Positive Psychology The Scientific and

Practical Explorations of Human

Strengths 4th Edition Shane J Lopez
Jennifer Teramoto Pedrotti Charles
Richard Snyder
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://textbookfull.com/product/positive-psychology-the-scientific-and-practical-explor
ations-of-human-strengths-4th-edition-shane-j-lopez-jennifer-teramoto-pedrotti-charle
s-richard-snyder/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Positive Psychology The Science of Wellbeing and Human

Strengths 3rd Edition Alan Carr

https://textbookfull.com/product/positive-psychology-the-science-
of-wellbeing-and-human-strengths-3rd-edition-alan-carr/

Heal Whisper Swamp Gators 2 1st Edition Jennifer Snyder

Snyder Jennifer

https://textbookfull.com/product/heal-whisper-swamp-gators-2-1st-
edition-jennifer-snyder-snyder-jennifer/

Practical Ethics for Psychologists: A Positive Approach

4th Edition Knapp

https://textbookfull.com/product/practical-ethics-for-
psychologists-a-positive-approach-4th-edition-knapp/

Cultural Psychology 4th Edition Steven J. Heine

https://textbookfull.com/product/cultural-psychology-4th-edition-
steven-j-heine/
Social Psychology and Human Nature, Brief 4th Edition
Baumeister

https://textbookfull.com/product/social-psychology-and-human-
nature-brief-4th-edition-baumeister/

Positive Psychology The Basics 1st Edition Hart

https://textbookfull.com/product/positive-psychology-the-
basics-1st-edition-hart/

Humanizing Visual Design The Rhetoric Of Human Forms In

Practical Communication Charles Kostelnick

https://textbookfull.com/product/humanizing-visual-design-the-
rhetoric-of-human-forms-in-practical-communication-charles-
kostelnick/

The Psychology of Sex and Gender Jennifer K. Bosson

https://textbookfull.com/product/the-psychology-of-sex-and-
gender-jennifer-k-bosson/

The Positive Side of Occupational Health Psychology 1st

Edition Marit Christensen

https://textbookfull.com/product/the-positive-side-of-
occupational-health-psychology-1st-edition-marit-christensen/
Positive Psychology
Fourth Edition

2
For Shane

You were the pebble. We are the ripples.

(April 4, 1970–July 23, 2016)

3
Sara Miller McCune founded SAGE Publishing in 1965 to support the dissemination of
usable knowledge and educate a global community. SAGE publishes more than 1000
journals and over 800 new books each year, spanning a wide range of subject areas. Our
growing selection of library products includes archives, data, case studies and video. SAGE
remains majority owned by our founder and after her lifetime will become owned by a
charitable trust that secures the company’s continued independence.

Los Angeles | London | New Delhi | Singapore | Washington DC | Melbourne

4
Positive Psychology
The Scientific and Practical Explorations of Human Strengths

Fourth Edition

Shane J. Lopez
Gallup/Clifton Strengths School
Jennifer Teramoto Pedrotti
California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo
C. R. Snyder
University of Kansas, Lawrence

Los Angeles
London
New Delhi
Singapore
Washington DC
Melbourne

5
 Copyright © 2019 by SAGE Publications, Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by
any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any
information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

All trademarks depicted within this book, including trademarks appearing as part of a
screenshot, figure, or other image, are included solely for the purpose of illustration and are
the property of their respective holders. The use of the trademarks in no way indicates any
relationship with, or endorsement by, the holders of said trademarks.

For information:

SAGE Publications, Inc.

2455 Teller Road

Thousand Oaks, California 91320

E-mail: order@sagepub.com

SAGE Publications Ltd.

1 Oliver’s Yard

55 City Road

London, EC1Y 1SP

United Kingdom

SAGE Publications India Pvt. Ltd.

B 1/I 1 Mohan Cooperative Industrial Area

Mathura Road, New Delhi 110 044

India

SAGE Publications Asia-Pacific Pte. Ltd.

3 Church Street

#10–04 Samsung Hub

Singapore 049483

ISBN: 978-1-5063-5735-5

Printed in the United States of America

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

6
Acquisitions Editor: Lara Parra

Content Development Editor: Lucy Berbeo

Editorial Assistant: Drew Fabricius

Marketing Manager: Katherine Hepburn

Production Editor: Veronica Stapleton Hooper

Copy Editor: Gillian Dickens

Typesetter: Hurix Digital

Proofreader: Lawrence Baker

Indexer: Jeanne R. Busemeyer

Cover Designer: Candice Harman

7
Brief Contents
1. Preface
2. Remembering Shane J. Lopez
3. Acknowledgments
4. About the Authors
5. Part I Looking at Psychology from A Positive Perspective
6. Chapter 1 Welcome to Positive Psychology
7. Chapter 2 Eastern and Western Perspectives on Positive Psychology: How “ME +
WE = US” Might Bridge the Gap
8. Chapter 3 Classifications and Measures of Strengths and Positive Outcomes
9. Part II Positive Psychology in Context
10. Chapter 4 The Role of Culture in Developing Strengths and Living Well
11. Chapter 5 Living Well at Every Stage of Life
12. Part III Positive Emotional States and Processes
13. Chapter 6 The Principles of Pleasure: Understanding Positive Affect, Positive
Emotions, Happiness, and Well-Being
14. Chapter 7 Making the Most of Emotional Experiences: Emotion-Focused Coping,
Emotional Intelligence, Socioemotional Selectivity, and Emotional Storytelling
15. Part IV Positive Cognitive States and Processes
16. Chapter 8 Seeing Our Futures Through Self-Efficacy, Optimism, and Hope
17. Chapter 9 Wisdom and Courage: Characteristics of the Wise and the Brave
18. Chapter 10 Mindfulness, Flow, and Spirituality: In Search of Optimal Experiences
19. Part V Prosocial Behavior
20. Chapter 11 Empathy and Egotism: Portals to Altruism and Gratitude
21. Chapter 12 Attachment, Love, Flourishing Relationships, and Forgiveness
22. Part VI Understanding and Changing Human Behavior
23. Chapter 13 Balanced Conceptualizations of Mental Health and Behavior
24. Chapter 14 Preventing the Bad and Promoting the Good
25. Part VII Positive Environments
26. Chapter 15 Positive Schooling and Good Work: The Psychology of Gainful
Employment and the Education That Gets Us There
27. Part VIII Finding Strengths in Others: Embodying Strengths in Everyday Life
28. Chapter 16 Remembering Shane: Real Strengths in a Real Person
29. References
30. Glossary of Key Terms
31. Author Index
32. Subject Index

8
Detailed Contents
Preface
Remembering Shane J. Lopez
Acknowledgments
About the Authors
Part I Looking At Psychology from a Positive Perspective
Chapter 1 Welcome to Positive Psychology
Building Human Strength: Psychology’s Forgotten Mission
Going From the Negative to the Positive
A Positive Newspaper Story
Reactions to This Positive Story
Positive Psychology Seeks a Balanced, More Complete View of Human
Functioning
Views of Reality That Include Both the Positive and the Negative
Where We Are Now and What We Will Ask
Personal Mini-Experiments: What You Want to Experience
A Guide to This Book
Personal Mini-Experiments
Life Enhancement Strategies
The Big Picture
Appendix: Movies for Review
Key Terms
Chapter 2 Eastern and Western Perspectives on Positive Psychology: How
“ME + WE = US” Might Bridge the Gap
A Matter of Perspective
Historical and Philosophical Traditions
Western Influences: Athenian, Judeo-Christian, Islamic, and Anishinaabe
Traditions
Athenian Views
Judeo-Christianity
Islam
Anishinaabe Teachings
Eastern Influences: Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism, and Hinduism
Confucianism
Taoism
Buddhism
Hinduism
Summary of Eastern and Western Philosophies
East Meets West
Individualism: The Psychology of ME

9
 A Brief History of American Individualism
Emphases in Individualism
Collectivism: The Psychology of WE
A Historical Comment on Collectivism: We Came Together Out
of Necessity
Emphases in Collectivism
Demographics Related to Collectivism
The Stories We Tell
Orientation to Time
Thought Processes
East and West: Is One Best?
Personal Mini-Experiments: Getting and Giving Help
Different Ways to Positive Outcomes
“The Rugged Individualist” and the Construct of Hope
The Need for Uniqueness
Eastern Values: Compassion and Harmony
Where We Are Going: From ME to WE to US
ME/WE Balance: The Positive Psychology of US
Both the Individualistic and the Collectivistic Perspectives Are
Viable
Thinking About Your Own Life
Suggestions for ME People (Individualists)
Suggestions for WE People (Collectivists)
Final Thoughts
Appendix: The Need for Uniqueness Scale
Key Terms
Chapter 3 Classifications and Measures of Strengths and Positive Outcomes
Classifications and Measures of Strengths
Gallup’s Clifton StrengthsFinder
The VIA Classification of Strengths
The Search Institute’s 40 Developmental Assets
Distinguishing Among the Measures of Psychological Strength
Issues of Equivalence in Using Measures of Psychological Strength
Identifying Your Personal Strengths
Personal Mini-Experiments: Discovering and Capitalizing on Your
Strengths
The Case of Shane
Positive Outcomes for All
Dimensions of Well-Being
Toward a Better Understanding of Positive Outcomes
Identifying Strengths and Moving Toward a Vital Balance
Note

10
 Key Terms
Part II Positive Psychology in Context
Chapter 4 The Role of Culture in Developing Strengths and Living Well
Culture and Psychology
Main Message: Culture Counts
Understanding Culture: A Matter of Perspective
Positive Psychology: Culture Is Everywhere
Culturally Embedded Positive Psychology Research and Practice
Personal Mini-Experiments: Culturally Embedded Daily Practice
Situating Positive Psychology
Putting Positive Psychology in a Cultural Context
Examining the Equivalence of the “Positives” to Determine What
Works
Determining the Foundations of the Good Life
Using Caution in Measuring “Universal” Strengths
The Wise Man of the Gulf
Multicultural Mindset as a Strength
Final Thoughts on the Complexity of Cultural Influences
Key Terms
Chapter 5 Living Well at Every Stage of Life
Resilience in Childhood
The Case of Jackson
What Is Resilience?
The Roots of Resilience Research
Resilience Resources
An Excerpt From Finding Strength: How To Overcome Anything
Positive Youth Development
What Is Positive Youth Development?
Positive Youth Development Programs That Work
The Life Tasks of Adulthood
The Trajectories of Precocious Children
What Are the Primary Tasks of Adulthood?
The Case of Keyonna
Successful Aging
What Is Successful Aging?
The Case of Tony
The MacArthur Foundation Study of Successful Aging
The Adult Development Study
One Man’s View of Aging
Personal Mini-Experiments: Finding Amazing People of All Ages
A More Developmental Focus in Positive Psychology
Key Terms

11
Part III Positive Emotional States and Processes
Chapter 6 The Principles of Pleasure: Understanding Positive Affect, Positive
Emotions, Happiness, and Well-Being
Defining Emotional Terms
Affect
Emotion
Happiness
Subjective Well-Being
Distinguishing the Positive and the Negative
The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule
Positive Emotions: Expanding the Repertoire of Pleasure
Personal Mini-Experiments: In Search of Joy and Lasting
Happiness
Positive Emotion Styles Linked to the Common Cold
Happiness and Subjective Well-Being: Living a Pleasurable Life
Age-Old Definitions of Happiness
Subjective Well-Being as a Synonym for Happiness
The Satisfaction With Life Scale
Determinants of Subjective Well-Being
Happiness + Meaning = Well-Being
Twenty-First-Century Definitions of Happiness
Excerpts From Authentic Happiness
Happiest American is Still Hawaiian, Jewish And Chill
Complete Mental Health: Emotional, Social, and Psychological
Well-Being
Increasing Happiness in Your Life
Moving Toward the Positive
Life Enhancement Strategies
Key Terms
Chapter 7 Making the Most of Emotional Experiences: Emotion-Focused
Coping, Emotional Intelligence, Socioemotional Selectivity, and Emotional
Storytelling
Emotion-Focused Coping: Discovering the Adaptive Potential of
Emotional Approach
The Case of a Hurricane Survivor
Emotional Intelligence: Learning the Skills That Make a Difference
Who Is Emotionally Intelligent—And Does It Matter?
Socioemotional Selectivity: Focusing in Later Life on Positive Emotions
and Emotion-Related Goals
Emotional Storytelling: The Pennebaker Paradigm as a Means of
Processing Intense Negative Emotions
Emotional Storytelling After a Traumatic Event

12
 Emotions and Context
Working With Emotions to Bring About Positive Change
Personal Mini-Experiments: Making the Most of Emotions in
Everyday Life
An Emotional Balancing Act
Life Enhancement Strategies
Key Terms
Part IV Positive Cognitive States and Processes
Chapter 8 Seeing our Futures Through Self-Efficacy, Optimism, and Hope
Fascination With the Future
Being Busy Not an End in Itself
Self-Efficacy
I Think I Can, I Think I Can …
A Definition
Childhood Antecedents: Where Does Self-Efficacy Come From?
Cultural Context and Self-Efficacy
The Neurobiology of Self-Efficacy
Scales: Can Self-Efficacy Be Measured?
Self-Efficacy’s Influence in Life Arenas
The Latest Frontier: Collective Self-Efficacy
Changing Behavior Through TV Heroes
Optimism
Learned Optimism—Seligman and Colleagues
The CAVE and Predicting Baseball Outcomes
Optimism—Scheier and Carver
Hope
A Definition
Childhood Antecedents of Hope
The Neurobiology of Hope
Scales: Can Hope Be Measured?
What Hope Predicts
The Latest Frontier—Collective Hope
Hope in Our Current Times
Life Enhancement Strategies
Putting Temporal Futures in Perspective
Personal Mini-Experiments: Balancing Your Perspective on Time
Cultural Caveats About Temporal Perspective
Appendix A: A Summary of Hope Theories
Appendix B: Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory Items
Note
Key Terms
Chapter 9 Wisdom and Courage: Characteristics of the Wise and the Brave

13
 Wisdom and Courage: Two of a Kind
Wisdom Difficult to Define, Attain
Theories of Wisdom
Implicit Theories of Wisdom
Explicit Theories of Wisdom
Becoming and Being Wise
Developing Wisdom
Wise People and Their Characteristics
The Measurement of Wisdom
Benefits of Wisdom
The Neurobiology of Wisdom
Future Study of Wisdom
Theories of Courage
Implicit Theories of Courage
Malala Yousafzai’s Courage The New York Times
Amputee a Driving Force in Getting People With Disabilities
Moving
Becoming and Being Courageous
U.S. Senator John McCain’s View on Strengthening Courage—
April 2004
Courage Research
The Measurement of Courage
Relationships Between Fear and Courage
Neurological Factors in Courage
Benefits of Courage
Courage and Culture
Finding Wisdom and Courage in Daily Life
Can Courage Be Learned?
Personal Mini-Experiments: In Search of the Wisdom and
Courage of Everyday People … Including Yourself
Life Enhancement Strategies
The Value of Wisdom and Courage
Key Terms
Chapter 10 Mindfulness, Flow, and Spirituality: In Search of Optimal
Experiences
Moment-to-Moment Searches
Mindfulness: In Search of Novelty
Mindfulness as a State of Mind
Living With Mindfulness: The Women’s Heart Foundation
The Benefits of Mindfulness
Neurological Findings With Mindfulness
Cultivating Mindfulness

14
 Flow: In Search of Absorption
Personal Mini-Experiments: In Search of Optimal Experiences
The Flow State
The Autotelic Personality
Cultural Comparisons and Considerations in the Flow Experience
Neurological Research on Flow
Fostering Flow and Its Benefits
New Areas of Investigation Involving Flow: Gaming and Internet
Use
Life Enhancement Strategies
Spirituality: In Search of the Sacred
The True Benefits of Spirituality?
Spirituality and Cultural Context
The Search Continues
Key Terms
Part V Prosocial Behavior
Chapter 11 Empathy and Egotism: Portals to Altruism and Gratitude
Altruism
Defining Altruism
The Egotism Motive
Forms of Egotism-Motivated Altruism
The Empathy Motive and the Empathy–Altruism Hypothesis
Correlates of Altruism
Genetic and Neural Foundations Related to Altruism Empathy
Cultural Variations in Altruism
Cultivating Altruism
Personal Mini-Experiments: Exercises in Altruism and Gratitude
Measuring Altruism
Future Directions
Gratitude
Defining Gratitude
Correlates of Gratitude
Cultural Variations in Gratitude
Cultivating Gratitude
Thanking Your Heroes
Measuring Gratitude
The Psychophysiological Underpinnings of Gratitude
The Societal Implications of Altruism and Gratitude
Empathy/Egotism and Altruism
Empathy/Egotism and Gratitude
Life Enhancement Strategies
“I Have a Dream”: Toward a Kinder, Gentler Humankind

15
 Appendix A: The Helping Attitude Scale
Appendix B: The Gratitude Questionnaire—Six Items From GQ-6
Key Terms
Chapter 12 Attachment, Love, Flourishing Relationships, and Forgiveness
Infant Attachment
Personal Mini-Experiments: In Search of Love and Flourishing
Relationships
Adult Attachment Security
Love
Passionate and Companionate Aspects of Romantic Love
The Triangular Theory of Love
The Self-Expansion Theory of Romantic Love
Flourishing Relationships: A Series of Purposeful Positive Relationship
Behaviors
Building a Mindful Relationship Connection
Life Enhancement Strategies
Creating a Culture of Appreciation
A Lot of Love in the Lovemaking: Avoiding Chaos,
Relationshipwise
Capitalizing on Positive Events
Praise: Encouraging Signs
The Neurobiology of Interpersonal Connection
More on Flourishing Relationships
Future of Love
When Loves Ends
Forgiveness
Defining Forgiveness
Individual and Cultural Variations in Forgiveness
Cultivating Forgiveness
Measuring Forgiveness
The Evolutionary and Neurobiological Bases of Forgiveness
Physical Health and Forgiveness
Attachment, Love, and Forgiveness: Building a Positive Psychology of
Close Relationships
Appendix A: The Heartland Forgiveness Scale (HFS)
Appendix B: The Transgression-Related Interpersonal Motivations Scale
(TRIM)
Key Terms
Part VI Understanding And Changing Human Behavior
Chapter 13 Balanced Conceptualizations of Mental Health and Behavior
Moving Toward Balanced Conceptualizations
Our Fascination With Abnormal Behavior

16
 Neglect of the Environment and of the Positive
Asking Questions: The Four-Front Approach
The Case of Michael
The Lack of a Developmental Emphasis
Normalizing Negative and Positive Behavior
The Case of Michael
Difficulties Understanding Behavior in a Cultural Context
Determining How “Culture Counts”
The Case of Michael
The Limits of the Categorical Diagnostic System
Considering New Personality Dimensions
The Case of Michael
Going Beyond the DSM-5 Framework
Attending to All Behavior
Key Terms
Chapter 14 Preventing the Bad and Promoting the Good
In the Words of a Psychotherapy Client …
Primary Prevention: “Stop the Bad Before It Happens”
Is Primary Prevention Effective?
Components of Effective Primary Preventions
Head Start: An Example of Primary Prevention
Primary Preventions for Children
Primary Preventions for the Elderly
Caveats About Primary Preventions
Secondary Prevention (Psychotherapy): “Fix the Problem”
Is Secondary Prevention Effective?
Common Components of Secondary Preventions
Secondary Prevention Programs for Adults
Secondary Preventions for Racial and Ethnic Minorities
Secondary Preventions for Children
Secondary Preventions for the Elderly
A Caveat About Secondary Preventions
Primary Enhancement: “Make Life Good”
Primary Enhancement: Psychological Health
Primary Enhancement: Physical Health
A Caveat About Primary Enhancement
Secondary Enhancement: “Make Life the Best Possible”
Secondary Enhancement: Psychological Health
Personal Mini-Experiments: Enhancing Your Daily Life
Secondary Enhancement: Physical Health
Caveats About Secondary Enhancement
The Balance of Prevention and Enhancement Systems

17
 Appendix A: Effective Secondary Preventions (Psychotherapies) for Adult
Problems
Appendix B: Hope Therapy Worksheet
Key Terms
Part VII Positive Environments
Chapter 15 Positive Schooling and Good Work: The Psychology of Gainful
Employment and the Education That Gets Us There
Positive Schooling
“Teachers Can’t Get Jobs in the Real World!”
Negative Psychology: “Those Who Can’t, Shouldn’t Be Teaching”
“No Child Left Behind” and Beyond
Personal Mini-Experiments: The Power of Positive (and Negative)
Teachers
The Components of Positive Schooling
Care, Trust, and Respect for Diversity
Goals (Content)
Plans
Motivation (Plus Enlivening the Course Contents for Students)
Hope
Societal Contributions
Teaching as a Calling
2016 National Teacher of the Year: “I Was a Teenage Mom, and
Teachers Changed My Life”
Giving Back to Teachers
Gainful Employment
Gainful Employment: Happiness, Satisfaction, and Beyond
Performing Well and Meeting Goals
Deriving Purpose by Providing a Product or Service
Engagement and Involvement
Variety in Job Duties
Income for Family and Self
Companionship and Loyalty to Coworkers and Bosses: Friends at
Work
Safe Work Environments
Respect and Appreciation for Diversity in the Workplace
Having or Being a Good Boss
The Strengths-Based Approach to Work
Match People, Don’t Fix Them
The Stages of This Approach
Does It Work?
Capital at Work
Traditional Economic Capital

18
 Human Capital
Social Capital
Positive Psychological Capital
The Dark Side: Workaholics, Burnouts, and Jobs Lost
Workaholics
Burnout
Losing Your Job
What Can Be Done to Improve Your Work?
Making the Job Better
Personal Mini-Experiments: Becoming Gainfully Employed
Applying for a New Job
The Power to Change
When Work Becomes a Calling: The Tale of a Hospital Orderly
The Psychology of Gainful Employment and the Education That Gets
Us There
Appendix A: Example of Positive Schooling: The StrengthsQuest
Program
Appendix B: Positive Workplaces in Hong Kong: Building Positive
Organizations, Engaging the Heart of Employees
Key Terms
Part VIII Finding Strengths in Others: Embodying Strengths in Everyday Life
Chapter 16 Remembering Shane: Real Strengths in a Real Person
“Strengths are all around you”
“Strengths are also within you”
“Strengths can be shared and borrowed”
Remembering Shane J. Lopez
Lisa M. Edwards, Marquette University
Jeana L. Magyar, University of Wisconsin, Steven’s Point
Heather Rasmussen, University of Kansas
Danny Singley, The Center for Men’s Excellence
Ryon McDermott, University of Alabama
Cynthia Pury, Clemson University
Kevin Rand, Indiana University–Purdue University Indianapolis
Connie Clifton Rath, Gallup
Barbara L. Fredrickson, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill
Sarah Pressman, University of California, Irvine
Kristin Koetting O’Byrne, Abilene Christian University
Matt Englar-Carlson, California State University, Fullerton
Brian Cole, University of Kansas
Matthew Gallagher, University of Houston
Jennifer Teramoto Pedrotti, California Polytechnic State
University

19
References
Glossary of Key Terms
Author Index
Subject Index

20
Preface

For many of you, this is your first educational foray into the field of positive psychology.
We are privileged to introduce you to this work. If your life is in some small way improved
by reading the following pages, it will have made our efforts more than worthwhile.

In these pages, we introduce you to the growing field of positive psychology. We have
borrowed from the therapy and research efforts of many outstanding psychologists, and we
thank them for their pioneering contributions. So, too, do we thank our clients, our
students, and our colleagues (Kaylene Co, Brian Cole, Lisa Edwards, Lindsey Hammond,
Zachary Kasow, Molly Lowe, Jeana Magyar, Phil McKnight, Allison Newlee, Ryan Reed,
Jennifer Reimer, Melinda Roberts, and Brian Werter) who have assisted in various editions
of this textbook. Over the years, they have taught us as much about positive psychology as
we have taught them. Much gratitude also goes to those folks who believed that college
students needed a real positive psychology textbook. Our marvelous editors, Lara Parra and
Reid Hester; the entire team at SAGE; and our supportive agents at Studio B all thought
the world would be a better place if students continued to learn about positive psychology.

We have sampled the various areas of positive psychology and have included exercises to
help you to experience many of these new concepts. In Part I, titled “Looking at
Psychology From a Positive Perspective,” we group three chapters together. We begin with
Chapter 1 (“Welcome to Positive Psychology”) and introduce you to the field. In Chapter
2, we explore the Eastern and Western backgrounds of the field and ideas about blending
our ME and WE styles. Next, in Chapter 3 (“Classifications and Measures of Strengths and
Positive Outcomes”), we explain the attempts to categorize various topics in the field.

In Part II, titled “Positive Psychology in Context,” we discuss the roles of emotions in a
positive life. In Chapter 4 (“The Role of Culture in Developing Strengths and Living
Well”), we examine the role of cultural factors in determining what is positive. In Chapter
5 (“Living Well at Every Stage of Life”), we trace the development of human strengths.

Part III, “Positive Emotional States and Processes,” comprises two chapters. In Chapter 6,
“The Principles of Pleasure: Understanding Positive Affect, Positive Emotions, Happiness,
and Well-Being,” we discuss what has been learned about emotions and happiness. And in
Chapter 7, “Making the Most of Emotional Experiences: Emotion-Focused Coping,
Emotional Intelligence, Socioemotional Selectivity, and Emotional Storytelling,” we reveal
recent findings on how emotions can contribute positively to effective coping in life.

Part IV, “Positive Cognitive States and Processes,” contains three chapters. Chapter 8
(“Seeing Our Futures Through Self-Efficacy, Optimism, and Hope”) covers the most
powerful positive cognitive and motivational states. Then, in Chapter 9 (“Wisdom and

21
Courage: Characteristics of the Wise and the Brave”), we introduce findings about people
at their best under sometimes difficult circumstances. And in Chapter 10 (“Mindfulness,
Flow, and Spirituality: In Search of Optimal Experiences”), we detail the latest findings on
the power of mental processes in relation to self and higher forces.

Part V is titled “Prosocial Behavior.” In this portion of the book, we examine interpersonal
matters. In Chapter 11 (“Empathy and Egotism: Portals to Altruism and Gratitude”) and
Chapter 12 (“Attachment, Love, Flourishing Relationships, and Forgiveness”), we show
how human ties improve the quality of life.

In Part VI, “Understanding and Changing Human Behavior,” we give insights into
improving one’s life in Chapter 13 (“Balanced Conceptualizations of Mental Health and
Behavior”) and Chapter 14 (“Preventing the Bad and Promoting the Good”).

In Part VII, “Positive Environments,” we describe how school and work (Chapter 15,
“Positive Schooling and Good Work: The Psychology of Gainful Employment and the
Education That Gets Us There”) work together to contribute to a more productive,
happier life.

Finally, in Part VIII, “Finding Strengths in Others: Embodying Strengths in Everyday

Life,” multiple authors and researchers in the field of positive psychology share their
memories of Shane, a man who embodied so many positive constructs and who shared his
strengths and guidance with so many in the field (Chapter 16, “Remembering Shane: Real
Strengths in a Real Person”).

22
What’s New in This Edition
New examples and reflections on current events throughout the text make
information more relevant to our current times. For example, we look at research and
statistics regarding the effects of the poor economy on rates of volunteerism and new
applications of resilience, optimism, and other constructs regarding dealing with job
loss and coping with family members who are away at war.
Personal Mini-Experiments and Life Enhancement Strategies have been updated in
many chapters to help students from all backgrounds broaden and enhance their
inherent and learned strengths.
New organization of some chapters, including moving the topic of Forgiveness from
Chapter 11 to Chapter 12 because of better coordination of topics, including adding
a section entitled “When Love Ends” to better facilitate a balanced discussion of this
topic.
Chapter 16 offers a real-life example of positive psychology in an extended
memoriam due to the death of my coauthor while writing this book: “Remembering
Shane: Real Strengths in a Real Person.”

Additional revisions and updates incorporated throughout the text include the following:

Broader definition of culture explained throughout the text, with increased

representation of research investigating facets such as race, ethnicity, sexual
orientation, generation, nation of origin, socioeconomic status, and gender, among
others
Continued discussion of culture as a contextualizing factor in the manifestation of
strengths
New research on the benefits of using emotion-focused coping in dealing with the
effects of discrimination and racism and a new model in thinking about resilience in
racial and ethnic minority populations
Changes made to reflect current language and terms regarding different identity
groups. For example, “he or she” has been removed in favor of the more inclusive
“they” to include nonbinary genders when talking about people in general. In
addition, uses of the descriptor “American” have been clarified with the addition of
“U.S. based” where appropriate.
New research elucidating the relationships between the concept of hope and other
positive constructs in a variety of groups
Updated articles and references to various sociocultural issues, current political
climate, and other current social and technological trends
Increased coverage of neurological findings and connections where possible
An added section on American Indian (Anishinaabe) teachings in the Western
historical influences to give attention to their influence on how we think about

23
 strengths in this country today
New applications of mindfulness in a variety of populations

Online supplementary resources for instructors and students are available on the
companion website at study.sagepub.com/lopez4e. The password-protected Instructor
Resources Site includes a test bank and PowerPoint slides, while the open-access Student
Study Site includes flashcards and quizzes for practice.

The completion of this book was fraught with emotion, as we lost Shane J. Lopez partway
through its completion. I hope you will benefit from his words in these pages. He lives on
in the work here and elsewhere in his many contributions to the field of positive
psychology. Thank you for honoring his memory by reading this book.

—J. T. P.

San Luis Obispo, California

24
Remembering Shane J. Lopez

This book is dedicated to the memory of my mentor and friend, Shane J. Lopez, who died
on July 23, 2016. I first met Shane at the University of Kansas, in Bailey Hall, my first
week as a doctoral student in the Counseling Psychology program there. I didn’t know
until a bit later that it was his first week too–though as an assistant professor. Shane had
graduated just the year before in 1998 from the same program, and his giftedness and
potential had long been recognized by his professors, who readily welcomed him as a
colleague. From the first lecture he gave in class, I could tell that he was someone who
would teach me a multitude of ideas. I didn’t yet know he would mentor me through my
graduate school years, through graduation and my own job search for an academic position,
through negotiating a job offer, through promotion and tenure, through book contracts,
and more. I didn’t know how much he would teach me about life, and how to balance
many things, but to always make the most time for family.

Shane often talked about people’s “signature strengths” and mentioned them to us often.
That was one of his signature strengths—building others up, helping them to recognize and
to use their abilities in ways they hadn’t yet explored, and always encouraging us to be our
best selves. When I gave one of the eulogies at his funeral, I shared a memory of him that I
will always cherish that occurred the day I received notification of my tenure at Cal Poly
State University, San Luis Obispo. When he answered the phone and I said, “Guess what?”
he knew what I was going to say and he said, “Wait! Wait! Let me sit down, I want to really
listen to this! OK—go! Start from the beginning.” I told him that I had gotten my letter
and that I had been tenured and he said, “OK, but start from the beginning!” and
proceeded to ask me question after question: “Where were you when you knew the letter
was waiting for you in your mailbox? What did you think it said? Did you know? What was
your first thought just after you read it?” And I found myself getting so much more excited
about the accomplishment as I told him the answers, building the experience into a story,
savoring each moment of the success. At the end, he sighed happily and said, “I’m so proud
of you, Jennifer.” He was wonderful at taking time to savor the good, and he passed that on
as often as he could. He was my favorite person to tell when anything good happened.

But Shane was also really good at helping when things were not so great and when positive
psychology seemed far from one’s mind. I remember a difficult professional situation at one
time in my career and I called him to ask for advice, hoping he might give me some magical
suggestion that would solve the problem for me. He listened to me carefully, he validated
my emotion over the situation, and he made it clear he thought I had handled it well up to
that point. And then he asked me a question that I have asked myself over and over, in a
number of different situations since: How do you want to feel when you look back on this
situation? That question cleared the way for me, allowed me to see my own solution and to

25
make a plan to move forward that took me in the direction I wanted to go. Shane never
magically solved my problems or anyone’s, but he was magic in the way he imbued you
with the ability to do it yourself. That is the essence of sharing your strengths with others,
and he embodied it fully.

When Shane asked me to join this book many years ago, for the second edition, it was
because we had just lost C. R. “Rick” Snyder, who died just before the first edition was
released. Rick was Shane’s mentor and friend, and he was devastated to lose him. In that
second edition, he struggled to edit the text, having a hard time being surrounded by Rick’s
words as he worked on the book. I find myself in the same place with this edition.

As I moved through revising this text, however, being surrounded by Shane’s words was
also a comfort in some way. A way to be close to his memory and to spend time thinking
about the things he taught me and to reflect on how I might pass them along. The main
conclusion I have come to is that though he left this earth much too soon, he leaves us with
more than words but also with ideas, thoughts, inspiration, and lessons. Though I miss him
daily, I hear him whispering through the pages of this book, continuing to teach anyone
who opens the cover. I hope you can hear him too.

—J. T. P.

San Luis Obispo, California

26
Acknowledgments

The authors and SAGE gratefully acknowledge the contributions of the following
reviewers:

Ray McKay Hardee, Gardner-Webb University

John Wade, Emporia State University
Barbara J. Walker, University of Cincinnati

27
About the Authors

Shane J. Lopez, PhD (deceased),

was a Gallup Senior Scientist and Research Director of the Clifton Strengths
Institute. Dr. Lopez published more than 100 articles and chapters and 10 books in
addition to Positive Psychology: The Scientific and Practical Explorations of Human
Strengths. These include Making Hope Happen, his first trade book; The Oxford
Handbook of Positive Psychology (with C. R. Snyder); Positive Psychological Assessment:
A Handbook of Models and Measures (with C. R. Snyder); Positive Psychology:
Exploring the Best in People; The Encyclopedia of Positive Psychology; and The Psychology
of Courage: Modern Research on an Ancient Virtue (with Cynthia Pury). Dr. Lopez was
a Fellow of the American Psychological Association and of the International Positive
Psychology Association. A professor at the University of Kansas in both the Schools
of Education and Business for more than a decade, he passed away on July 23, 2016.

28
 Jennifer Teramoto Pedrotti, PhD,
is Associate Dean for Diversity and Curriculum in the College of Liberal Arts and
Professor in the Department of Psychology and Child Development at California
Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, where she has been teaching positive
psychology with a multicultural focus for over 10 years. She is the lead editor on a
volume entitled Perspectives on the Intersection of Multiculturalism and Positive
Psychology (with Lisa M. Edwards) and often speaks on the topic of including cultural
context in positive psychological discussions, including as a keynote speaker at the
Asian Pacific Conference on Applied Positive Psychology in Hong Kong, and in
many presentations at conferences, including those of the American Psychological
Association, the Western Positive Psychological Association, and the International
Positive Psychology Association. Dr. Teramoto Pedrotti has contributed to many
different volumes throughout her career such as The Oxford Handbook of Positive
Psychology, Positive Psychological Interventions, Activities for Teaching Positive
Psychology, and the Handbook of Multicultural Counseling. In addition, her work has
appeared in multiple journals, including the Journal of Counseling Psychology, Journal
of Positive Psychology, Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, and Professional
School Counseling. In her current role, she encourages students, staff, and faculty daily
to use their strengths to make change toward a more inclusive and culturally
competent campus.

29
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 See (in this volume)
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC.

SAN FRANCISCO: A. D. 1898.

New city charter.

A city charter of a quite new and experimental character was

adopted by popular vote in May, to go into effect at the
beginning of the year 1900. Its main features were described
at the time by the "New York Tribune," as follows:

"The formation of this charter is an advanced example of the

exercise of municipal home rule. The constitution of
California gives the cities of the state the uncommon
privilege of framing their own charters subject simply to the
veto power of the legislature. Exercising that right, the
people, acting through fifteen free-holders, elected for that
purpose, have drawn up the new charter. … If the legislature
approves, it will become the local constitution. The charter
provides for its own amendment by the people without appeal to
the legislature. So the present provisions of that instrument
may be only a form to be entirely remodeled by the city at its
own pleasure until it has no resemblance to the laws to which the
state authorities gave approval. That is an extreme delegation
of powers, such as we think has never before been made in an
American state. The mayor has large powers of appointment and
removal. He can suspend all elected officers except the
supervisors—the city legislators—who may remove those whom he
suspends, and he may remove at any time for cause all
appointive officers. The elective list is large, for, though
there are only eighteen supervisors, the number of places
filled by election each year is thirty. This is a great
departure from the charter-making practice recently prevalent,
which has tended to the election of only a few administrative
officers who are responsible for the selection of agents in
different departments. Attempt is made to centre
responsibility in the mayor, but the supervisors and the
 people both can pass ordinances likely to interfere with that
responsibility. So the charter is as far as possible from
inaugurating the one-man power, which has been much advocated
as the cure for the ills which spring from a municipal
administration animated by no uniform purpose or
intelligence."

SAN JUAN HILL, Battle of.

See (in this volume)

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898 (JUNE-JULY).

SAND RIVER CONVENTION, The.

See (in this volume)

SOUTH AFRICA (THE TRANSVAAL): A. D. 1884-1894.

SANTIAGO DE CUBA: A. D. 1898(May-June).

Blockade of Spanish squadron in the Bay.

See (in this volume)

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898 (APRIL-JUNE).

SANTIAGO DE CUBA: A. D. 1898 (June-July).

Attack and investment by American army.

See (in this volume)

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898 (JUNE-JULY).

SANTIAGO DE CUBA: A. D. 1898 (July 3).

Destruction of Spanish fleet.

See UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898 (JULY 3).

SANTIAGO DE CUBA: A. D. 1898 (July 4-17).

Surrender of the city and Spanish forces.
 See (in this volume)
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898 (JULY 4-17).

SANTIAGO DE CUBA: A. D. 1898 (August).

Sickness in the American army.
Withdrawal of troops.

See (in this volume)

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA:
A. D. 1898 (JULY-AUGUST: CUBA).

SARGON OF AKKAD.

See (in this volume)

ARCHÆOLOGICAL RESEARCH: BABYLONIA: AMERICAN
EXPLORATION.

SAYINGS OF OUR LORD, Discovery of a fragment of the.

See (in this volume)

ARCHÆOLOGICAL RESEARCH: EGYPT: DISCOVERY OF A
FRAGMENT.

SCHLEY, Admiral W. S.:

In operations at Santiago de Cuba.

See (in this volume)

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898 (APRIL-JUNE).

SCHLEY, Admiral W. S.:

Destruction of Spanish squadron.

See (in this volume)

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: A. D. 1898 (JULY 3).

SCHOOLS.
 See EDUCATION.

SCHREINER, W. P.:
Resignation of the Premiership of Cape Colony.

See (in this volume)

SOUTH AFRICA (CAPE COLONY): A. D. 1900 (APRIL-JUNE).

SCHWAN, General:
Military operations in the Philippine Islands.

See (in this volume)

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: A. D. 1899 (JANUARY-NOVEMBER).

{435}

----------SCIENCE, RECENT: Start--------

NOTABLE ACHIEVEMENTS.

ARCHÆOLOGICAL DISCOVERY.

See (in this volume)

ARCHÆOLOGICAL RESEARCH.

CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS:

Acetylene Gas.

Acetylene gas has been known since 1832, when it was

discovered by Edmund Davy; but it remained a mere laboratory
product until 1892, when two experimenters, in America and
France, stumbled accidentally on the production, in an
electric furnace, of calcium carbide, which water decomposes,
readily yielding the gas in question. The American discoverer
was Mr. Thomas Willson, a Canadian electrician, residing at
Spray, North Carolina; his French rival was Professor Henry
 Moisson, of Paris. The priority of Mr. Willson in the
discovery, or in the announcement of it, is most generally
recognized, and he secured patents in the United States and
elsewhere. Electrical developments since 1892 have economized
the manufacture of calcium carbide, by electric heat acting on
a mixture of lime and coke, and it has become an important
commercial product, at Niagara Falls and other seats of
electric power, bringing acetylene gas into extensive use as
an illuminant. There have been dangers and difficulties in the
use, however, not easily overcome.

CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS:

Discovery of Argon and Helium.

"After Lord Rayleigh, in 1892, had proved that nitrogen

obtained from chemical combinations was about one-half per
cent lighter than that obtained from the atmosphere, a
determination that was again verified in 1894, Lord Rayleigh
and Professor Ramsay separated from atmospheric nitrogen an
elementary gas of great density which, by reason of its
chemical indifference, they called argon. They proved that
this gas formed about 0.8 or 0.9 per cent of the volume of
nitrogen, from which it could be separated either by
incandescent magnesium or by the continued action of the
electric spark. It was established beyond doubt that Cavendish
produced this gas a hundred years ago by the use of the
electric spark. Argon, either alone or accompanied by helium,
has also been found in natural waters as well as in minerals.
Its discovery in a meteorite of Augusta County, Virginia,
United States of America, may perhaps lead us to ascribe to it
an extra-terrestrial origin.

"The physical properties of argon are very distinct, and its

characteristic spectrum enables us to at once distinguish it
with certainty from any other substance, but from a chemical
point of view this gas is most extraordinarily inactive, and
we have not yet succeeded in making it form combinations as
the other elements do. This peculiarity, and also the
impossibility of finding a place in the periodic system for a
simple body having the molecular weight of argon (39.88), have
given rise to all sorts of hypotheses relative to the nature
of this gas. …

"Another most interesting discovery was that of helium, made

by Professor Ramsay. In 1891 Hillebrand showed that uranium
ore and ores of the same family when dissolved in acids or
fused with alkaline carbonates, or even merely heated in a
vacuum, may give off as much as 3 per cent of nitrogen.
Professor Ramsay obtained this gas from cleveite and by means
of spectroscopic examination demonstrated the presence of
argon; and in the course of his experiments—in March, 1895—he
observed beside the spectrum of argon another bright, yellow
line that did not belong to that spectrum, and which Crookes
recognized as identical with the line D that Lockyer had
already observed in 1868 in the spectrum of the solar
chromosphere, and which he had attributed to an element as yet
unknown upon the earth—helium. The same line had also been
distinguished in the spectra of other fixed stars,
particularly in the spectrum of Orion, so that it may be
admitted that helium exists in large quantities
extra-terrestrially. … On our planet it appears, on the
contrary, to be very rare, and may be ranked among the rarest
of elements. … "Helium is the lightest of all the gases except
hydrogen; Stoney deduces from this fact an explanation of the
existence of these two elements in but very small quantities
in a free state upon the face of the earth, while they are
distributed in enormous masses throughout the universe. The
comparatively small force of the earth's gravitation does not
form a sufficient counterpoise to the velocity of their
molecules, which therefore escape from the terrestrial
atmosphere unless restrained by chemical combination. They
then proceed to reunite around great centres of attraction,
such as the fixed stars, in whose atmospheres these elements
exist in large quantities."
 C. Winkler,
The Discovery of new Elements within the last
twenty-five years
(Annual Report of Smithsonian Institution, 1897,
page 237, translated from Revue Scientifique,
4th series, volume 8).

CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS:

Liquefaction of Oxygen, Hydrogen and Air.

"The most remarkable recent work in refrigeration is that of

Professor James Dewar, of the Royal Institution in London. The
feat of liquefying oxygen by a succession of approaches to its
critical temperature has been thus described by him, in an
interview which appeared in 'McClure's Magazine,' November,
1893: 'The process of liquefying oxygen, briefly speaking, is
this: Into the outer chamber of that double compressor I
introduce, through a pipe, liquid nitrous oxide gas, under a
pressure of about 1,400 pounds to the square inch. I then
allow it to evaporate rapidly, and thus obtain a temperature
around the inner chamber of -90° C. Into this cooled inner
chamber I introduce liquid ethylene, which is a gas at
ordinary temperatures, under a pressure of 1,800 pounds to
the square inch. When the inner chamber is full of ethylene,
its rapid evaporation under exhaustion reduces the temperature
to -135° C. Running through this inner chamber is a tube
containing oxygen gas under a pressure of 750 pounds to the
square inch. The critical point of oxygen gas—that is, the
point above which no amount of pressure will reduce it to a
liquid—is—115° C., but this pressure, at the temperature of
-145° C., is amply sufficient to cause it to liquefy rapidly.'

{436}

"In May, 1898, Professor Dewar, by the use of liquid oxygen,

succeeded in liquefying hydrogen, producing a liquid having
 but one-fourteenth the specific gravity of water; this exploit
brought him within 21° of the absolute zero of centigrade. He
afterward reduced the liquid to solid form, attaining a
temperature estimated at four to five degrees lower. Faraday
and other investigators of an earlier day surmised that
hydrogen, when solidified, would prove to be a metal; now that
the feat of solidification has been accomplished, hydrogen
astonishes the physicist by displaying itself as non-metallic.
…

"For some years the plan was to employ a series of chemical

compounds, each with a lower boiling-point than its
predecessor in the process, and all troublesome and hazardous
in manipulation. A better method has been developed by keeping
to simple air from first to last, as in the apparatus of Dr.
Linde, of Dr. Hampson, and of Mr. Charles E. Tripler.

"As the Tripler machine does its work on a bolder scale than
either of the others, let its operation be briefly outlined:
Air is first compressed to 65 pounds pressure to the square
inch; through a second pump this pressure is exalted to 400
pounds, and with a third pump the pressure is carried to 2,500
pounds. After each compression the air flows through jacketed
pipes, where it is cooled by a stream of water. At the third
condensation a valve, the secret of whose construction Mr.
Tripler keeps to himself, permits part of the compressed air
to flow into a pipe surrounding the tube through which the
remainder is flowing. This act of expansion severely chills
the imprisoned air, which at last discharges itself in liquid
form—much as water does from an ordinary city faucet."

G. Iles,
Flame, Electricity and the Camera,
chapter 6 (New York: Doubleday, Page & Co.).

CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS:

Smokeless Powders.
 "In recent years smokeless powders have largely superseded all
others. These contain usually nitro-cellulose (gun cotton), or
nitro-glycerine, or both, made up into a plastic, coherent,
and homogeneous compound of a gluey nature, and fashioned into
horn-like sticks or rods by being forced under pressure,
through a die plate having small holes, through which the
plastic material is strained into strings like macaroni, or
else is molded into tablets, pellets, or grains of cubical
shape. Prominent among those who have contributed to this art
are the names of Turpin, Abel and Dewar, Nobel, Maxim, Munroe,
Du Pont, Bernadou and others. In the recent years of the
Nineteenth Century great activity has been manifest in this
field of invention. In the United States more than 600
different patents have been granted for explosives, the larger
portion of them being for nitro-compounds which partake in a
greater or less degree of the qualities of gun cotton or
nitro-glycerine."

E. W. Byrn,
Progress of Invention in the 19th Century,
page 419.

CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS:

X Rays.
The Discovery of Professor Rontgen.

"Fresh proofs await us of the supreme rank of both electricity

and photography as resources of art and science as we observe
the transcendent powers evoked by their union. From this union
no issue is more extraordinary, more weighty with meaning and
promise, than the X-ray pictures due to Professor Wilhelm
Konrad Rontgen. In these pictures he has but crowned labours
which began when Sir John Herschel noticed that a peculiar
blue light was diffused from a perfectly colourless solution
of quinine sulphate. Professor (now Sir) George Stokes
explained the phenomenon by showing that this blue light
consists of vibrations originally too rapid to be visible,
which are slowed down within the limits of perceptibility as
they pass through the liquid. …

"One path of approach to the achievement of Professor Röntgen

was opened by Sir John Herschel; another, as important, was
blazed and broadened by Professor (now Sir) William Crookes.
In 1874 and 1875 he was engaged upon the researches which gave
the world the radiometer, the tiny mill whose vanes rotate
with rays of light or heat. The action of this mill depends
upon its being placed in a glass bulb almost vacuous. When
such a bulb incloses rubies, bits of phenakite, or other
suitable objects, and electrical discharges are directed upon
them, they glow with the most brilliant luminescence known to
art. Excited by a cathode ray, that is, a ray from the
negative pole of an electrical machine, a Crookes bulb itself
shines with a vivid golden green ray which reminds the
onlooker of the fluorescence of earlier experiments. … "Year
by year the list of substances excitable to luminosity in a
Crookes bulb has been lengthened, and in 1894 it was the good
fortune of Professor Philipp Lenard to discover a wonderful
power of such a bulb. Emerging from it was a cathode ray which
passed nearly as freely through a thin plate of aluminium as
common sunshine does through a pane of glass. Hertz had, a few
years previously, discovered that metals in very thin sheets
were virtually transparent (or, to use Mr. Hyndman's term,
transradiable) to his electric waves. This property was found
by Professor Lenard to extend to the cathode ray and in a much
higher degree. … The ultra-violet ray of ordinary light has
the singular power of causing the gases which it may traverse
to become conductors of electricity, with the effect of
discharging an electrified metallic plate; this property is
shared by cathode rays. Associated with them are the rays of
still more extraordinary powers, discovered by Professor
Röntgen. In his own words let his achievement be recounted, as
published in 'McClure's Magazine,' April, 1896.
 "'I have been for a long time interested in the problem of the
cathode rays from a vacuum tube as studied by Hertz and
Lenard. I had followed their and other researches with great
interest, and determined, us soon as I had the time, to make
some researches of my own. This time I found at the close of
last October. I had been at work for some days when I
discovered something new.' 'What was the date?' 'The 8th of
November.' 'And what was the discovery?' 'I was working with a
Crookes tube covered by a shield of black cardboard. A piece
of barium platino-cyanide paper lay on the bench there. I had
been passing a current through the tube, and I noticed a
peculiar black line across the paper.' 'What of that?' 'The
effect was one which could only be produced, in ordinary
parlance, by the passage of light. No light could come from
the tube, because the shield which covered it was impervious
to any light known, even that of the electric arc.' 'And what
did you think?' 'I did not think; I investigated. I assumed
that the effect must have come from the tube, since its
character indicated that it could come from nowhere else. I
tested it. In a few minutes there was no doubt about it. Rays
were coming from the tube which had a luminescent effect upon
the paper.
{437}
I tried it successfully at greater and greater distances, even
at two metres. It seemed at first a new kind of invisible
light. It was clearly something new, something unrecorded.'
'Is it light?' 'No.' 'Is it electricity?' 'Not in any known
form.' 'What is it?' 'I don't know.' And the discoverer of the
X rays thus stated as calmly his ignorance of their essence as
has everybody else who has written on the phenomena thus far.

"'Having discovered the existence of a new kind of rays, I of

course began to investigate what they would do.' He took up a
series of cabinet-sized photographs. 'It soon appeared from
tests that the rays had penetrative power to a degree hitherto
unknown. They penetrated paper, wood, and cloth with ease; and
the thickness of the substance made no perceptible difference,
within reasonable limits.' He showed photographs of a box of
laboratory weights of platinum, aluminium, and brass, they and
the brass hinges all having been photographed from a closed
box, without any indication of the box. Also a photograph of a
coil of fine wire, wound on a wooden spool, the wire having
been photographed and the wood omitted.

"'The rays,' he continued, 'passed through all the metals

tested, with a facility varying, roughly speaking, with the
density of the metal. These phenomena I have discussed
carefully in my report to the Würzburg Society, and you will
find all the technical results therein stated.' He showed a
photograph of a small sheet of zinc. This was composed of
smaller plates soldered laterally with solders of different
metallic proportions. The differing lines of shadow caused by
the difference in the solders were visible evidence that a new
means of detecting flaws and chemical variations in metals had
been found. A photograph of a compass showed the needle and
dial taken through the closed brass cover. The markings of the
dial were in red metallic paint, and thus interfered with the
rays, and were reproduced. 'Since the rays had this great
penetrative power, it seemed natural that they should
penetrate flesh, and so it proved in photographing the hand,
as I showed you.'" …

"Provided with a Röntgen bulb, the photographer passes from

the exterior to the interior of an object, almost as if he
were a sorcerer with power to transmute all things to glass.
Equipped with a simple X-ray apparatus, dislocations and
fractures are detected by the surgeon, diseases of bones are
studied, and shot, needles, and bits of glass or corroding
wire within the muscles of a patient are located with
exactitude. Thanks to the work of Mr. Mackenzie Davidson, the
like detection of renal calculi can be looked forward to with
a fair degree of certainty. The same means of exploration
offers equal aid to medicine: it demonstrates the
calcification of arteries, and aneurysms of the heart or of
the first part of the aorta; with improved methods it may be
possible to study fatty degenerations of the arteries and
larger blood-vessels. Dr. C. M. Mouillin, addressing the
Röntgen Society of London as its president, states that the
fluorescent screen has now reached such a degree of perfection
that the minutest movement of the heart and lungs, and the
least change in the action of the diaphragm, can be watched
and studied at leisure in the living subject. He considers it
probable that the examination of a patient's chest with this
screen may become as much a matter of common routine as with
the stethoscope to-day. …

"Manifestly, the unseen universe which enfolds us is steadily

being brought to the light of day. The investigations of Hertz
established that the light-waves which affect the eye are but
one octave in a gamut which sweeps indefinitely far both above
and below them. In his hands, as in those of Joseph Henry long
before, electric waves found their way through the walls and
floors of a house; in the Marconi telegraph these waves pass
through the earth or a fog, a mist or a rain-storm, with
little or no hindrance. What does all this mean? Nothing less
than that, given its accordant ray, any substance whatever is
permeable, and that, therefore, to communicate between any two
places in the universe is simply a question of providing the
right means."

G. Iles,
Flame, Electricity and the Camera,
chapter 24 (New York: Doubleday, Page & Co.).

In an article made public in the "New York Tribune" of January

6, 1901, Professor John Trowbridge, of Harvard University,
expressed his anticipations from the further improvement of
the use of the X rays, as follows: "At present all of the
great hospitals of the world examine injuries of the
extremities of the human body by means of these rays. In some
cases the thicker portions of the body can be studied by their
 means. There is, however, much to be desired in the method,
for in general the rays exhibit only the shadows of the bones
of the extremities, or reveal at most the regions of greatest
density in the body. If the muscles and tendons or the veins
and arteries could be studied by means of these rays, an
immense aid to surgery would result. Some experiments I have
conducted with currents of great strength, lead me to believe
that much can be done in this direction, for I have in certain
cases obtained unmistakable traces of muscles and tendons, and
the direction in which to advance is becoming clearer. The use
of the X rays is not confined to the examination of the body.
Together with the ultra violet rays, the X rays are used to
cure cutaneous disorders. We are realizing that electricity is
an important factor in health and disease. The investigations
which have resulted from the discovery of these rays have
opened wide vistas in the molecular world."

ELECTRICAL SCIENCE:
Power.
Lighting.
Electro-chemical and Electro-metallurgical works.
The development at Niagara Falls.

"There were perhaps not more than twenty trolley cars in

actual service in 1887, and these were of doubtful success.
There were no regularly constituted electric railways worthy
of the name. The telephone and electric-lighting wires were
largely overhead, and frequently the construction was of the
most imperfect and temporary character. … Within the past
eight or ten years much has been done in the perfection of
thoroughly practical forms of meters and other instruments for
the measurement of electric forces and quantities. While such
work resembles in its delicacy that demanded by watch
mechanism, on the other hand the large station dynamos are
examples of the heaviest machine construction. … A few years
ago a dynamo was large if it demanded 100 or 200 horsepower to
drive it, while now such machines are diminutive when compared
 with those of 2,000 horsepower commonly constructed.
{438}
Dynamos are in use at Niagara of 5,000 horsepower capacity. A
single one of these would supply more than 50,000 incandescent
lights such as are ordinarily used, or would give motion to
500 trolley cars. The period since 1887 has been marked by
great extension in electric lighting by both arc and
incandescent lamps. … One of the chief factors in this great
extension has been the application of alternating electric
currents, or currents of wave-like nature, reversing their
direction many times in each second. The direct or continuous
current had previously occupied the field alone. But the
alternating current possessed the advantage of readily
permitting the sending out over a long distance of a high
pressure current with but little loss and by means of
comparatively small and inexpensive lines. This current,
relatively dangerous, could then be exchanged for a safe
low-pressure current on the house mains for working the
lights. The device which makes the exchange is called a
transformer. It is in reality a modified induction coil—a
simple structure of copper wire, sheet-iron, and insulating
materials, with no moving parts to need attention or to get
out of order. The properties and use of the transformer in an
alternating-current system were comparatively unknown before
1887, but since that time it has played a part in electric
development the importance of which cannot easily [not?] be
overestimated. It has been, furthermore, brought to a high
degree of perfection by the persistent and painstaking effort
of numerous workers. In transforming a current of high
pressure to one of lower pressure, or the reverse, only a very
slight loss of power or energy is suffered. On a large scale,
this loss is barely 3 per cent of the energy of the
transformed current. The larger sizes of transformers now in
use have capacities equivalent to considerably over 1,000
horsepower. Some of these structures are employed at Niagara
and others at Buffalo. As in the case of the apparatus just
mentioned, the effort spent in the perfection of the huge
dynamo-electric generators used in lighting and power stations
has resulted in machines so perfect as to leave but little
chance of further increase of effectiveness. They waste only a
small percentage in converting mechanical power into
electrical energy, and run for years with but little attention
or need of repairs. Along with all this improvement has gone a
like betterment in the thousand and one details and minor
devices which go to make up an electric system. …

"Perhaps … no better example of the varied application of

electric energy exists than at Niagara. Certainly no grander
exemplification of the way in which electric forces may be
called into play, to replace other and unlike agencies, can be
cited. Here at Niagara we may forcibly realize the importance
of cheap and unfailing power developed from water in its fall.
We find the power of huge water wheels delivered to the
massive dynamos for giving out electric energy. This energy is
variously employed. The electric lighting of the city of
Niagara and surroundings and the electric railways naturally
depend upon the water power. Besides these, which may be
termed the ordinary applications of electricity, there are
clustered at Niagara a number of unique industrial
establishments, the importance of which will undoubtedly
increase rapidly. In the carborundum factory we find huge
furnaces heated by the passage of electric current, and
attaining temperatures far beyond those of the ordinary
combustion of fuel. These electric furnaces produce
carborundum, a new abrasive nearly as hard as the diamond,
which is a combination of carbon and silicon, unknown before
the electric furnace gave it birth. Sand and coke are the raw
substances for its production, and these are acted upon by the
excessively high heat necessary to form the new product,
already in extensive use for grinding hard materials. The
metal aluminum, which not many years ago cost $2 an ounce, is
now produced on a large scale at Niagara, and sold at a price
which makes it, bulk for bulk, cheaper than brass. Here,
again, electricity is the agent; but in this case its power of
electrolyzing or breaking up strong chemical unions is
employed. … Works for the production of metallic sodium and
other metals similarly depend upon the decompositions effected
by the electric current. Solutions of ordinary salt or brine
are electrolyzed on a large scale in extensive works
established for the purpose. … The very high temperature which
exists in an electric arc, or between the carbons of an arc lamp,
has in recent years found application in the manufacture of
another important compound, which was formerly but slightly
known as a chemical difficult to prepare. Carbide of calcium
is the compound referred to, and large works for its
production exist at Niagara. Here again, as in the carborundum
works, raw materials of the simplest and cheapest kind are
acted upon in what may be termed an electric-arc furnace.
Coke, or carbon, and lime are mixed and charged into a furnace
in which an enormous electric arc is kept going. … The
importance of carbide of calcium rests in the fact that, by
contact with water, it produces acetylene gas. The
illuminating power of this gas, when burned, is its remarkable
property.

"It will be seen that the metallurgical and chemical

developments at Niagara are the direct outgrowth of electrical
utilization of water power. With many water powers, however,
the outlet for the application of the electrical energy exists
many miles away from the place at which the water power is
found. Even at Niagara there is an example of the beginning of
long-distance transmission, by a high-pressure line extending to
Buffalo and delivering electric energy to an electric station
there. In this case 'step-up' transformers, as they are
called, are employed at the Niagara power plant to step up or
raise the electrical pressure or potential from that given by
the dynamos to that required for the transmission to Buffalo.
This transformation is from about 2,500 up to 10,000 volts. At
the Buffalo end the reverse process is carried on by 'step-down'
transformers, and the energy is delivered to the trolley lines
at about 500 volts. … The whole Niagara plant has grown into
 existence within the past five years, and as a consequence of
the technical advances within the period of the past ten
years. There are, however, in active operation, besides the
Niagara power plant, several other water-power transmissions,
some of them far exceeding in distance that between Niagara
and Buffalo, and some in which the amount of power conveyed,
as well as the pressure of the current used upon the line, is
much greater than is yet to be found at Niagara. … No limit
can as yet be definitely set as to the distance which can be
covered in an electrical transmission. … It may be said that
at present the range of distances is between 30 and 100 miles.
…

{439}

"Electricity seems destined at no distant day to play an

important part in revolutionizing passenger traffic between
large centers of population. The facility with which electric
service may be superposed on ordinary steam roads will greatly
further this development. The work with the third-rail system,
undertaken by one of our prominent railway organizations, has
abundantly demonstrated the practicability of such
superposition. The future will witness the growing
substitution of either single motor cars or two or three
coupled cars for long, heavy trains drawn by locomotives, and
a more frequent service will result. There is an eventual
possibility of higher average speeds, since stops will not
consume much time, and the time required to recover the speed
after a stop will be much less than at present. … The heating
power of the electric current is now utilized in a variety of
ways. Electric welding machinery has been put into service
either for accomplishing results which were not possible to be
obtained before its development, or to improve the work and
lessen the cost."

Elihu Thomson,
Electrical Advance in Ten Years
 (Forum, January, 1898).

ELECTRICAL SCIENCE:
Development of Power at Niagara Falls.

The following description of the engineering work by which

Niagara was harnessed to turbines and dynamos, for an enormous
development of electrical power, is taken from a paper read by
Mr. Thomas Commerford Martin, of New York, at a meeting of the
Royal Institution of Great Britain, June 19, 1896, and printed
in the Proceedings of the Institution, Volume 15; reprinted in
the Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution, 1896, page
223:

"Niagara is the point at which are discharged, through two

narrowing precipitous channels only 3,800 feet wide and 160
feet high, the contents of 6,000 cubic miles of water, with a
reservoir area of 90,000 square miles, draining 300,000 square
miles of territory. The ordinary overspill of this Atlantic
set on edge has been determined to be equal to about 75,000
cubic feet per second, and the quantity passing is estimated
as high as 100,000,000 tons of water per hour. The drifting of
a ship over the Horse Shoe Fall has proved it to have a
thickness at the center of the crescent of over 16 feet.
Between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario there is a total difference
of level of 300 feet, and the amount of power represented by
the water at the falls has been estimated on different bases
from 6,750,000 horsepower up to not less than 16,800,000
horsepower, the latter being a rough calculation of Sir
William Siemens, who, in 1877, was the first to suggest the
use of electricity as the modern and feasible agent of
converting into useful power some of this majestic but
squandered energy. …

"It was Mr. Thomas Evershed, an American civil engineer, who

unfolded the plan of diverting part of the stream at a
considerable distance above the falls, so that no natural
beauty would be interfered with, while an enormous amount of
power would be obtained with a very slight reduction in the
volume of the stream at the crest of the falls. Essentially
scientific and correct as the plan now shows itself to be, it
found prompt criticism and condemnation, but not less quickly
did it rally the able and influential support of Messrs. W. B.
Rankine, Francis Lynde Stetson, Edward A. Wickes, and Edward
D. Adams, who organized the corporate interests that, with an
expenditure of £1,000,000 in five years, have carried out the
present work. So many engineering problems arose early in the
enterprise that after the survey of the property in 1890 an
International Niagara Commission was established in London,
with power to investigate the best existing methods of power
development and transmission, and to select from among them,
as well as to award prizes of an aggregate of £4,400. This
body included men like Lord Kelvin, Mascart, Coleman Sellers,
Turrettini, and Dr. Unwin, and its work was of the utmost
value. Besides this the Niagara Company and the allied
Cataract Construction Company enjoyed the direct aid of other
experts, such as Prof. George Forbes, in a consultative
capacity; while it was a necessary consequence that the
manufacturers of the apparatus to be used threw upon their
work the highest inventive and constructive talent at their
command.

"The time-honored plan in water-power utilization has been to

string factories along a canal of considerable length, with
but a short tail race. At Niagara the plan now brought under
notice is that of a short canal with a very long tail race.
The use of electricity for distributing the power allows the
factories to be placed away from the canal, and in any
location that may appear specially desirable or advantageous.
The perfected and concentrated Evershed scheme comprises a
short surface canal 250 feet wide at its mouth, 1¼ miles above
the fans, far beyond the outlying Three Sisters Islands, with
an intake inclined obliquely to the Niagara River. This canal
extends inwardly 1,700 feet, and has an average depth of some