µ) 361
Problems 366
28 Orthonormal Systems and Their Convergence Behaviour 370
Orthogonal Polynomials 370
The Trigonometric System and Fourier Series 376
The Haar System 383
The Haar Wavelet 389
The Rademacher Functions 393
Well-Behaved Orthonormal Systems 396
Problems 407
Appendix A lim inf and lim sup 409
Appendix B Some Facts from Topology 415
Continuity in Euclidean Spaces 415
Metric Spaces 416
Appendix C The Volume of a Parallelepiped 421
Appendix D The Integral of Complex-Valued Functions 423
Appendix E Measurability of the Continuity Points of a Function 425
Appendix F Vitali’s Covering Theorem 427
Appendix G Non-measurable Sets 429
Appendix H Regularity of Measures 437
Appendix I A Summary of the Riemann Integral 441
The (Proper) Riemann Integral 441
The Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus 450
Integrals and Limits 455
Improper Riemann Integrals 458
References 465
Index 469
 List of Symbols

This is intended to aid cross-referencing, so notation that is specific to a single section

is generally not listed. Some symbols are used locally, without ambiguity, in senses
other than those given below. Numbers following entries are page numbers, with the
occasional (Pr m.n) referring to Problem m.n on the respective page.
Unless stated otherwise, binary operations between functions such as f ± g, f · g,
f ∧ g, f ∨ g, comparisons f 6 g, f < g or limiting relations fn −−−→ f, limn fn , lim infn fn ,
n→∞
lim sup fn , supi fi or infi fi are always understood pointwise.
Alternatives are indicated by square brackets, i.e., ‘if A [B] … then P [Q]’ should be
read as ‘if A … then P’ and ‘if B … then Q’.

Generalities A×B Cartesian product

positive always in the sense > 0 An n-fold Cartesian product
negative always in the sense 6 0 AN infinite sequences in A
N natural numbers: 1, 2, 3, . . . #A cardinality of A, 8
N0 positive integers: 0, 1, 2, . . . t·A {ta : a ∈ A}
Z, Q, R, C integer, rational, real, x+A {x + a : a ∈ A}
complex numbers E∩A {E ∩ A
∪ ∩: A ∈ A }, 17
R [−∞, +∞] lim infn An A , 413
∩k∈N ∪n>k n
inf ∅, sup ∅ inf ∅ = +∞, sup ∅ = −∞ lim supn An k∈N n>k An , 413
a∨b maximum of a and b (a, b), [a, b] open, closed intervals
a∧b minimum of a and b (a, b], [a, b) half-open intervals
lim infn an supk infn>k an , 409 Br (x) open ball with radius r and
lim supn an infk supn>k an , 409 centre x
|x| Euclidean norm in Rn ,
|x|2 = x21 + · · · + x2n Families of sets
∑n
⟨x, y⟩ scalar product i=1 xi yi A generic σ-algebra, 16
ωn volume of the unit ball in A completion 30 (Pr 4.15)
Rn , 181 (Ai )i∈I filtration, 276 (∪ )
A∞ σ(Ai : i ∈ I) = σ i∈I Ai
Sets and set operations ∩
A−∞ ℓ∈−N Aℓ
A∪B union 6
Aτ , Aσ 283
A⊍B union of disjoint sets, 6
A ×B {A × B : A ∈ A , B ∈ B}
A∩B intersection, 6
rectangles
A\B set-theoretic difference, 6
A ⊗B product-σ-algebra, 138
Ac complement of A, 6
B(X) Borel sets in X, 18:
A△B (A \ B) ∪ (B \ A)
X = Rn (18), X = A ⊂ Rn (22
A⊂B subset (includes ‘=’), 6
Pr 3.13), X = R (61), X = C
A B proper subset, 6
(88 Pr 10.9, 423)
A×B Cartesian product
B(Rn ) completion of the Borel
A closure of A
sets, 151 (Pr 14.15), 172,
A◦ open interior of A
429
An ↑ A, An ↓ A 23

x
 List of Symbols xi

J , J o , Jrat rectangles in Rn , 19 {u ∈ B} {x : u(x) ∈ B}, 60

Nµ µ-null sets, 29 (Pr 4.12), 89 {u > λ} {x : u(x) > λ} etc., 60
O(X) topology, open sets in X, 18 supp u support {u ̸= 0}
P(X) all subsets of X, 13 C(X) continuous functions on X
δ(G ) Dynkin system generated Cb (X) bounded continuous
by G , 32 functions on X
σ(G ) σ-algebra generated by C∞ (X) continuous functions on X
G , 17 with lim u(x) = 0
σ(T ), σ(Ti : i ∈ I) σ-algebra generated by |x|→∞
the map(s) T, resp., Ti , 55 Cc (X) continuous functions on X
(X, A ) measurable space, 23 with compact support
(X, A , µ) measure space, 24 E(A ) simple functions, 63
(X, A , Ai , µ) filtered measure space, M(A ) measurable functions, 62
275, 276 MR (A ) measurable functions,
values in R, 62
Measures and integrals L1 integrable functions, 82
µ, ν generic measures LR1
integrable functions, values
δx Dirac measure in x, 26 in R, 82
λ, λn Lebesgue measure, 27 Lp , L∞ 116
µ ◦ T−1 , T(µ) image measure, 55 Lp , L∞ 119
u · µ, uµ measure with density, 86 LpC , LpC 423, 214
µ×ν product of measures, 141 ℓ1 (N), ℓp (N) 124–125
µ⋆ν convolution, 157 (∫ p )1/p
µ≪ν absolute continuity, 300 ∥u∥p |u| dµ , p < ∞, 116
µ⊥ν singular measures, 306 ∥u∥∞ inf {c : µ{|u| > c} = 0}, 114
dν/dµ Radon–Nikodým M+ r (X) regular measures on X, 437
derivative, 230, 301
EG conditional expectation, Abbreviations
∫ 343, 346, 348 a.a., a.e. almost all/every(where), 89
u dµ 74, UI uniformly integrable, 258
∫ ∫ 82
u dµ 𝟙A u dµ, 86 w.r.t. with respect to
∫A ∪/∩-stable stable under finite
∫ u dx 83
∫ unions/intersections
u dT(µ) u ◦ T dµ, 154
∫b ∫b end of proof
a
u(x) dx, (R) a u(x) dx Riemann [] indicates that a small
integral, 102, 443 intermediate step is
required
Functions and spaces
{ ✽ can be omitted without loss
𝟙A
sgn(x)
𝟙A (x) =
1, x ∈ A
0, x ̸∈ A
𝟙(0,∞) (x) − 𝟙(−∞,0) (x)
 of continuity

(in the margin) caution

id identity map or matrix
det determinant (of a matrix) (D1 )–(D3 ) Dynkin system, 32, 37
u(A) {u(x) : x ∈ A} (M0 )–(M3 ) measure, 23
u−1 (B) {u−1 (B) : B ∈ B}, 17 (OM1 )–(OM3 ) outer measure, 40, 200
u+ max{u(x), 0} positive part (O1 )–(O3 ) topology, 18
u− −min{u(x), 0} negative (S1 )–(S3 ) semi-ring, 39
part (Σ1 )–(Σ3 ) σ-algebra, 16
 Prelude

The purpose of this book is to give a straightforward and yet elementary intro-
duction to measure and integration theory that is within the grasp of second-
or third- year undergraduates. Indeed, apart from interest in the subject, the
only prerequisites for Chapters 1–15 are a course on rigorous ϵ–δ-analysis on
the real line and basic notions of linear algebra and calculus in Rn . The first
15 chapters form a concise introduction to Lebesgue’s approach to measure and
integration, which I have often taught in 10-week or 30-hour lecture courses at
several universities in the UK and Germany.
Chapters 16–28 are more advanced and contain a selection of results from
measure theory, probability theory and analysis. This material can be read lin-
early but it is also possible to select certain topics; see the dependence chart on
page xvii. Although these chapters are more challenging than the first part,
the prerequisites remain essentially the same and a reader who has worked
through and understood Chapters 1–15 will be well prepared for all that fol-
lows. I tried to avoid topology and, when it comes in, usually an understanding
of an open set and open ball (in Rn ) will suffice. From Chapter 17 onwards, I
frequently use metric spaces (X, d), but you can safely think of them as X = Rn
and d(x, y) = |x − y| – or read Appendix B.
Each chapter is followed by a section of problems. They are not just drill
exercises but contain variants of, excursions from and extensions of the mate-
rial presented in the text. The proofs of the core material do not depend on any
of the problems and it is as an exception that I refer to a problem in one of the
proofs. Nevertheless, I do advise you to attempt as many problems as possible.
The material in the appendices – on upper and lower limits, the Riemann inte-
gral and tools from topology – is primarily intended as back-up, for when you
want to look something up.

xiii
xiv Prelude

Unlike many textbooks this is not an introduction to integration for analysts

or a probabilistic measure theory. I want to reach both (future) analysts and
(future) probabilists, and to provide a foundation which will be useful for both
communities and for further, more specialized, studies. It goes without saying
that I have had to leave out many pet choices of each discipline. On the other
hand, I try to intertwine the subjects as far as possible, resulting – mostly in
the latter part of the book – in the consequent use of the martingale machinery
which gives ‘probabilistic’ proofs of ‘analytic’ results.
Measure and integration theory is often seen as an abstract and dry subject,
which is disliked by many students. There are several reasons for this. One of
them is certainly the fact that measure theory has traditionally been based on
a thorough knowledge of real analysis in one and several dimensions. Many
excellent textbooks are written for such an audience but today’s undergradu-
ates find it increasingly hard to follow such tracts, which are often more aptly
labelled graduate texts. Another reason lies within the subject: measure theory
has come a long way and is, in its modern purist form, stripped of its motivating
roots. If, for example, one starts out with the basic definition of measures, it
takes unreasonably long until one arrives at interesting examples of measures –
the proof of existence and uniqueness of something as basic as Lebesgue mea-
sure already needs the full abstract machinery – and it is not easy to entertain
by constantly referring to examples made up of delta functions and artificial
discrete measures … I try to alleviate this by postulating the existence and prop-
erties of Lebesgue measure early on, then justifying the claims as we proceed
with the abstract theory.
Technically, measure and integration theory is not more difficult than, say,
complex function theory or vector calculus. Most proofs are even shorter and
have a very clear structure. The one big exception, Carathéodory’s extension
theorem, can be safely stated without proof since an understanding of the tech-
nique is not really needed at the beginning; we will refer to the details of it only
in connection with regularity questions in Chapter 16 and in Chapter 18 on
Hausdorff measures. The other exceptions are the Radon–Nikodým theorem
(Chapter 20) and the Riesz representation theorem (Chapter 21).

Changes in the second edition The first edition of my textbook was well received
by scholars and students alike, and I would like to thank all of them for their
comments and positive criticism. There are a few changes to the second edition:
while the core material in Chapters 1–15 is only slightly updated, the proof of
Jacobi’s theorem (Chapter 16) and the material on martingales (Chapters 23
and 24), Hilbert space (Chapter 26) and conditional expectations (Chapter 27)
 Prelude xv

have been re-organized and re-written. Newly added are Chapters 17–21, cov-
ering dense and measure-determining sets, Hausdorff measures and Fourier
transforms as well as the classical proofs of the Radon–Nikodým and the Riesz
representation theorem for Lp and Cc . I hope that these changes do not alter
the character of the text and that they will make the book even more useful and
accessible.

Acknowledgements I am grateful to the many people who sent me comments

and corrections. My colleagues Niels Jacob, Nick Bingham, David Edmunds
and Alexei Tyukov read the whole text of the first edition, and Charles Goldie
and Alex Sobolev commented on large parts of the manuscript. This second edi-
tion was prepared with the help of Franziska Kühn, who did the thankless job
of proofreading and suggested many improvements, and Julian Hollender, who
produced most of the illustrations. Georg Berschneider and Charles Goldie
read the newly added passages. Without their encouragement and help there
would be more obscure passages, blunders and typos in the pages to follow.
I owe a great debt to all of the students who went to my classes, challenged me
to write, re-write and improve this text and who drew my attention – sometimes
unbeknownst to them – to many weaknesses.
Figures 1.4, 4.1, 8.1, 8.2, 9.1, 12.2, 13.1 and 21.1 and those appearing on
p. 134 and in the proofs of Theorems 3.8 and 8.8 and Lemma 13.1 are taken
from my book Maß und Integral, De Gruyter, Berlin 2015, ISBN 978-3-11-
034814-9. I am grateful for the permission of De Gruyter to use these figures
here, too.
Finally, it is a pleasure to acknowledge the interest and skill of Cambridge
University Press and its editors, Roger Astley and Clare Dennison, in the
preparation of this book.

A few words on notation before getting started I try to keep unusual and spe-
cial notation to a minimum. However, a few remarks are in order: N means
the natural numbers {1, 2, 3, . . . } and N0 := N ∪ {0}. Positive or negative is
always understood in the non-strict sense > 0 or 6 0; to exclude 0, I say strictly
positive/negative. A ‘+’ as sub- or superscript refers to the positive part of a
function or the positive members of a set. Finally, a ∨ b, resp. a ∧ b, denote
the maximum, resp. minimum, of the numbers a, b ∈ R. For any other general
notation there is a comprehensive list of symbols starting on page x.
In some statements I indicate alternatives using square brackets, i.e. ‘if A
[B] … then P [Q]’ should be read as ‘if A … then P’ and ‘if B … then Q’. The 
end of a proof is marked by Halmos’ tombstone symbol , and Bourbaki’s

xvi Prelude

dangerous bend symbol in the margin identifies a passage which requires some
attention. Throughout Chapters 1–15 I have marked material which can be
omitted on first reading without losing (too much) continuity by ✽.
As with every book, one cannot give all the details at every instance. On the
other hand, the less experienced reader might glide over these places without
even noticing that some extra effort is needed; for these readers – and, I hope,
not to the annoyance of all others – I use the symbol [] to indicate where a
short calculation on the side is appropriate.

Cross-referencing Throughout the text chapters are numbered with arabic

numerals and appendices with capital letters. Theorems, definitions, exam-
ples, etc. share the same numbering sequence, e.g. Definition 4.1 is followed by
Lemma 4.2 and then Corollary 4.3, and (n.k) denotes formula k in Chapter n.
 Dependence Chart xvii

Sets & measures

Dependence Chart 1 2 3 4 5 6

Measurable maps & integrals Lp-spaces

7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Product measure & Fubini

14 15

Martingales
Transformation Radon– 23
theorem Nikodým Applications of
16 20 martingales
25

Convergence
Densesets Riesz 24
17 21

Uniform Hilbert space

Hausdorff integrability
18 26
22

Fourier Conditional
Selected
Expectation
19 Topics
27

Orthonormal
systems
28

Dependence chart Chapters 1–15 contain core material which is needed in all
later chapters. The dependence is shown by arrows, with dashed arrows indi-
cating a minor dependence; Chapters 16–22 can be read independently and in
any order.
 1
Prologue

The theme of this book is the problem of how to assign a size, a con-
tent, a probability, etc. to certain sets. In everyday life this is usually pretty
straightforward; we

• count: {a, b, c, . . . , x, y, z} has 26 letters;

• take measurements: length (in one dimension), area (in two dimensions),
volume (in three dimensions) or time;
• calculate: rates of radioactive decay or the odds of winning the lottery.

In each case we compare (and express the outcome) with respect to some
base unit; most of the measurements just mentioned are intuitively clear.
Nevertheless, let’s have a closer look at areas in Fig. 1.1.

w h

l b
Fig. 1.1. Here area(▭) = length (ℓ) × width (w) and area(△) =
2 × base (b) × height (h).
1

Triangles are more flexible and basic than rectangles since we can represent
every rectangle, and actually any odd-shaped quadrangle, as the ‘sum’ of two
non-overlapping triangles. In doing so we have tacitly assumed a few things.
In Fig. 1.2 we have chosen a particular base line and the corresponding height
arbitrarily. But the concept of area should not depend on such a choice and the

1
2 Measures, Integrals and Martingales

( ) ( )
Fig. 1.2. Here area = area shaded triangle + area white triangle .

calculation this choice entails. Independence of the area from the way we calcu-
late it is called well-definedness. Plainly, we have the choices shown in Fig. 1.3.
Notice that Fig. 1.3 allows us to pick the most convenient method to work out
the area. In Fig. 1.2 we actually use two facts:

• the area of non-overlapping (disjoint) sets can be added, i.e.

area(A) = α, area(B) = β, A ∩ B = ∅ =⇒ area(A ∪ B) = α + β;

• congruent triangles have the same area, i.e. area(◸) = area(◿).

b3
b1 b2
h3

h1
h2

Fig. 1.3. Here area(△) = 1

2 × h1 × b1 = 1
2 × h2 × b2 = 1
2 × h3 × b3 .

This shows that the least we should expect from a reasonable measure µ is that
it is

well-defined, takes values in [0, ∞], and µ(∅) = 0; (1.1)

additive, i.e. µ(A ∪ B) = µ(A) + µ(B) whenever A ∩ B = ∅. (1.2)

The additional property that the measure µ

is invariant under congruences and translations (1.3)

turns out to be a characteristic property of length, area and volume, i.e. of

Lebesgue measure on Rn .
 Prologue 3

The above rules allow us to measure arbitrarily odd-looking polygons using

the following recipe: dissect the polygon into non-overlapping triangles and add
their areas. But what about curved or even more complicated shapes, say,

Here is one possibility for the circle: inscribe a regular

2n -gon, n ∈ N, into the circle, subdivide it into con-
gruent triangles, find the area of each of these slices
and then add all 2n pieces. 2π
In the next step increase n n + 1 by doubling the 2n

number of points on the circumference and repeat

the above procedure. Eventually,
( ) ( )
area ◯ = lim 2n × area △ at step n . (1.4)
n→∞

Again, there are a few problems. Does the limit exist? Is it admissible to sub-
divide a set into arbitrarily many subsets? Is the procedure independent of the
particular subdivision? In fact, nothing would have prevented us from paving
the circle with ever smaller squares! For a reasonable notion of measure the
answer to all of these questions should be yes and the way we pave the circle
should not lead to different results, as long as our tiles are disjoint. However,
finite additivity (1.2) is not enough for this and we have to use instead infinitely
many pieces: σ-additivity. Thus
( ) ∑
area ⨃ An = area(An ).
n∈N n∈N

The notation ⨃n An means the disjoint union of the sets An , i.e. the union where
the sets An are pairwise disjoint: An ∩ Am = ∅ if n ̸= m; a corresponding notation
is used for unions of finitely many sets.
Conditions (1.1) and (1.4) lead to a notion of measure which is powerful
enough to cater for all our everyday measuring needs and for much more. We
will also see that a good notion of measure allows us to introduce integrals,
basically starting with the naive idea that the integral of a positive function
should stand for the area of the set between the graph of the function and the
abscissa.
4 Measures, Integrals and Martingales

0 1
C0
1 2
3 3
C1
1 2 7 8
9 9 9 9
C2

C3

I002 I02 I022 I2 I202 I22 I222

Fig. 1.4. Construction of Cantor’s ternary set.

To get an idea of how far we can go with these simple principles, consider
Cantor’s ternary set on the interval [0, 1], see Fig. 1.4. We obtain
( )
1. C1 by removing from [0, 1] the middle third I2 = 13 , 32 ;
( ) ( )
2. C2 by removing from C1 the middle thirds I02 = 19 , 92 and I22 = 79 , 98 ;
3. C3 by removing from C2 the middle thirds I002 , I022 , I202 and I222 ;
4. …
∩
and C := ∞ n=1 Cn is Cantor’s ternary set. By construction, Cn consists of 2
n

intervals and the endpoints of these intervals will be contained in C. Thus, C

is not empty. Let us calculate the ‘length’ ℓ of the set C. Looking at Fig. 1.4
we see that the length of Cn can be obtained by subtracting from ℓ[0, 1] = 1 the
lengths of the intervals which have been removed in the previous steps:
1
1. ℓ(C1 ) = ℓ[0, 1] − ℓ(I2 ) = 1 − ;
3
1 1
2. ℓ(C2 ) = ℓ[0, 1] − ℓ(I2 ) − ℓ(I02 ) − ℓ(I22 ) = 1 −
−2× ;
3 9
………………………………………………………………
1 1 1
n. ℓ(Cn+1 ) = ℓ[0, 1] − 20 × 1 − 21 × 2 − · · · − 2n × n+1 ;
3 3 3
and so
∑∞ ∞
2n 1 ∑ 2n 1 1
ℓ(C) = 1 − = 1 − =1 − = 0.
3n+1 3 3n 31− 2
3
n=0 n=0

Thus, the Cantor set has no length in the traditional sense, yet it is not empty.
 Prologue 5

Problems
1.1. Use (1.4) to find the area of a circle with radius r.
1.2. Where was σ-additivity used when calculating the length of the Cantor set?
1.3. Consider the following
( ) of Cantor’s set: fix r ∈ (0, 1) and delete from I0 [= [0, 1] the]
variation
open interval 12 − 14 r, 12 + 14 r . This defines the set I1 consisting of two intervals, 0, 12 − 41 r
[1 ]
and 2 + 14 r, 1 . We get I2 by removing from each of these intervals the open middles of
length r/8 and I3 by removing all open middles of length r/32. This defines recursively
the
∩∞sets I1 , I2 , . . . . Find the length of the interval In and of the generalized Cantor set I :=
n=0 In . Is I empty?
1.4. Let K0 ⊂ R2 be a line of length 1. We get K1 by replacing the middle third of K0 by the sides
of an equilateral triangle. By iterating this procedure we get the curves K0 , K1 , K2 , . . . (see
Fig. 1.5) which defines in the limit Koch’s snowflake K∞ . Find the length of Kn and K∞ .

Fig. 1.5. The first four steps in the construction of Koch’s snowflake.
1.5. Let S0 ⊂ R2 be a solid equilateral triangle. We get S1 by removing the middle triangle whose
vertices are the midpoints of the sides of S1 . By repeating this procedure with the four
triangles ∩
which make up S1 etc. we get S0 , S2 , S2 , . . . (see Fig. 1.6). The Sierpiński triangle
is S∞ := ∞ n=0 Sn . Find the area of Sn and S if the side-length of S0 is s = 1.

Fig. 1.6. The first four steps in the construction of Sierpiński’s triangle.
 2
The Pleasures of Counting

Set algebra and countability play a major rôle in measure theory. In this chapter
we review briefly notation and manipulations with sets and introduce then the
notion of countability. If you are not already acquainted with set algebra, you
should verify all statements in this chapter and work through the exercises.
Throughout this chapter X and Y denote two arbitrary sets. For any two sets
A, B (which are not necessarily subsets of a common set) we write

A ∪ B = {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B or x ∈ A and B},
A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B},
A \ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈
/ B};

in particular, we write A ⊍ B for the disjoint union, i.e. for A ∪ B if A ∩ B = ∅.

A ⊂ B means that A is contained in B, including the possibility that A = B;
to exclude the latter we write A B. If A ⊂ X, we set Ac := X \ A for the
complement of A (relative to X ). Recall also the distributive laws for A, B, C ⊂ X

A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C),
(2.1)
A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)

and de Morgan’s identities

(A ∩ B)c = Ac ∪ Bc ,
(2.2)
(A ∪ B)c = Ac ∩ Bc ,

6
 The Pleasures of Counting 7

which hold also for arbitrarily many sets Ai ⊂ X, i ∈ I (I stands for an arbitrary
index set),
( ∩ )c ∪
Ai = Aci ,
i∈I i∈I
(∪ )c ∩ (2.3)
Ai = Aci .
i∈I i∈I

A map f : X → Y is called
injective (or one–one) ⇐⇒ f(x) = f(x′ ) implies x = x′ ,
surjective (or onto) ⇐⇒ f(X ) := { f (x) ∈ Y : x ∈ X} = Y, (2.4)
bijective ⇐⇒ f is injective and surjective.
Set operations and direct images under a map f are not necessarily compatible:
indeed, we have, in general,
f(A ∪ B) = f(A) ∪ f (B),
f (A ∩ B) ̸= f (A) ∩ f(B), (2.5)
f (A \ B) ̸= f (A) \ f(B).
Inverse images and set operations are always compatible. The inverse mapping
f−1 maps subsets C ⊂ Y into subsets of X and it is defined as

f −1 (C) := {x ∈ X : f (x) ∈ C} ⊂ X for all C ⊂ Y;

it is, in general, multi-valued, the notation f −1(y) is used only if f−1({y}) has at
most one element, i.e. if f is injective. For C, Ci , D ⊂ Y one has
(∪ ) ∪
f −1 Ci = f−1 (Ci ),
i∈I i∈I
(∩ ) ∩
f −1 Ci = f−1 (Ci ), (2.6)
i∈I i∈I

f −1 (C \ D) = f−1 (C) \ f−1 (D).

If we have more information about f we can, of course, say more.
Lemma 2.1 f : X → Y is injective if, and only if, f (A ∩ B) = f (A) ∩ f (B) for all
A, B ⊂ X.
Proof ‘⇒’: Because of the inclusions f (A ∩ B) ⊂ f (A) and f (A ∩ B) ⊂ f (B),
we have always f (A ∩ B) ⊂ f (A) ∩ f (B). Let us check the converse inclusion
‘⊃’. If y ∈ f (A) ∩ f (B), we have y = f (a) and y = f (b) for some a ∈ A, b ∈ B.
8 Measures, Integrals and Martingales

So, f (a) = y = f (b) and, by injectivity, a = b. This means that a = b ∈ A ∩ B,

hence y ∈ f (A ∩ B) and f (A) ∩ f (B) ⊂ f (A ∩ B) follows.
‘⇐’: Take x, x′ ∈ X with f (x) = f (x′ ) and set A := {x}, B := {x′ }.
Then we have ∅ ̸= f ({x}) ∩ f ({x′ }) = f ({x} ∩ {x′ }) which is possible only if
{x} ∩ {x′ } ̸= ∅, i.e. if x = x′ . This shows that f is injective.
Lemma 2.2 f : X → Y is injective if, and only if, f (X \ A) = f (X) \ f (A) for all
A ⊂ X.
Proof 1 ‘⇒’: Assume that f is injective. If f (x) ∈ / f (A), we have x ∈/ A, and so
f (X) \ f (A) ⊂ f (X \ A) (for this inclusion we do not require injectivity). For the
reverse inclusion we pick x ∈ X \ A and observe that by injectivity f (x) ̸= f (x′ )
for all x′ ∈ A. Thus f (x) ∈ / f (A), and we have shown that f (x) ∈ f (X) \ f (A).
This proves f (X \ A) ⊂ f (X) \ f (A) as desired.
‘⇐’: Specialise f (X \ A) = f (X) \ f (A) to the case A = {x} for some x ∈ X.
For any x′ ̸= x we infer that x′ ∈ X \ {x}, and so f (x′ ) ∈ f (X) \ f ({x}), hence
f (x′ ) ̸= f (x).
We can now start with the main topic of this chapter: counting.
Definition 2.3 Two sets X, Y have the same cardinality if there exists a bijection
f : X → Y. In this case we write #X = #Y.
If there is an injection g : X → Y, we say that the cardinality of X is less than or
equal to the cardinality of Y and write #X 6 #Y. If #X 6 #Y but #X ̸= #Y,
we say that X is of strictly smaller cardinality than Y and write #X < #Y (in
this case, no injection g : X → Y can be surjective).
That Definition 2.3 is indeed counting becomes clear if we choose Y = N since
in this case #X = #N or #X 6 #N just means that we can label each x ∈ X with
a unique tag from the set {1, 2, 3, . . .}, i.e. we are numbering X. This particular
example is, in fact, of central importance.
Definition 2.4 A set X is countable if #X 6 #N. If #N < #X, the set X is said
to be uncountable. The cardinality of N is called ℵ0 , aleph null.
Plainly, Definition 2.4 requires that we can find for every countable set some
enumeration X = (x1 , x2 , x3 , . . .) which may or may not be finite (and which may


contain any xi more than once).
Caution Sometimes countable is used only to indicate #X = #N, while sets
where #X 6 #N are called at most countable or finite or countable. This has the
effect that a countable set is always infinite. We do not adopt this convention.

1 I owe this short argument to Charles Goldie.

 The Pleasures of Counting 9

The following examples show that (countable) sets with infinitely many
elements can behave strangely.
Example 2.5 (i) Finite sets are countable: {a, b, . . . , z} → {1, 2, . . . , 26}, where
a ↔ 1, . . . , z ↔ 26, is bijective and {1, 2, 3, . . . , 26} → N is clearly an injection.
Thus
#{a, b, c, . . . , z} = #{1, 2, 3, . . . , 26} 6 #N.
(ii) The even numbers are countable. This follows from the fact that the map
i
f : {2, 4, 6, . . . , 2i, . . .} → N, i 7→ ,
2
is an injection and even a bijection. [] This means that there are ‘as many’
even numbers as there are natural numbers.
(iii) The set of integers 0 1 2 3 4

Z = {0, ±1, ±2, ±3, . . .}

−1
is countable. A possible counting
scheme is shown on the right or, more −2
formally,
{ −3
2i if i > 0,
g : i ∈ Z 7→
2|i| + 1 if i 6 0, −4

hence #Z 6 #N. []

(iv) The Cartesian product N × N := {(i, k) : i, k ∈ N} is countable. To see this,
arrange the pairs (i, k) in an array and count along the diagonals:
 ‚ ƒ „

(1,1) (1,2) (1,3) (1,4) (1,5) …

(2,1) (2,2) (2,3) (2,4) (2,5) …

(3,1) (3,2) (3,3) (3,4) (3,5) …

(4,1) (4,2) (4,3) (4,4) (4,5) …

(5,1) (5,2) (5,3) (5,4) (5,5) …

…

…
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free

distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work (or
any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at
www.gutenberg.org/license.

Section 1. General Terms of Use and

Redistributing Project Gutenberg™
electronic works
1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree
to and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your
possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be
bound by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from
the person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in
paragraph 1.E.8.

1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be

used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people
who agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a
few things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic
works even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.
See paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with
Project Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this
agreement and help preserve free future access to Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the
Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the
collection of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the
individual works in the collection are in the public domain in the
United States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in
the United States and you are located in the United States, we do
not claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing,
performing, displaying or creating derivative works based on the
work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of
course, we hope that you will support the Project Gutenberg™
mission of promoting free access to electronic works by freely
sharing Project Gutenberg™ works in compliance with the terms of
this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg™ name
associated with the work. You can easily comply with the terms of
this agreement by keeping this work in the same format with its
attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when you share it without
charge with others.

1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also
govern what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most
countries are in a constant state of change. If you are outside the
United States, check the laws of your country in addition to the terms
of this agreement before downloading, copying, displaying,
performing, distributing or creating derivative works based on this
work or any other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes
no representations concerning the copyright status of any work in
any country other than the United States.

1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:

1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other

immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must
appear prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™
work (any work on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or
with which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is
accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, copied or distributed:
 This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.

1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is derived

from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not contain a
notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the copyright
holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in the
United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must
comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through
1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project
Gutenberg™ trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted

with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works posted
with the permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of
this work.

1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project

Gutenberg™ License terms from this work, or any files containing a
part of this work or any other work associated with Project
Gutenberg™.

1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this

electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg™ License.
1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form,
including any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you
provide access to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work
in a format other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in
the official version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website
(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain
Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the
full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,

performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing

access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
provided that:

• You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the
method you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The
fee is owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark,
but he has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty
payments must be paid within 60 days following each date on
which you prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your
periodic tax returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked
as such and sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation at the address specified in Section 4, “Information
about donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation.”

• You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who

notifies you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that
s/he does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™
License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
 copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and
discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of Project
Gutenberg™ works.

• You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of

any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in
the electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90
days of receipt of the work.

• You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg™

electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of
the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set
forth in Section 3 below.

1.F.

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend

considerable effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe
and proofread works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating
the Project Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works, and the medium on which they may
be stored, may contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to,
incomplete, inaccurate or corrupt data, transcription errors, a
copyright or other intellectual property infringement, a defective or
damaged disk or other medium, a computer virus, or computer
codes that damage or cannot be read by your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except

for the “Right of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph
1.F.3, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner
of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party
distributing a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work under this
agreement, disclaim all liability to you for damages, costs and
expenses, including legal fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO
REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT LIABILITY, BREACH OF
WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE
FOUNDATION, THE TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY
DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE LIABLE
TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL,
PUNITIVE OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE
NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you

discover a defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it,
you can receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by
sending a written explanation to the person you received the work
from. If you received the work on a physical medium, you must
return the medium with your written explanation. The person or entity
that provided you with the defective work may elect to provide a
replacement copy in lieu of a refund. If you received the work
electronically, the person or entity providing it to you may choose to
give you a second opportunity to receive the work electronically in
lieu of a refund. If the second copy is also defective, you may
demand a refund in writing without further opportunities to fix the
problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth in
paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO
OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED,
INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF
MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied

warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted
by the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any
provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the
Foundation, the trademark owner, any agent or employee of the
Foundation, anyone providing copies of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works in accordance with this agreement, and any
volunteers associated with the production, promotion and distribution
of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, harmless from all liability,
costs and expenses, including legal fees, that arise directly or
indirectly from any of the following which you do or cause to occur:
(a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b)
alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any Project
Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any Defect you cause.

Section 2. Information about the Mission of

Project Gutenberg™
Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.
It exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and
donations from people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the

assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will
remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a
secure and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future
generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help,
see Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at
www.gutenberg.org.

Section 3. Information about the Project

Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.

The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West,

Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up
to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website
and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact

Section 4. Information about Donations to

the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation
Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without
widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can
be freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the
widest array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small
donations ($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax
exempt status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating

charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and
keep up with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in
locations where we have not received written confirmation of
compliance. To SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of
compliance for any particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate.

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where

we have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no
prohibition against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in
such states who approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make

any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of
other ways including checks, online payments and credit card
donations. To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.

Section 5. General Information About Project

Gutenberg™ electronic works
Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be
freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of
volunteer support.

Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed

editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
edition.

Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org.

This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™,

including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how
to subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.