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 Public Relations
Writing and Media
Techniques
EIGHTH EDITION

Dennis L. Wilcox
San Jose State University

Bryan H. Reber
University of Georgia

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Wilcox, Dennis L.
Public relations writing and media techniques/Dennis L. Wilcox,
Bryan H. Reber. —8th edition.
  pages cm
Includes index.
ISBN 978-0-13-401049-6—ISBN 0-13-401049-3
1. Public relations—United States. 2. Public relations—United States—Authorship.
I. Reber, Bryan H. II. Title.
HM1221.W55 2016
659.20973—dc23
2015011544

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ISBN-10: 0-134-01049-3
ISBN-13: 978-0-134-01049-6
Brief Contents
1 Getting Organized for Writing  1 11 Social Media and Mobile Apps 194

2 Becoming a Persuasive Writer 21 12 Intranets, Newsletters,

and Brochures 212
3 Finding and Making News 39
13 Writing Email, Memos,
4 Working with Journalists and Proposals 232
and Bloggers 58
14 Giving Speeches and
5 Writing the News Release 78 Presentations 245

6 Preparing Fact Sheets, Advisories, 15 Organizing Meetings and Events 263

Media Kits, and Pitches 97
16 Using Direct Mail and Advertising 285
7 Creating Feature Content
and Op-Eds 114 17 Working Within a Legal
Framework 302
8 Publicity Photos and Infographics 132
18 Planning Programs and
9 Radio, Television, and Campaigns 321
Online Video 150
19 Measuring Success 333
10 Websites, Blogs, and Podcasts 175

iii
This page intentionally left blank
Contents
Preface
About the Authors
xi
xv
2 Becoming a Persuasive Writer 21
2.1: Persuasion and the Art of Communication 21
1 Getting Organized for Writing 1 2.2: The Basics of Communication 21
2.2.1: The Four Elements of Communication 22
1.1: The Framework of Public Relations Writing 1
1.1.1: Writing Is Only One Component 1 2.3: Theories of Communication 22
1.1.2: Writers as Communication Technicians 2 2.3.1: Media Uses and Gratification 22
2.3.2: Cognitive Dissonance 23
1.2: The Public Relations Writer 2
2.3.3: Agenda Setting 24
1.2.1: Objectives 3
2.3.4: Framing 24
1.2.2: Audiences 3
2.3.5: Diffusion and Adoption 25
1.2.3: Channels 3
2.3.6: Hierarchy of Needs 25
1.3: The Writer’s Basic Tool Kit 4
2.4: Factors in Persuasive Writing 26
1.3.1: Computer and Printer 4
2.4.1: Audience Analysis 27
1.3.2: Dictionary 5
2.4.2: Source Credibility 27
1.3.3: Encyclopedia 5
2.4.3: Appeal to Self-Interest 28
1.3.4: Stylebook 6
2.4.4: Clarity of the Message 29
1.3.5: Media Database 6
2.4.5: Timing and Context 29
1.3.6: Books on Writing 7
2.4.6: Symbols and Slogans 30
1.4: Professional Publications and
2.4.7: Use of Color 30
Other Resources 8
2.4.8: Suggestions for Action 30
1.4.1: Magazines and Journals 8
1.4.2: Newsletters and Blogs 8 2.5: Strategies for Persuasive Writing 30
1.4.3: Discussion Groups 9 2.5.1: Drama 31
1.4.4: Current Events and Trends 9 2.5.2: Statistics 31
2.5.3: Surveys and Polls 32
1.5: Research as a Prelude to Writing 10
2.5.4: Examples 32
1.5.1: Search Engines 10
2.5.5: Testimonials 32
1.5.2: Fact-Checking Websites 11
2.5.6: Endorsements 32
1.5.3: Electronic Databases 12
2.5.7: Emotional Appeals 34
1.6: Writing Guidelines 12
2.6: Persuasive Speaking 34
1.6.1: Outlining the Purpose 12
1.6.2: Sentences 13 2.7: Persuasion and Propaganda 35
1.6.3: Paragraphs 13 2.8: The Ethics of Persuasion 35
1.6.4: Word Choice 13 2.8.1: Building on the TARES Model 36
1.6.5: Active Verbs and Present Tense 14 Summary: Becoming a Persuasive Writer 37

1.6.6: Imagery
1.7: Errors to Avoid
14
15
3 Finding and Making News 39
1.7.1: The Need to Proofread 15 3.1: The Challenge of Making News 39
1.7.2: Gobbledygook and Jargon 15 3.2: What Makes News 40
1.7.3: Poor Sentence Structure 16 3.2.1: Timeliness 40
1.7.4: Wrong Words 16 3.2.2: Prominence 42
1.7.5: Redundancies 17 3.2.3: Proximity 43
1.7.6: Too Many Numbers 17 3.2.4: Significance 43
1.7.7: Hype 18 3.2.5: Unusualness 43
1.7.8: Bias and Stereotypes 18 3.2.6: Human Interest 44
1.7.9: Politically Incorrect Language 19 3.2.7: Conflict 44
Summary: Getting Organized for Writing 19 3.2.8: Newness 45

v
vi Contents

3.3: How to Find News 45 5.4: The Basic Components of a News Release 81
3.3.1: Internal News Sources 45 5.4.1: News Release Template 82
3.3.2: External News Sources 46 5.4.2: News Release Headline 82
3.4: How to Find Creative News Opportunities 47 5.4.3: News Release Dateline 84
3.4.1: Creativity: An Essential Skill 47 5.4.4: News Release Lead 84
3.4.2: The Value of Brainstorming 48 5.4.5: Body of the Text 85
3.5: Nine Ways to Create News 50 5.4.6: Boilerplate Description of the
3.5.1: Special Events 50 Organization 86
3.5.2: Contests 51 5.4.7: News Release Contacts 87
3.5.3: Polls and Surveys 52 5.5: News Release Formats 88
3.5.4: Top 10 Lists 53 5.5.1: The Traditional News Release 88
3.5.5: Product Demonstrations 53 5.5.2: The Online News Release 89
3.5.6: Publicity Stunts 54 5.5.3: The Multimedia News Release 90
3.5.7: Rallies and Protests 55 5.5.4: Other News Release Formats 94
3.5.8: Personal Appearances 56 Summary: Writing the News Release 95

6
3.5.9: Awards 56
Summary: Finding and Making News 57
Preparing Fact Sheets, Advisories,
Media Kits, and Pitches 97
4 Working with Journalists 6.1: Expanding the Publicity Tool Kit 97
and Bloggers 58 6.2: Fact Sheets 97
4.1: The Importance of Media Relations 58 6.2.1: Event or Exhibit Announcements 99
6.2.2: Company Profiles 99
4.2: The Interdependence of Public Relations
and the Media 59 6.2.3: Product Specification Sheets 99
4.2.1: The Media’s Dependence on 6.3: Media Advisories 101
Public Relations 59 6.4: Media Kits 103
4.2.2: Public Relations’ Dependence on 6.4.1: The Traditional Media Kit 103
the Media 60 6.4.2: The Digital Media Kit 104
4.3: Areas of Friction 61 6.5: Pitching a Story 105
4.3.1: Complaints about Public Relations 6.5.1: Researching the Publication 106
Personnel 61 6.5.2: The Email Pitch 108
4.3.2: Complaints about Journalists 6.5.3: The Telephone Pitch 111
and Bloggers 62
6.5.4: The Twitter Pitch 111
4.4: Building Working Relationships 62
6.5.5: The Follow-Up 112
4.4.1: Media Relations 101 63
Summary: Preparing Fact Sheets, Advisories,
4.4.2: Media Etiquette 64 Media Kits, and Pitches 113
4.5: Media Interviews and Being a Spokesperson 66
4.6: News Conferences 69 7 Creating Feature Content
4.6.1: Standard News Conferences 69 and Op-Eds 114
4.6.2: Teleconferences and Webcasts 71
7.1: The Value of Features 114
4.7: Media Tours and Other Events 71
7.2: Types of Features 115
4.7.1: Media Tours 71
7.2.1: Case Study 115
4.7.2: Previews and Parties 72
7.2.2: Application and “How-To” Features 116
4.7.3: Press Junkets 73
7.2.3: Surveys and Research Studies 116
4.7.4: Editorial Board Meetings 74
7.2.4: Backgrounder 118
4.8: Crisis Communication 74
7.2.5: Personality Profile 118
Summary: Working with Journalists and Bloggers 76
7.2.6: Historical Piece 119

5 Writing the News Release 78

7.3: Planning a Feature
7.3.1: Ways to Proceed
119
120
5.1: The Backbone of Publicity Programs 78 7.4: The Parts of a Feature 123
5.2: The Value of News Releases 78 7.4.1: Feature Headline 123
5.3: Planning a News Release 79 7.4.2: Feature Lead 123
5.3.1: Use a Worksheet to Answer 7.4.3: Feature Body and Summary 124
Basic Questions 80 7.4.4: Photos and Graphics 124
 Contents vii

7.5: Placement Opportunities 125 9.4: Talk Shows and Product Placements 168
7.5.1: Earned Media 126 9.4.1: Talk Shows 168
7.5.2: Owned Media 126 9.4.2: Magazine Shows 170
7.5.3: Paid Media 126 9.4.3: Product Placement 170
7.6: Writing Opinion Pieces 127 9.5: Online Video 171
7.6.1: Op-Eds 127 Summary: Radio, Television, and Online Video 173
7.6.2: Letters to the Editor 129
Summary: Creating Feature Content and Op-Eds 130 10 Websites, Blogs, and Podcasts 175

8 Publicity Photos and Infographics 132 10.1: The Web: Pervasive in Our Lives 175
10.2: The New Public Relations Paradigm 176
8.1: The Importance of Visual Content 132 10.3: Websites 177
8.2: Components of a Good Photo 133 10.3.1: Planning an Effective Website 178
8.2.1: Technical Quality 133 10.3.2: Managing the Website 180
8.2.2: Subject Matter 133 10.3.3: Making the Site Interactive 180
8.2.3: Composition 135 10.3.4: Attracting Visitors to Your Site 181
8.2.4: Action 137 10.3.5: Tracking Site Visitors 183
8.2.5: Scale 137 10.4: Writing for the Web 183
8.2.6: Camera Angle 138 10.4.1: Providing Content for Online Newsrooms 185
8.2.7: Lighting and Timing 138
10.5: Blogs 186
8.3: Working with Photographers 10.5.1: Types of Blogs 187
and Photo Vendors 139
10.6: Podcasts 191
8.3.1: Finding Photographers 139
10.6.1: Applications of Podcasts 191
8.3.2: Contracts 140
10.6.2: Equipment and Production 191
8.3.3: The Photo Session 140
Summary: Websites, Blogs, and Podcasts 192
8.3.4: Finding Stock Photos 140
8.3.5: Cropping and Retouching 141 11 Social Media and Mobile Apps 194
8.3.6: Ethical Considerations 141
8.4: Writing Photo Captions 142 11.1: The Tsunami of Social Media 194
8.5: The Purpose of Infographics 143 11.2: The Use of Social Media in Public Relations 194
8.6: Types of Infographics 143 11.3: The Continuing Role of Traditional Media 195
8.6.1: Charts 144 11.4: Social Networks 196
8.6.2: Graphic Interface of Subject Content 145 11.4.1: Facebook: King of the Social Networks 196
8.6.3: Other Kinds of Graphics 146 11.4.2: Google+ 197
8.7: Creating an Infographic 146 11.4.3: LinkedIn: The Professional Network 198
8.8: Distributing Photos and Infographics 147 11.5: Micro-Blogging Sites and Apps 198
11.5.1: Twitter: Saying It in 140 Characters or Less 198
8.9: Maintaining Photo and Art Files 147
11.5.2: Vine 200
Summary: Publicity Photos and Infographics 148
11.5.3: Instagram 200
9 Radio, Television, and Online Video 150 11.6: Media Sharing Sites 201
11.6.1: YouTube: King of Video Clips 201
9.1: The Reach of Broadcast Media and
11.6.2: Flickr 204
Online Video 150
11.6.3: Pinterest 205
9.2: Radio 151
11.7: The Rising Tide of Mobile Content 206
9.2.1: Radio News Releases 152
11.7.1: An Ocean of Apps 207
9.2.2: Audio News Releases 153
11.7.2: QR Codes: Rich Content a Scan Away 208
9.2.3: Radio Public Service Announcements 154
11.7.3: Texting 209
9.2.4: Radio Media Tours 156
9.2.5: Radio Promotions 157 11.8: Wikis 210
9.2.6: Community Calendars 157 Summary: Social Media and Mobile Apps 210

9.3: Television
9.3.1: Video News Releases
158
158
12 Intranets, Newsletters, and
9.3.2: The New Normal: B-Roll Packaging 161
Brochures 212
9.3.3: Video Public Service Announcements 165 12.1: Tightening the Writing Focus 212
9.3.4: Satellite Media Tours 166 12.2: The Balancing Act of Editors 212
viii Contents

12.2.1: A Mission Statement Gives Purpose 213 14.2.3: Writing the Speech 249
12.2.2: Making an Article Schedule 214 14.3: The Basics of Giving a Speech 251
12.3: Intranets 214 14.3.1: Coaching Speakers 252
12.4: Online Newsletters 215 14.3.2: Structuring the Message for the Ear 252
12.5: The Value of Print Publications 216 14.3.3: Tailoring Remarks to the Audience 252
12.6: Print Newsletters and Magazines 217 14.3.4: Keeping Speeches Timely and Short 253
12.6.1: Meeting Audience Interests 217 14.3.5: Gestures and Eye Contact 253
12.6.2: Article Headlines 218 14.4: Visual Aids for Presentations 254
12.6.3: Article Lead Sentences 219 14.4.1: PowerPoint 255
12.6.4: Periodical Design 220 14.4.2: Prezi 257
12.6.5: Periodical Format 220 14.5: Being a Good Panelist 258
12.6.6: Periodical Layout 221 14.5.1: Panels 258
12.6.7: Photos and Illustrations 223 14.6: Speaker Training and Placement 258
12.7: Brochures 223 14.6.1: Executive Training 258
12.7.1: Planning a Brochure 223 14.6.2: Speaker’s Bureaus 259
12.7.2: Brochure Format 224 14.6.3: Placing Speakers 260
12.7.3: Writing a Brochure 224 14.6.4: Publicity Opportunities 260
12.7.4: Brochure Paper 225 Summary: Giving Speeches and Presentations 261
12.7.5: Types of Fonts 226
12.7.6: Ink and Color 226 15 Organizing Meetings and Events 263
12.7.7: Finding a Printer 227
15.1: A World Filled with Meetings and Events 263
12.8: Annual Reports 228
15.2: Staff and Committee Meetings 264
12.8.1: Planning and Writing Annual Reports 229
15.3: Larger Group Meetings 265
12.8.2: Trends in Content and Delivery 229
15.3.1: Planning Large Group Meetings 265
Summary: Intranets, Newsletters, and Brochures 230
15.3.2: Meeting Space Logistics 266

13 Writing Email, Memos, 15.3.3: Meeting Invitations

15.3.4: Meeting Registration
267
267
and Proposals 232
15.3.5: Meeting Program 268
13.1: Developing Expertise in Business Communication 232 15.4: Banquets 269
13.2: The Challenge of Communication Overload 233 15.4.1: Working with Catering Managers 271
13.3: Email 233 15.4.2: Banquet Logistics and Timing 271
13.3.1: Email Purpose 234 15.5: Receptions and Cocktail Parties 272
13.3.2: Email Content 234 15.6: Conventions 272
13.3.3: Email Format 236 15.6.1: Planning a Convention 273
13.4: Memorandums 237 15.6.2: Convention Program 274
13.5: Traditional Letters 238 15.7: Trade Shows 275
13.5.1: Purpose of Traditional Letters 239 15.7.1: Exhibit Booths 276
13.5.2: Letter Content 239 15.7.2: Newsrooms and Media Relations 277
13.5.3: Letter Format 239 15.8: Promotional Events 278
13.6: Proposals 240 15.8.1: Using Celebrities to Boost Attendance 278
13.6.1: Purpose of Proposals 240 15.8.2: Event Planning and Logistics 279
13.6.2: Proposal Content and Organization 240 15.9: Open Houses and Plant Tours 281
13.7: Proposals by Public Relations Firms 241 Summary: Organizing Meetings and Events 283
13.8: Briefing and Position Papers 243
Summary: Writing Email, Memos, and Proposals 244 16 Using Direct Mail and Advertising 285

14 Giving Speeches and

16.1: The Business of Direct Mail and Advertising
16.2: The Basics of Direct Mail
285
285
Presentations 245 16.2.1: Advantages of Direct Mail 286
14.1: The Challenge of Public Speaking Engagements 245 16.2.2: Disadvantages of Direct Mail 287
14.2: The Basics of Speechwriting 246 16.3: Creating a Direct Mail Package 287
14.2.1: Researching the Audience and Speaker 246 16.3.1: Mailing Envelope 287
14.2.2: Defining Goals and Content 246 16.3.2: Direct Mail Letter 288
 Contents ix

16.3.3: Direct Mail Brochure 289 17.6.2: The Securities and Exchange Commission 316
16.3.4: Reply Card 289 17.6.3: The Federal Communications Commission 317
16.3.5: Return Envelope 289 17.6.4: The Food and Drug Administration 318
16.3.6: Gifts 290 17.7: Working with Lawyers 318
16.4: The Basics of Public Relations Advertising 290 Summary: Working Within a Legal Framework 319
16.4.1: Advantages of Advertising 291
16.4.2: Disadvantages of Advertising 291 18 Planning Programs and Campaigns 321
16.5: Types of Public Relations Advertising 292 18.1: The Value of a Written Plan 321
16.5.1: Image Building 292 18.2: Developing a PR Plan 321
16.5.2: Investor and Financial Relations 293 18.2.1: Identifying the Situation 321
16.5.3: Public Service 293 18.2.2: Gathering Information 322
16.5.4: Advocacy and Issues 294 18.2.3: Analyzing the Information 323
16.5.5: Announcements 294
18.3: Elements of a PR Plan 323
16.6: Creating a Print Ad 295 18.3.1: The Organization’s Situation 324
16.6.1: Ad Headline 295 18.3.2: Campaign Objectives 325
16.6.2: Ad Text 295 18.3.3: Campaign Audience 327
16.6.3: Ad Artwork 295 18.3.4: Campaign Strategy 327
16.6.4: Ad Layout 295 18.3.5: Campaign Tactics 328
16.7: Working with an Ad Agency 296 18.3.6: Campaign Calendar 329
16.8: Native Advertising 296 18.3.7: Campaign Budget 330
16.9: Other Advertising Channels 297 18.3.8: Campaign Evaluation 330
16.9.1: Billboards 298 18.4: Submitting a Plan for Approval 330
16.9.2: Transit Panels 298 Summary: Planning Programs and Campaigns 332
16.9.3: Buttons and Bumper Stickers 298
16.9.4: Posters 299 19 Measuring Success 333
16.9.5: T-Shirts 299
19.1: The Skill of Measurement 333
16.9.6: Promotional Items 299
19.2: The Importance of Measurement 333
Summary: Using Direct Mail and Advertising 300
19.2.1: Current Status of Measurement
17 Working Within a Legal
and Evaluation 335
19.3: Measurable Program Objectives 336
Framework 302
19.4: Measuring Production/Distribution 336
17.1: A Sampling of Legal Problems 302 19.5: Measuring Message Exposure 337
17.2: Libel and Defamation 303 19.5.1: Media Impressions 338
17.2.1: The Fair Comment Defense 304 19.5.2: Advertising Value Equivalency 338
17.2.2: Avoiding Defamation Suits 304 19.5.3: Systematic Tracking 339
17.3: Invasion of Privacy 305 19.5.4: Monitoring the Web 340
17.3.1: Employee Newsletters 305 19.5.5: Monitoring Social Media 340
17.3.2: Photo Releases 305 19.5.6: Audience Requests, Costs, and Attendance 342
17.3.3: Product Publicity and Advertising 305 19.6: Measuring Audience Awareness 343
17.3.4: Media Inquiries about Employees 306 19.7: Measuring Audience Attitudes 344
17.3.5: Employee Behavior Online 307 19.8: Measuring Audience Action 344
17.4: Copyright Law 309 19.9: Evaluating Newsletters and Brochures 345
17.4.1: Fair Use versus Infringement 310 19.9.1: Evaluation Methods 345
17.4.2: Photography and Artwork 310
19.10: Writing a Measurement Report 346
17.4.3: Work for Hire 311
Summary: Measuring Success 347
17.4.4: Use of Online Material 311
17.5: Trademark Law 312 Media Resources  349
17.5.1: The Protection of Trademarks 312
17.5.2: The Problem of Trademark Infringement 313
Glossary  354
17.5.3: Misappropriation of Personality 314 Credits  357
17.6: Regulatory Agencies 315 Index  363
17.6.1: The Federal Trade Commission 315
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Preface
T
he new edition of Public Relations Writing and Me-
dia Techniques continues its reputation as the most
comprehensive “how-to” text on the market. It will
give you a complete tool kit for writing and creating a full
range of public relations materials for distribution through
traditional media (print, radio, television) and the Internet,
including social media.
Past editions, and this one is no exception, get high
marks from professors and students as an extremely good,
user-friendly text written in plain English. It offers com-
mon sense advice to students and practitioners about how
public relations is practiced in the “real world,” and con-
tains clear, step-by-step guidelines illustrated by multiple
examples from actual award-winning public relations pro-
grams conducted by many well-known organizations.
In addition, it’s the only major PR writing text that pro-
vides entire chapters on how to plan meetings and events,
compose publicity photos, effectively use infographics,
write news features and op-eds, give a presentation, plan
an entire public relations program or campaign, and mea-
sure the success of a campaign. As one reviewer stated,
“Wilcox and Reber are about the best authors out there.”
Although the emphasis is on the “nuts and bolts” of
effective public relations writing and techniques, the text
also provides the conceptual framework and broader con-
text of how the tactics of public relations fit into the entire
public relations process—research, planning, communi-
cation, and evaluation. The idea is to ensure that you not
only know how to write public relations materials, but also
understand why they are written from the standpoint of
furthering organizational objectives.
The many updates, revisions, and additions to this
new edition reflect today’s work in public relations. Per-
haps the most significant changes in this edition concern
the rise of tablets, smartphones, and social media plat-
forms that have significantly changed how public relations
writers think and work. Blogs and other social media, such
as Facebook, Google+, Twitter, Pinterest, Instagram, and
YouTube, have challenged and created new opportunities
for public relations practitioners.
This edition, more than any other public relations
writing text, tells you how to work in the rapidly chang-
ing digital environment. It’s more than a textbook; it’s a
handy reference book that students will constantly use on
their first job and current practitioners will use as an ex-
pert resource. As one professor told their students, “This
is the one book you should keep. Don’t sell it at the end
of the semester.” In sum, this edition is the book that will
become your standard reference source for college and the
first years of your career.
New to the Edition
The increasing array of available media platforms and
channels is a bonanza for public relations specialists but
also presents two challenges to today’s students and cur-
rent practitioners. One challenge is to constantly keep up
with the latest developments in mobile devices or new
social networking platforms. The second challenge is to
understand how all these new communication platforms
and channels can be applied in public relations to more ef-
fectively communicate with increasingly segmented audi-
ences, across a variety of earned, owned, and paid media.
This edition offers new and expanded treatment of nu-
merous topics. Some examples include:
• An updated and revised chapter on websites, blogs,
and podcasts that includes additional information on
the role of online newsrooms on organizational web-
sites (Chapter 10)
• A completely new chapter on social media and apps
that thoroughly explores how organizations can effec-
tively use social media to increase consumer engage-
ment and brand loyalty (Chapter 11)
• Expanded information on how to work with influential
bloggers (Chapter 4)
• Completely updated stats on the reach and influence of
social media (Chapter 11)
• Case studies on how major organizations have inte-
grated traditional media and social media in various
public relations programs and campaigns (all chapters)
• The use of Search Engine Optimization (SEO) in the
writing and formatting of news releases (Chapter 5)
• The increased use and popularity of infographics to
convey a variety of information that is easily digestible
to the public (Chapter 8)
• How to measure the effectiveness of social media cam-
paigns (Chapter 19)
• The considerations for designing an attractive and in-
teractive website (Chapter 10)
• How to prepare and tailor content for distribution in
earned, owned, and paid media (all chapters)
• The concept of brand journalism and content marketing
as a trend in public relations and marketing (Chapter 7)
xi
xii Preface
• The components and structure of a multimedia news
release and the effectiveness of adding visuals to any
news release (Chapters 5, 8)
• The elements of a good online newsletter and how to
produce a brochure (Chapter 12)
REVEL™
Educational technology designed for the way today’s stu-
dents read, think, and learn
When students are engaged deeply, they learn more
effectively and perform better in their courses. This simple
fact inspired the creation of REVEL: an immersive learn-
ing experience designed for the way today’s students read,
think, and learn. Built in collaboration with educators and
students nationwide, REVEL is the newest, fully digital
way to deliver respected Pearson content.
REVEL enlivens course content with media interac-
tives and assessments — integrated directly within the au-
thors’ narrative — that provide opportunities for students
to read about and practice course material in tandem. This
immersive educational technology boosts student engage-
ment, which leads to better understanding of concepts and
improved performance throughout the course.
Learn more about REVEL
How-To Checklists for the
Aspiring Writer
This edition has almost 100 Tips for Success features that
offer students checklists on how to prepare various mate-
rials and conduct basic media relations techniques. Such
checklists provide step-by-step directions and help read-
ers grasp basic concepts that are discussed and elaborated
upon in the chapter. The following are a sampling of new
and revised Tips for Success, including many that relate to
social media, which are part of the new edition:
• Websites for Public Relations Organizations (Chapter 1)
• Useful Websites for Public Relations Writers (Chapter 1)
• Celebrate! It’s National Footwear Care Month (Chap-
ter 3)
• The Process of Creating Ideas for a Client (Chapter 3)
• How to Make Journalists and Bloggers Happy (Chap-
ter 4)
• A Media Relations Checklist (Chapter 4)
• The Six Elements of a Pitch (Chapter 6)
• Two Services Match Reporter Queries with PR Sources
(Chapter 6)
• Maximizing Your Feature Content (Chapter 7)
• Guidelines for Creating an Infographic (Chapter 8)
• Getting Your PSA on the Air (Chapter 9)
• Guidelines for Designing a Website (Chapter 10)
• How to Increase Website Visitors (Chapter 10)
• The 10 Commandments for Writing Web Content
(Chapter 10)
• How Visitors “Read” a Website (Chapter 10)
• The Components of an Online Newsroom (Chapter 10)
• The Perfect Blog Post by the Numbers (Chapter 10)
• How to Do a Podcast (Chapter 10)
• How to Post an Effective Message on Facebook
(Chapter 11)
• How to Improve Your Tweets (Chapter 11)
• How to Use Instagram in Your Organization (Chap-
ter 11)
• How to Increase Your Organization’s YouTube Views
(Chapter 11)
• How to Create Content for Pinterest (Chapter 11)
• How to Create and Promote an App (Chapter 11)
• Lessons in Good Intranet Design (Chapter 12)
• Story Ideas for Employee Periodicals (Chapter 12)
• How to Work with Graphic Designers (Chapter 12)
• How to Manage Your Email (Chapter 13)
• How to Write a Professional Email (Chapter 13)
• Wording a Speech (Chapter 14)
• Ways to Manage Speech Content (Chapter 14)
• Timing Your Speech (Chapter 14)
• Avoiding Bad PowerPoint Presentations (Chapter 14)
• Profile of an Event Planner (Chapter 15)
• Ten Tips for Tweeting @Conferences (Chapter 15)
• How to Do Media Relations at a Trade Show (Chap-
ter 15)
• Free Online Tools for Analyzing Your Social Media Suc-
cess (Chapter 19)
New PR Casebooks to Stimulate
Interest and Insight
Students can better grasp a concept if it is illustrated with a
practical example from the “real world.” The extensive use
of examples is a highlight of this text in two ways.
First, every concept throughout the book is followed
by a practical example. Second, a more in-depth summary
of a particular campaign is given in a “PR Casebook” that
helps students understand how the various techniques of
using earned, owned, and paid content complement each
other in a campaign. Some new cases include the following:
• The Ice Bucket Challenge Raises $100 Million (Chapter 3)
• The Wall Street Journal Previews a New Hotel (Chapter 4)

• Boston Marathon Bombing Makes Hospital a Crisis
Center (Chapter 4)
• Two Successful Pitches (Chapter 6)
• An Airport Food Operator Uses a B-Roll to Announce
a New Service (Chapter 9)
• Pitching the Airport Food Operator’s B-Roll (Chapter 9)
• A Video PSA Warns About the Use of Decorative
­Contact Lenses (Chapter 9)
• Coca-Cola Website Sets the Standard for Brand
­Journalism (Chapter 10)
• Seattle Police Blog About Marijuana (Chapter 10)
• An Oscar Selfie Generates Three Million Retweets
(Chapter 11)
• Social Media Fuels a Solar Decathlon (Chapter 11)
• The RFP Process with Caribou Coffee and Skinnygirl
Cocktails (Chapter 13)
• Festivals Celebrate Everything from Garlic to Beer
(Chapter 15)
• U.S. Census Bureau Targets Millennials (Chapter 16)
• Legal and Regulatory Bodies Continue to Define Social
Media Rules (Chapter 17)
• A Frito-Lay Campaign Meets Its Objectives (Chapter 19)
Quotes from Leading Professionals
New quotes from leading professionals are highlighted
throughout. These short, pithy statements give the essence
of a professional’s insights and wisdom on a particular
concept or technique. This approach is much more read-
able than the short narrative or Q&A with a professional
featured in some texts.
Organization of the Book
The text is written and organized so instructors can easily
mix and match chapters that suit their students’ needs. It’s
also adaptable for either a semester or quarter course and
can even be divided for two courses.
Chapter 1 reviews the basic concepts of good writing,
errors to avoid, and what resources are needed. Chapter 2
continues with the components of persuasive writing, pro-
vides a brief overview of major communication theories,
and ends with the ethical responsibilities of the public rela-
tions writer.
Chapter 3 helps students think strategically and cre-
atively about what makes news. Traditional journalistic
values are emphasized, but students are also told how
to brainstorm ideas to generate news through special
events, contests, and even stunts. Chapter 4 is about how
to work with journalists and bloggers to ensure effective
media relations. How to communicate during a crisis also
is covered.
Preface xiii
Chapter 5 thoroughly details the structure and for-
mat of the news release. Attention is given to writing
and formatting digital news releases, including multime-
dia releases, that are distributed via email, websites, and
electronic services. Chapter 6 continues the process by de-
tailing how to prepare fact sheets, media advisories, and
media kits. Particularly valuable is a detailed section on
how to “pitch” a story idea to a journalist or a blogger.
Chapter 7 focuses on the writing of feature stories,
such as personality profiles and product-application sto-
ries. The writing of opinion pieces, such as op-eds and let-
ters to the editor, are also discussed. Chapter 8 examines
the elements of good publicity photos and infographics,
which often make a story more attractive to editors. It
also offers suggestions on how to work with photogra-
phers, write photo captions, and use infographics to dis-
tribute information in a highly attractive visual format.
Chapter 9 is about preparing content for radio, television,
and online video. The mechanics of video news releases
(VNRs) and B-roll packages are explained, as well as how
to book guests on talk shows, conduct satellite media
tours, and create video stories for YouTube and organiza-
tional websites.
Chapter 10 is a detailed examination of how to orga-
nize and format content for websites, blogs, and podcasts.
The chapter ends with a detailed discussion about best
practices for organizing and posting content on an organi-
zation’s online newsroom. Chapter 11 is about effectively
using social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter,
YouTube, and Pinterest to post content that engages con-
sumers and builds brand loyalty. It ends with a discussion
of how today’s messages must be mobile-enabled to ac-
commodate the rising tide of smartphone users, and how
apps are now a major factor in the distribution of service-
oriented information.
Chapter 12 offers information on how to prepare
print and online newsletters, write and design a bro-
chure, and use employee intranets to distribute content.
The complex job of writing and organizing an organiza-
tion’s annual report is also discussed. Chapter 13 offers
students tips on email etiquette, how to write a business
letter, and how to respond to an organization’s Request
for Proposal (RFP) seeking the services of a public rela-
tions or consulting firm.
Chapter 14 is about how to write and give speeches
and presentations. Detailed guidelines for preparing
PowerPoint slides are provided. Chapter 15 is about plan-
ning meetings and events. Detailed steps are given for
organizing a banquet, planning a convention, setting up
a trade show, and selecting a celebrity for a promotional
event. Chapter 16 is about preparing direct mail pieces,
primarily for non-profit organizations, and the key ele-
ments of public relations advertising. Other media such as
billboards, transit panels, and event T-shirts are discussed.
xiv Preface
Chapter 17 provides a legal framework for preparing
materials. Attention is given to libel, privacy, copyright,
trademarks, and governmental regulatory agencies such
as the Federal Trade Commission (FTC). Attention is also
given to the legal or career-damaging consequences of
posting inappropriate information on organizational or
personal social media pages.
Chapter 18 presents the essential elements of a pub-
lic relations campaign, providing the information needed
to integrate various strategies and tactics into an effective
campaign. The steps for how to write a public relations
plan are given. Chapter 19 explores the various ways that
the success of a campaign can be measured. A key section
of the chapter discusses how social media effectiveness is
measured from the standpoint of reach, share of conver-
sation, audience engagement, and how much messages
are shared.
Available Instructor Resources
The following resources are available for instructors. These
can be downloaded at http://www.pearsonhighered.
com/irc. Login required.
• PowerPoint—provides a core template of the content
covered throughout the text. Can easily be added to
customize for your classroom.
• Instructor’s Manual—includes a description, in-class
discussion questions, and a research assignment for
each chapter.
• Test Bank—includes additional questions beyond the
REVEL in multiple choice and open-ended—short and
essay response—formats.
• MyTest—an electronic format of the Test Bank to cus-
tomize in-class tests or quizzes. Visit: http://www.
pearsonhighered.com/mytest.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank those who reviewed previous edi-
tions and made many suggestions that have been incor-
porated into this revision: Claire Badaracco, Marquette
University; Lora J. DeFore, Mississippi State University;
Donn Silvis, California State University, Dominguez Hills;
and Brenda J. Wrigley, Michigan State University. And a
special thanks to the many educators who provided input
for this and prior editions.
About the Authors
Dr. Wilcox is professor Dr. Reber is C. Richard
emeritus of public rela- Yarbrough Professor in
tions at San Jose State Uni- Crisis Communication
versity and former director Leadership at the Uni-
of the School of Journalism versity of Georgia, Grady
& Mass Communications. College of Journalism and
He is also the lead author Mass Communication.
of two other popular text- He teaches introduction
books, Public Relations to public relations, man-
Strategies and Tactics and agement, crisis commu-
THINK Public Relations. nication, and writing. On
He is an accredited the graduate level, Reber
Dennis L. Wilcox
(APR) member of the Bryan H. Reber teaches management,
Public Relations Society of America (PRSA) and is also in persuasion, campaign re-
the organization’s College of Fellows, recognizing his life- search, and public opinion.
long contributions to the profession. Wilcox is a former Reber ’s research focuses on public relations theory,
chair of the PRSA Educator’s Academy and the public rela- practice, pedagogy, and crisis and health communi-
tions division of the Association for Education in Journal- cation and has been published in the Journal of Public
ism & Mass Communications (AEJMC). Among his many Relations Research, Journalism and Mass Communication
awards is PRSA’s “Educator of the Year,” the Xifra-Heras Quarterly, Journal of Health Communication, Public Rela-
Award from the University of Girona (Spain), an award of tions Review, and Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic
excellence from the Public Relations Society of India, and Media, among others.
an honorary doctorate from the University of Bucharest for Reber regularly presents his research at national and
his many contributions to global public relations education international academic conferences. He is the co-author
and to advancing the profession. of Gaining Inf luence in Public Relations, Public Relations:
Wilcox is currently active in the International Public Strategies and Tactics, 11th ed., and THINK Public Rela-
Relations Association (IPRA) and is a member of the Ar- tions. Reber serves on the board of the Plank Center for
thur W. Page Society, an organization of senior public rela- Leadership in Public Relations and is a member of the
tions executives. He now travels extensively as a speaker Arthur W. Page Society. He worked for 15 years in public
and consultant in Europe, South America, and Asia. His relations at Bethel College, Kansas. He can be reached at
philosophy, to quote St. Augustine, is “The world is a reber@uga.edu.
book, and those who do not travel read only a page.” He
can be reached at dennis.wilcox@sjsu.edu.

xv
This page intentionally left blank
Chapter 1
Getting Organized for Writing
Learning Objectives
1.1 Recognize the public relations framework in 1.5 Express the different forms of research and
which writing plays a role how online resources can assist with public
relations writing tasks
1.2 Express the objectives, audiences, and the
channels used by the public relations writer 1.6 Illustrate the guidelines for public relations
writing
1.3 Describe some of the necessary tools that a
public relations writer needs access to 1.7 Analyze the common errors made by the PR
writer and ways to avoid them
1.4 Report how the professional writer can use
industry resources to keep up with
developments in the field

1.1: The Framework of 1.1.1: Writing Is Only One

Public Relations Writing
1.1 Recognize the public relations framework in
which writing plays a role
The focus of this course is on the most visible aspect of
public relations—the writing and distribution of messages
in a variety of formats to multiple media channels and
platforms. To the uninitiated, this activity is the sum and
substance of public relations. For them, PR stands for
“press release,” which has historically been the most com-
mon publicity technique. Because of this, it’s necessary to
first establish the framework in which public relations
writing takes place.
Component
It’s important to realize that the preparation and distribution
of messages is only one part of the public relations process.
Public relations work is actually composed of four core com-
ponents: research, planning, communication, and evaluation.
Public relations writing is part of the communication compo-
nent, which only occurs after research has been conducted
and extensive planning to formulate the goals and objectives
of a campaign has taken place. Planning also involves the
selection of audiences to be reached, the key messages to be
distributed, and the strategies that should be used to ensure
the overall success of the program or campaign.
It’s also important to know the difference between
strategies and tactics.

1
2 Chapter 1

1.1.2: Writers as Communication

Technicians
Public relations writers and media placement specialists are
responsible for implementing all of the tactics in a campaign
or program. They, by definition, fulfill a “technician” or “tacti-
cal” role. They are the “production” staff who write the news
releases, formulate the feature stories, produce videos for
online distribution, and contact the television show producer
to make a “pitch” for the company’s spokesperson to appear
as a guest to talk about the organization or the product.
It is important to note that a public relations writer usu-
ally prepares material for possible use in the news columns
of newspapers or on broadcast news and magazine pro-
grams. Such placement is called earned media because,
unlike advertising that is purchased, public relations materi-
als are only used if journalists and editors decide the infor-
mation is newsworthy.
The role of writer and technician is the standard entry-
level position in public relations, but some in the public rela-
tions field have been writers and media relations experts for
most of their careers. This is because most positions in public
relations at corporations or public relations firms are at the
technician or tactical level. A speechwriter or an editor of an
employee newsletter, for example, may be a skilled technician
by definition, but he or she is also a highly prized professional
who receives a good salary because of his or her expertise.
There is a distinction, however, between the duties per-
formed by a technician and those of a public relations man-
ager. Professor David Dozier of San Diego State University,
who has done considerable research on roles in public rela-
tions, says, “Managers make policy decisions and are held
accountable for public relations outcomes,” whereas “techni-
cians carry out the low-level mechanics of generating com-
munication products that implement policy decisions made
by others.”
This is not to say that professional practitioners don’t ful- As you can see, the total framework of public relations
fill both manager and technician roles. A professional may is much more than just “press releases.” Such materials are
primarily be a manager but also be deeply involved in pre- important, but they are only one highly visible manifesta-
paring a media kit or arranging a special event. By the same tion of the entire public relations process. With this frame-
token, a public relations writer in an organization with lim- work in mind, we begin our discussion about public
ited staffing may primarily be a technician but also be relations writing and media techniques.
involved in the planning of an entire campaign. The follow-
ing Tips for Success box outlines additional skills that a public
relations writer should possess. 1.2: The Public Relations
Writer
Tips for Success 1.2 Express the objectives, audiences, and the channels
used by the public relations writer
Writing Is One of Six Skills
The ability to write is one of the six essential skills for a success- Although the public relations writer and the journalist
ful career in public relations. Dennis L. Wilcox, Glen T. Cameron, share a number of common characteristics in their approach
and Bryan H. Reber summarize the essential skills in the 11th to writing, the public relations writer differs in objectives,
edition of their textbook, Public Relations Strategies & Tactics. audiences, and channels.

1.2.1: Objectives
A journalist is usually employed by a news organization to
gather, process, and synthesize information for the primary
purpose of providing news to the organization’s subscrib-
ers, viewers, or listeners. A hallmark of professional report-
ing is to present information in a fair and balanced manner.
The public relations writer, in contrast, is usually
employed by an organization that wants to communicate
with a variety of audiences, either through the news media or
through other channels of communication. These organiza-
tions may include corporations, government agencies, envi-
ronmental groups, labor unions, trade associations, or public
relations firms that provide information on behalf of clients.
The writer’s purpose is advocacy, not objectivity. The
goal is not only to accurately inform but also to persuade
and motivate. Edward M. Stanton, former chairman of the
Manning, Selvage & Lee public relations firm, once described
public relations activity in Public Relations Quarterly as
“working with clients on strategy and messages, and then
delivering these messages to target audiences in order to per-
suade them to do something that is beneficial to the client.”
“The use of fact and emotion in a story is critical—particu-
larly in public relations. In a world cluttered with messag-
es competing for audience time and attention, our mes-
sages and stories require both elements to be effective.”
— Kevin Dugan, founder of the Bad Pitch Blog
Professor Robert Heath, co-author of Rhetorical and
Critical Approaches to Public Relations, points out that the
role of advocate is a time-honored one. It goes back 2,000
years to Aristotle, who conceptualized the term rhetoric—
the ability to determine what needs to be said and how it
should be said to achieve desired outcomes. Heath writes
that rhetoric “entails the ability and obligation to demon-
strate to an audience facts and arguments available to
bring insight into an important issue.”
Hence, all public relations writing should begin with the
question, “How does this help the organization achieve its
objectives?” For example, “Does the news release contain the
Getting Organized for Writing 3
key messages about the product and how it can benefit cus-
tomers?” In the case of a newsletter for an organization, there
might be several objectives. Akron Children’s Hospital, for
example, started Inside Children as a way of reaching single-
family households with children and family incomes of
$30,000 or more within its 17-county service area. The objec-
tives of the newsletter, published three times a year, were:
1. To generate business by building awareness for vari-
ous departments and programs.
2. To recruit participants for various pediatric drug and
clinical trials.
3. To generate requests for more information from the
hospital’s referral telephone line and the website.
4. To distribute various parenting and child health mate-
rials to interested parents.
1.2.2: Audiences
The traditional journalist writes for one audience—readers,
listeners, or viewers of the medium for which he or she works.
Newspapers, magazines, radio, and television are usually
defined as “mass media,” because the audience is very broad
and its members have little in common. An extension of the
mass media, of course, is online news sites such as the Huff-
ington Post that also serve a broad spectrum of the public.
The public relations writer, however, may write for
numerous, specialized audiences—employees, community
leaders, customers, teenagers, seniors, women, various eth-
nic and racial groups, travelers, governmental regulatory
agencies, investors, farmers, and many others. Effective pub-
lic relations writing requires careful definition of the audi-
ence and its composition so that information can be tailored
to its interests and concerns. A public relations writer per-
forms research constantly to determine the audience’s needs,
concerns, and interests. Armed with this information, the
public relations writer can write a more persuasive message.
1.2.3: Channels
Journalists, by nature of their employment, primarily reach
their audiences through one channel: the medium that pub-
lishes, broadcasts, or posts their work on a news website.
The public relations writer, in contrast, is not restricted to
any one media platform but will use many channels and
media platforms to effectively reach well-defined audiences.
Indeed, today’s public relations writer sits at the junc-
tion of multiple media platforms that are broadly classified
as earned, owned, and paid media. Earned media are defined as
stories in the traditional mass media that are selected by
gatekeepers such as editors, broadcast producers, and
bloggers. The coverage may be based on a news release, a
news conference, or an event by an organization, but jour-
nalists and editors make the decision whether the informa-
tion is “newsworthy” and write or produce the actual
4 Chapter 1
story. Thus, this is considered “earned” media because the
organization receives publicity without paying for it.
Owned media, on the other hand, are media channels
owned by the organization. This may include the organiza-
tion’s website, its Facebook and YouTube page, newslet-
ters, brochures, pamphlets, direct mail, posters, email
distribution, podcasts, blogs, and even the organization’s
intranet for employees and vendors. Organizations,
through their public relations, corporate communications,
and marketing departments, not only “own” these chan-
nels but also control all content without the filter of tradi-
tional media gatekeepers.
Paid media are primarily ads in traditional media and
on such sites as Google and Facebook. Organizations pay
for space on these platforms to distribute their messages
about their products and services. Although public rela-
tions writers rarely get involved in producing ads, they
increasingly are involved in another form of paid media
under the rubric of “sponsorship.”
In this situation, public relations writers produce fea-
ture stories in a journalistic format that are then placed in
publications and online news sites after paying a fee to the
publisher. In many cases, the publication’s staff will actually
write the “sponsored” story. Online news sites such as the
Atlantic, Buzzfeed, and the Huffington Post now have a “spon-
sored” section that supplements their advertising revenue.
In most cases, a combination of earned, owned, and
paid media is selected to achieve maximum message pen-
etration and understanding. This important concept is
illustrated throughout this course by showing how public
relations professionals use multiple media platforms for a
single project or campaign.
WRITING PROMPT
There are several differences in how public relations writers and jour-
nalists do their jobs in terms of objectives, audiences, and channels.
What do you think is the major difference between a public relations
writer and a journalist?
The response entered here will appear in the
performance dashboard and can be viewed by
your instructor.
Submit
1.3: The Writer’s Basic
Tool Kit
1.3 Describe some of the necessary tools that a public
relations writer needs access to
It is essential for the public relations writer to have a work-
space that includes a computer and a printer, Internet
access, and a reference library.
1.3.1: Computer and Printer
Public relations professionals spend much of their working
day in front of a computer. One survey of independent
public relations practitioners, many of whom work from
home, found that they spend about 70 to 80 percent of their
day on the computer doing word processing, surfing the
Internet, and sending or responding to emails. A good
multifunctional printer is also a necessity because it allows
you to print out hard copies of your work for detailed edit-
ing, process photos on SD cards, scan documents, and even
send faxes.
A computer is your single most important piece of
equipment as a public relations writer. It enables you to
use sophisticated word processing software programs
such as Microsoft Office that permit maximum flexibility
to write, edit, format, insert artwork, and merge informa-
tion into a complete document. Other software packages
such as Adobe’s Creative Suite enable you to profession-
ally edit photos, create entire brochures, and edit video
that can then be posted to the Internet and other social
media sites.
The type of computer and printer you use depends on
your work environment. Public relations writers who are
in the same office on a daily basis often use a desktop PC or
Mac. Practitioners say there are three primary reasons for
using a desktop:
1. Computers and printers in an office are often net-
worked so it’s easier to share software and files and to
tap into the organization’s database, which often con-
tains proprietary information.
2. They are more cost effective in terms of having more
memory and hard disk space than laptops or tablets.
3. Large monitors and standard keyboards are better
suited for writing and editing.
Others, particularly students and professionals who
travel frequently, prefer laptops with standard-sized
keyboards because of their portability and flexibility. In

many cases, professionals have it both ways. They have
a laptop that serves as the CPU (central processing unit)
that can go on the road with them, but they also use the
laptop in the office, connecting it to a standard keyboard
and a larger monitor. Standard tablets that offer just vir-
tual keyboards, however, can’t fully replace a laptop or
desktop for most professionals. They are getting more
writer-friendly but are still unsatisfactory for writing
long documents and editing.
“Laptops still win for intensive work like creating long
documents, or doing anything that requires precision and
benefits from a physical keyboard. They also are more
compatible with printers and external disks.”
— Walter Mossberg, technology editor of The Wall
Street Journal
Figure 1.1
Today’s laptops remain the most versatile tool for public relations
writers because they are portable, have good memory and storage
capacity, good-sized monitors and keyboards, several USB ports,
Wi-Fi, and webcams.
Working professionals, recognizing the rapid pace at
which new computers and software products come to mar-
ket, recommend that you buy the most advanced computer
and collateral equipment you can possibly afford.
1.3.2: Dictionary
The most common reference book is an up-to-date diction-
ary, and many writers keep a paperback version handy for
a fast check instead of going online or bringing up a soft-
ware version. The best-known dictionary is Merriam-Web-
ster’s collegiate edition that is updated every year with
new words reflecting contemporary word usage and popu-
lar culture. In its 2014 edition, for example, new words
included selfie, hashtag, crowdfunding, paywall, big data, fan-
girl, fracking, baby bump, cap and trade, gamification, tweep,
spoiler alert, unfriend, digital divide, e-waste, and even catfish
(a person who sets up a false personal profile on a social
networking site for deceptive purposes). Merriam-Webster
also offers free use of its general dictionary online.
Getting Organized for Writing 5
Another popular choice is the Oxford Pocket Dictionary
and Thesaurus, which includes other references such as a
handy list of countries and their capital cities. Public rela-
tions writers and journalists also like Webster’s New College
Dictionary, the American Heritage Dictionary of the English
Language, and the Concise Oxford English Dictionary. Accord-
ing to Ragan.com, a publisher of public relations newslet-
ters, the first two “… not only define, but they also provide
an array of useful information: geographic and biographic
entries, abbreviations, a list of colleges and universities,
measurement conversion tables, foreign words and
phrases, forms of address, etc.” The National Geographic’s
Compact Atlas of the World is another handy reference book
that provides maps as well as the correct spelling of major
cities and geographical sites around the world
Some specialized online dictionaries include Wordnik,
which shows definitions from multiple sources so you can
see as many meanings as possible. The Free Dictionary also
offers an “Idioms and phrases” tool. Enter a word and you
get a list of common phrases in which the word appears. It’s
useful for writing headlines or developing a play on words.
A number of online resources can help you find the
perfect word. The Collins English Dictionary, for example, is
a free website that includes a thesaurus with more than 1
million synonyms and antonyms with quotations and
translations to other languages. Thsrs is a shorter online
thesaurus that allows you to enter long words and receive
shorter synonyms. As one writer notes, “It’s especially use-
ful if you want to simplify your writing or shorten a mes-
sage for Twitter.” WordHippo is unusual because it enables
you to search for words under categories such as “rhymes
with” and “sentences with,” “adverb for,” and “past tense
of.” Another good source, although only available in
paperback, is Synonym Finder by J. I. Rodale. It contains
more than a million synonyms.
1.3.3: Encyclopedia
The world’s largest and most popular general reference
source is Wikipedia, which is regularly among the top five
visited sites on the Internet with editions in 287 languages
and about 500 million visitors a month. The site has 18 mil-
lion articles, including 4.4 million articles in English.
“On any given day, 15% of all Internet users visit Wikipe-
dia, amounting to 495m readers a month.”
— The Economist, March 1, 2014
Wikipedia is unique in several ways. First, it is an
online encyclopedia that is free. Second, it is crowd-
sourced; thousands of volunteers post and edit entries. Tra-
ditionalists still express some concern about the accuracy
of information without the benefit of qualified experts cer-
tifying the entries, but Wikipedia has gained stature and
greater acceptance as a legitimate source in recent years. A
more traditional, authoritative reference is the Encyclopedia
6 Chapter 1

Britannica, which has been published for 245 years; full

access to the online version, however, requires an annual
subscription fee.
Some specialized websites are also encyclopedic in
nature. For example, a good source for facts on the world’s
nations—their history, people, economy, geography, and
communications—is the World Factbook compiled by the
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). The World Factbook
website also provides reference tabs that include maps,
flags of the world, a political map of the world, standard
time zones, and even comparative national statistics. There
are also several websites that focus on fact-checking news
coverage of current topics, which will be discussed shortly
along with other tools for research.

1.3.4: Stylebook
Stylebooks enable you, as a public relations writer, to prepare
materials in the writing style used by most publications.
They cover topics such as capitalization, abbreviations, punc-
tuation, titles, and general word usage. For example, there is
a trend to combine words that were once written separately
or hyphenated; hence, the proper style is now software, data-
base, lifestyle, teenager, spreadsheet, website, and nonprofit.
In terms of journalistic writing, the most widely used
stylebook by public relations writers and journalists is the
Associated Press Stylebook, available in print form or online.
“AP style” is the common standard for writing news
releases and other content distributed to traditional media
in the United States, such as weekly and daily newspapers.
The AP Stylebook is updated and revised on a periodic
basis to reflect changes in word usage and when it’s accepta-
ble, for example, to use “CA” or “California” in the body of a
news release or a news story. In 2014, the big change that cre-
ated some controversy was AP’s declaration that “over” was
now an acceptable alternative to “more than,” which had
been the standard for years. There’s even an AP Stylebook
Twitter feed (#APStyle) for instant updates. The following The New York Times Stylebook is also widely used. Writ-
are some recent AP style updates regarding the Internet: ers who cover business or prepare news releases about
business topics often use The Wall Street Journal Stylebook.
Organizations also develop their own stylebooks for
employee publications. You most likely will need to be
familiar with several kinds of stylebooks depending on
your writing assignment.

1.3.5: Media Database

A major activity of a public relations writer is contacting
journalists and sending news releases to the media. It is
therefore important to have lists of publications, names of
editors, and addresses readily available. Local directories
of media outlets are often available from the chamber of
commerce, the United Way, or other civic groups. Metro-
politan, state, or regional directories also exist.

Probably the most comprehensive online media data-
base is CisionPoint. It claims to offer 1.6 million media con-
tacts, outlets, and editorial calendar opportunities that are
updated 20,000 times on a daily basis. This includes detailed
information on (1) all U.S. and worldwide daily newspapers,
(2) trade and consumer magazines, (3) news services and
syndicates, (4) ethnic newspapers and magazines, (5) college
and university student newspapers, and (6) all U.S. and
Canadian radio and television stations that provide profiles
on news, talk, public affairs, and topical shows. In addition,
Cision lists more than 300,000 online news sites and blogs.
Cision’s online media database allows a public rela-
tions writer to build targeted media lists by beat, market,
demographics, media type, country, and audience. The
database of editorial calendars, for example, allows you to
find out when publications are planning special issues
around a holiday, a specific industry, annual product
roundups, or major trade shows. Another part of the media
database is profiles of editors, journalists, and bloggers.
This includes how to contact them, their particular inter-
ests, and how to approach them with a story idea. A Cision
video demonstrating how the database is used can be
found on CisionPoint’s training site.
Figure 1.2
Online media databases provide extensive information on how to
reach publications, broadcast outlets, Internet sites, and bloggers,
and even detailed profiles of journalists. This example, from Cision-
Point, gives details about the Chicago Tribune. Key editors are listed
with their phone numbers and email addresses. In addition, a user
can use tabs to get more information about bureaus, departments,
special sections, and related outlets.
Cision’s recent merger with Vocus, a competing firm,
and other acquisitions enable it to offer a wide range of pub-
lic relations services. Other Cision services include news
release distribution; media monitoring for tracking place-
ment of your news releases or other content, as well as track-
ing media clips generated by your news releases; and media
analysis to find out what publications, broadcast outlets,
and blogs were most effective for reaching your audience.
There are several other media directories. Burrelles-
Luce, for example, has a comprehensive online media
database that includes many of the same services as Cision.
Getting Organized for Writing 7
Its media database includes over 76,000 media outlets in
North America and 380,000 staff listings with their contact
preferences. Media Pro, published by Bulldog Reporter,
claims to have the names and profiles of 140,000 journalists
at 44,000 “top” newspapers, magazines, TV and radio sta-
tions, websites, blogs, and trade journals. It also offers sub-
scribers daily pitching tips, which are profiles of journalists
in terms of their interests, pet peeves, and how they want
to be contacted.
Subscriptions to the media databases just mentioned
can be expensive. The full range of Cision services can cost
up to $10,000 a month. Media Pro charges $1,700 annually
for its database. An alternative for freelance writers on a
budget, however, is Gebbie’s All-in-One Directory that is
available in paperback and online for about $175. It has
fewer bells and whistles than a giant such as Cision, but
Gebbie’s media base does include 1,400 dailies, 5,700 week-
lies, 6,800 FM and 4,000 AM radio stations, 1,400 TV sta-
tions, 2,700 magazines, and 168 Hispanic newspapers.
The major advantage of online media databases is that
they make it easier to build a media distribution list, print
labels, and even send news releases by email to selected
media, whether they’re trade journals in the plumbing
industry, talk radio stations in the top 100 markets, or even
all dailies in California.
1.3.6: Books on Writing
There’s any number of books on the art of writing, but sev-
eral titles are worth noting. The Elements of Style by William
Strunk and E.B. White is the classic grammar and style text
that was first published in 1920 and has been published in
numerous editions up to the present day. This somewhat
brief book has saved numerous writers from embarrass-
ment over the years. A more modern rendition of Elements
of Style is Spunk & Bite: A Writer’s Guide to Bold, Contempo-
rary Style by Arthur Plotnik. He updates many of Strunk
and White’s rules for writing with advice and a sense of
humor. Another good writer on style and grammar is
Diana Hacker, who has written a number of handbooks
that are readily available through Amazon.com.
Daphne Gray Grant, writing in an article for Ragan.
com, recommends several other books for your refer-
ence library:
• Sin & Syntax: How to Craft Wickedly Effective Prose by Con-
stance Hale, a former editor of Wired magazine. A good
resource on today’s grammar and writing with style.
• Weinberg on Writing: The Fieldstone Method by Gerald
Weinberg. He believes that writing is like building a
stone wall; you collect stones (stories) as you go through
life and save them for when you need them for building
(writing).
• The Procrastination Equation: How to Stop Putting Things Off
and Start Getting Stuff Done by Piers Steel. Written by a
8 Chapter 1
professor of human resources at the University of Cal-
gary, this book gives many useful tips for how to become
more productive and overcome “writer’s block.”
Some underlying principles for writing clear and effec-
tive prose are also discussed later in Writing Guidelines,
along with tips to help you steer clear of common mistakes.
WRITING PROMPT
Every public relations writer needs a “tool kit” in terms of equipment
and other resources. If you were setting up a home office to be a
freelance public relations writer and consultant, what “tools” would
you have in your office?
The response entered here will appear in the
performance dashboard and can be viewed by
your instructor.
Submit
1.4: Professional
Publications and Other
Resources
1.4 Report how the professional writer can use
industry resources to keep up with developments
in the field
Your basic tool kit should be supplemented with subscrip-
tions to professional periodicals and newsletters. It is
important for the professional writer to keep up with
developments in the field and to learn about new tech-
niques that can improve the writing, production, and dis-
tribution of public relations material.
1.4.1: Magazines and Journals
PRWeek is the most widely circulated and comprehensive
magazine about the public relations field. It covers the
entire public relations industry in terms of trends, current
issues, major campaigns, and commentary about the use of
various strategies and tactics. Other magazines include The
Public Relations Strategist and Public Relations Tactics, both
published by the Public Relations Society of America
(PRSA). Communication World, published by the Interna-
tional Association of Business Communicators (IABC), is
now only online.
Another magazine is the monthly O’Dwyer’s Communi-
cations & New Media. In addition to articles about trends
and issues in the field, this magazine also carries ads for
companies that specialize in services such as news release
distribution, media monitoring, photography, podcasts,
and video production.
The two major scholarly publications in the field are
Public Relations Review and the Journal of Public Relations
Research, which are published quarterly. Both contain
articles, theories, and research studies by academics. A
sampling of articles in a recent edition explored every-
thing from what stakeholders like on Facebook to the
state of investor relations in the United States. These two
journals are available by subscription, but students can
usually access them for free through online databases
such as Nexis-Lexis or Academic Search Premier at the uni-
versity library.
1.4.2: Newsletters and Blogs
There are a number of newsletters that cover the public
relations industry. Most are available online, but a few
such as Jack O’Dwyer’s Newsletter, Bulldog Reporter, PR
Reporter, and PR News are also available in print. Ragan
Communications publishes daily newsletters such as PR
Daily News Feeds and Ragan’s Daily Headlines. Media Post
Publications also has a number of newsletters dealing
with public relations and marketing. An example is Social
Media Marketing Daily. Another good newsletter, which is
free, is PRNewser published by Adweek. The Holmes Report
is also free and primarily covers international campaigns
in public relations and marketing communications.
Some of the online news sites and publications men-
tioned above require paid subscriptions or membership in
an organization, but a great deal of current information
about public relations practice is also available for free
through popular blogs such as PR Squared by Todd Defren,
Brian Solis’ blog, A Shel of My Former Self by Shel Holtz,
6AM by Richard Edelman, PRSAY by the Public Relations
Society of America (PRSA), and PR Insiders by PR News.
Major public relations firms such as Ketchum, Burson
Marsteller, and Ogilvy Worldwide also have blogs that
provide expert commentary and information, as do ven-
dors such as Business Wire and PRNewswire. You can
subscribe to many of these blogs by going to the organiza-
tion’s website.
If you’re looking for specific writing tips, Ann Wylie’s
Wylie Communications website has a number of articles in
her Writing Tips archive. In addition, there is Copyblogger

by Brian Clark, The Well-Fed Writer Blog by Peter Bower-
man, and Seth Godin’s Blog.
As with everything else on the Web, blogs come and
go, so it’s a good idea to check with some professionals in
the field about current newsletters and blogs focusing on
public relations and marketing communications. They
can also offer insight into what forums offer the most
information and value. Some examples of print and
online publications that cover the public relations indus-
try are shown below.
1.4.3: Discussion Groups
A cheap and efficient form of professional development is
available through joining a discussion group. A number
of such groups are on LinkedIn, such as Public Relations
Professionals, Public Relations and Communication Profes-
sionals, Social Media Marketing, and PR News Group. Mem-
bers solicit feedback from others on various questions
and, in many cases, post an article to be shared and dis-
cussed by the group. There are many LinkedIn groups on
almost every conceivable subject, so you should take time
to preview them and then sign-up for those that most
interest you. PRSA members can join the organization’s
LinkedIn discussion group, in addition to commenting on
its PRSAY blog.
A number of Twitter chats also enable public relations
writers to connect and communicate with other profession-
als in the field. One primarily for students is #PRStudChat;
it brings students, educators, and professionals together on
a monthly basis. Other recommended Twitter groups
include #Commschat, #PR20Chat, #SoloPR, #Journchat,
#MeasurePR, #IMCChat, #u30pro, and a monthly Hispanic
PR chat at #HPRChat.
Getting Organized for Writing 9
Tips for Success
Websites for Public Relations
Organizations
The websites of public relations organizations and research
centers can help you to stay informed about industry news and
developments, learn of training and career opportunities, and
network with other professionals in the field. Some organiza-
tions make their newsletters and blogs, case studies, event cal-
endars, and other online resources freely accessible to
nonmembers as well as members.
Here are some organizations worth looking into:
Arthur W. Page Society
 he Arthur W. Page Center at Pennsylvania State
T
University
PR Council
 lobal Alliance for Public Relations and Communication
G
Management
Institute for Public Relations (IPR)
International Association of Business Communicators
(IABC)
International Festivals and Events Association (IFEA)
International Public Relations Association (IPRA)
National Investor Relations Institute (NIRI)
 he Plank Center for Leadership in Public Relations at the
T
University of Alabama
Public Affairs Council
Public Relations Society of America (PRSA)
Public Relations Student Society of America (PRSSA)
 trategic Communication and Public Relations Center at
S
the University of Southern California Annenberg School
for Communication and Journalism
1.4.4: Current Events and Trends
Writing often starts with a creative idea and a good under-
standing of the world around you. Many public relations
employers screen job applicants by administering a current
events quiz to ascertain their awareness and understand-
ing of today’s news and controversial issues. Employers
require outstanding writing skills, but they are also look-
ing for a second dimension in a public relations writer:
knowing what to write about. A person who reads news-
papers and magazines on a regular basis often gets story
ideas for his or her client or employer.
Thus, aspiring public relations writers should make it
a habit to read the local daily and at least one daily with
national circulation. Online dailies include The Huffington
Post, The Daily Beast, and Politico. For those who like some-
what offbeat news, Digg is a good choice with five or six
short articles posted daily. Some examples are “Here’s
10 Chapter 1
Why the Student Loan Market is Completely Insane” and
“What America Thinks of the Minimum Wage.”
Print and online editions of the New York Times, The Wall
Street Journal, or even the Financial Times are good for in-
depth news analysis and commentary. Weekly news maga-
zines such as Time, Newsweek, and the Economist also provide
in-depth coverage of current issues. Nationally syndicated
public affairs programs on radio and television are also
good sources of current event knowledge and interpretative
analysis. National Public Radio (NPR), for example, has
extensive news and commentary throughout the day.
Many people get all their news and entertainment from
television. You should know what is being presented to the
public for several reasons. First, media coverage sets the agenda
for people’s thinking. Second, watching the national and local
news will show you what kinds of stories are used and how
they are handled. Other programs, especially talk shows, will
teach you what sorts of stories get on the air and indicate the
kind of audience that tends to watch such programs.
In sum, paying attention to current events and the
thoughts of opinion leaders pays several dividends. First, it
makes you a well-informed person, and hence more attrac-
tive to employers for public relations writing jobs. Second,
knowing the public’s concerns helps you construct more
salient messages for your target audience. Third, current
events and subjects of popular books often provide a “news
hook” for obtaining media acceptance of your material.
A company making security locks for computer files,
for example, was virtually ignored by the media until news
stories about hackers breaking into national security sys-
tems made national headlines. And publicists for food prod-
ucts have long recognized that information about the health
benefits of a product will attract more media attention.
WRITING PROMPT
There are multiple resources online that are useful for public relations
writers. As an aspiring public relations professional, what online
resources do you consider the most valuable to you?
The response entered here will appear in the
performance dashboard and can be viewed by
your instructor.
Submit
1.5: Research as a Prelude
to Writing
1.5 Express the different forms of research and how
online resources can assist with public relations
writing tasks
An essential first step to any public relations writing task is
gathering relevant information. The process is called
research, and it can take many forms.
In some cases, all the facts will be readily available
from a client or employer. All you need to do is pick up
some background materials, ask a few questions, and start
writing. More often than not, however, the information
you need to understand the subject thoroughly and write a
well-crafted piece requires some digging.
Let’s assume you are given the assignment of writing a
news release about a new product. One of your first con-
tacts, no doubt, will be the vice president of marketing,
who will give you the general details about the price and
availability of the product. In order to understand better
the benefits or capabilities of the product, however, you
may need to interview someone in the company’s research
and development (R&D) department who was responsible
for developing the product.
You may stop there in your inquiries, or you may
decide to do some research on the potential market for the
product and how you might position the product against
the competition. One way to do this is to research compet-
ing products on the market to determine why your prod-
uct is different or better. You may also want to contact some
experts in the field by email or telephone to get their assess-
ment. Their comments, if they give permission, could be
included in your news release as a form of endorsement for
the new product. On another level, you might talk with
some consumers to find out what would convince them to
try the product. Is it price, convenience, brand reputation,
or reliability?
Public relations writers are constantly looking up
information, whether for a news release or for background
on what kinds of issues and trends might affect a current
employer or prospective client. Fortunately, a virtual uni-
verse of information is available to you at the click of a
mouse. Thanks to the information revolution, three valu-
able resources are available: Internet search engines, fact-
checking websites, and electronic databases.
1.5.1: Search Engines
“Cheap, fast global communication, online commerce, the
ability to find answers to almost any question on the Web
using a search engine and the many wonders of the Inter-
net are all underpinned by the widespread availability of
inexpensive, powerful PCs.”
— The Economist
Search engines make it possible for you to simply type in a
keyword or two and click “Go.” Within a few seconds, the
computer screen shows all the links that the search engine
has found relating to the topic. The hard part is checking
out the promising links because the search engine may
have found several hundred possibilities.
Google is the most widely used online search engine.
It processes about 10 billion queries a month. The second

largest search engine is YouTube, which gets about 1 billion
visitors a month. Visitors not only view a lot of cat videos,
but they also use YouTube to find instructional videos on
everything from how to paint a house to how to install a
computer application and cook a turkey. Microsoft’s Bing
and Yahoo! each handle about 15 percent of Internet
searches. It’s worth noting that the fourth most used search
engine in the world is Baidu, which is based in Beijing. Its
use will continue to rise as China becomes even more Inter-
net connected.
In general, it is a good idea to use several search
engines because all of them have different strengths and
weaknesses. Peter Meyers, writing in The Wall Street Jour-
nal, assessed the most popular search engines. He thought
Google was best for news, images, and general Web
searches. He noted, “Google has the broadest range of solid
tools and did the best job of distinguishing between ad-
supported results and real ones.”
Yahoo!, according to Meyers, excels in its Yellow Pages
listings, particularly if you live in a major metropolitan
market. Microsoft’s Bing gets high ratings for its stem-
searching tool and its automatic searches for all variations
of a word. Yahoo! gets more good reviews for news
searches that also look for audio and visual video clips.
The most important part of your search for information
is choosing the right keywords. You should be as specific as
possible to make sure your search terms don’t produce
hundreds of listings. Nouns make the best keywords.
The Associated Press Stylebook gives these additional
tips for online searching.
The editors of the Associated Press Stylebook make a
final, cautionary point. They say, “Do not mistake the Web
for an encyclopedia, and the search engine for a table of
contents. The Web is a sprawling databank that’s about one
quarter wheat and three-quarters chaff. Any information
you find should be assessed with the same care that you
use for everything else.”
Getting Organized for Writing 11
At times, you may be able to find reliable online
information more efficiently by beginning with a spe-
cific website rather than a search engine. The Tips for
Success provides examples of websites that can be good
starting points.
Tips for Success
Useful Websites for Public Relations
Writers
Not everything can be found by just searching on Google.
Research is often more effective when using specific websites
that contain articles, research studies, and commentary by
experts in the field. Here’s a sampling of sites where you can
find detailed information:
General Information
infoplease: Online almanacs on various topics from business
to history and sports.
howstuffworks: Descriptions, articles, and photos that show
how devices and other things work.
ipl2: The Internet Public Library; a University of Michigan site
that gives links to all kinds of sources, from dictionaries to
writing guides to newspapers.
Subject-Specific
PollingReport.com: Compilation of findings from surveys
regarding trends in public opinion.
THOMAS: Site of the Library of Congress and the starting
point for legislative and congressional information.
bio.: Backgrounds on current and historical figures.
Acronym Finder: Definitions of acronyms, abbreviations, and
initials.
Salary.com: Salaries in all fields, including public relations.
Public Relations
Business Wire, PR Newswire, PRWeb: News releases by
company and industry.
The Museum of Public Relations: The (online) Museum of
Public Relations houses information on early pioneers in the
field.
1.5.2: Fact-Checking Websites
Although a dictionary and an encyclopedia such as Wikipe-
dia are part of your basic tool kit, you should also be aware
of other online sites that help public relations writers to
check their facts before writing a news release, a feature
story, and social media posts. For example, Journalist’s
Resource was named the Best Free Reference Website by the
12 Chapter 1
American Library Association. The site searches studies
and credible online sources and provides a summary of its
findings, including tips for media coverage. Just enter your
topic into the search bar or browse past studies to fact-check
your topic.
Other online resources are PolitiFact and Full Fact.
PolitiFact, a project of the Tampa Bay Times, focuses on
political news and statements from politicians. The site
also has a truth-o-meter that grades political rhetoric and
statements on a scale from true to false. Full Fact is an inde-
pendent fact-checking organization in England (UK) that
checks the reliability of data and numbers from published
articles. It monitors online news, newspapers, and social
media and provides free tools for users to check claims
reported by the media.
Guides to help you develop your fact-checking skills
are also available online. For example, the Data Journalism
Handbook is a good guide on how to collect, understand,
and present data that may include a lot of numbers.
1.5.3: Electronic Databases
The third valuable research tool, which is often more com-
prehensive than various websites, is electronic databases
that provide in-depth information and full texts of pub-
lished articles. Many of these databases, such as Lexis/Nexis
and Factiva, are available online for a subscription fee, and
many public relations firms and corporations subscribe to
their services. Another approach is to use your local city or
campus library that provides free access to multiple refer-
ence databases.
One popular database is Academic Search Premier,
which provides the full text for almost 5,000 publica-
tions, including more than 3,600 academic journals. It
is said to be the world’s largest multidisciplinary data-
base. The majority of full-text articles are available as
searchable PDFs. A similar database is ABI/Inform Com-
plete. A favorite of public relations writers is ProQuest
Newsstand, which contains the full text of U.S. and
international news sources in newspaper and periodi-
cal formats.
Advertising agencies, public relations firms, and
marketing departments regularly consult another elec-
tronic database, Simmons Study of Media and Markets. It
reports research data on lifestyles, media behavior, and
brand preferences of the American consumer by gender,
age, and household income. Other good sources of demo-
graphic information are the Census Bureau website and
Data.gov, the U.S. government’s collection of federal,
state, and local data.
In sum, if you need in-depth information about any
topic—from the biography of a business executive to mar-
ket conditions in Zambia—an electronic database is a
good source.
1.6: Writing Guidelines
1.6 Illustrate the guidelines for public relations
writing
The ability to write well is essential for work in public rela-
tions. Countless client surveys and interviews with public
relations employers confirm that good writing is at the top
of their list of expectations. J. Ronald Kelly, senior vice pres-
ident of Cohn & Wolfe public relations, makes the point:
The majority of our entry-level work requires good, basic
writing skills. I simply do not have the time to teach
grammar, spelling, punctuation, subject–verb agreement,
and use of active verbs, lead writing, inverted pyramid
style, etc. And as you know, time is money in an agency
setting. Therefore, I seek graduates who can contribute to
the bottom line from the first day. I need people who have
good mastery of basic writing skills.
1.6.1: Outlining the Purpose
Before beginning any writing assignment, take the time to
ask yourself some key questions. Public relations counse-
lors Kerry Tucker and Doris Derelian suggest six basic
questions:
1. What is the desired communication outcome? In
other words, what do you want your audience to do
or not do?
2. Who is your primary audience? Defining your audi-
ence in terms of age, gender, and educational level
helps set the framework of the message.
3. What are your primary audience’s needs, concerns,
and interests?
4. What is your message? Do you want to inform or
persuade?
5. What communication channel is most effective?
6. Who is your most believable spokesperson?
Answering these questions goes a long way toward
helping you determine the content and structure of your
message. Regarding questions 2 and 3, Julie Story Golds-
borough, president of a Kansas public relations firm, says,
“I try to delve into the minds of the readers. What is the
main benefit to them? What do they want to know about
the subject?”
The next step is to outline question 4 more fully—what
is the message? Usually, an outline includes major topics,
and minor topics within each major topic. One approach to
outlining is to list the major message points as major topics.
For example, you might have one to three key points that
you want to communicate in a news release or a feature
story. Under each of these headings, jot down a list of the
facts, statistics, and examples you will give to support the
major point.
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23rd September 1745. Petrie went into hiding after the ’45. As
he was not specially excluded from the Act of Indemnity of
1747, he was able to resume practice at the Aberdeen bar by
taking the oath of allegiance, which he did in April 1748.
(Littlejohn, Rec. Sheriff-Court of Aberdeen, iii. 116.)
[335] Alexander, 4th Lord Forbes of Pitsligo; b. 1678; suc.
1691; attainted 1746; hid in his own country of Buchan, and
was never captured; d. 1762.
[336] Boyne, a district in the north of Banffshire. The Enzie,
north-western Banffshire, with part of Morayshire between the
Spey and the Buckie Burn.
[337] William Moir of Lonmay, Lady Erroll’s factor, was
Stonywood’s brother. He acted as deputy-governor of
Aberdeen during the Jacobite occupation.
[338] Mary (Hay), Countess of Erroll in her own right, the
last of the Hays of Erroll. She married Alexander Falconer, but
left no issue. On her death in 1758, she was succeeded in the
Errol title by James (Boyd), Lord Boyd (son of the Earl of
Kilmarnock, executed in 1746), whose mother was the
daughter and sole heiress of Lady Erroll’s sister Margaret, wife
of the attainted Earl of Linlithgow and Callander. He assumed
the name of Hay.
[339] George (Gordon), 3rd earl; b. 1722; suc. his father
30th March 1745; d. 1801. His mother was Lady Anna Murray
(d. 1725), a sister of Lord George Murray; his stepmother,
Lady Anne Gordon, sister of Lord Lewis Gordon. The Duchess
of Gordon was his sister.
[340] James (Ogilvy), 5th earl; b. 1689; suc. 1730; d. 1764.
He had been imprisoned in 1715, on the outbreak of Mar’s
rising.
[341] John (Keith), 3rd earl; b. 1699; suc. 1718; d. 1772.
His wife was a d. of Erskine of Grange, Lord Mar’s brother. His
father, 2nd earl, was out in ’15.
[342] James (Forbes), 16th lord; b. 1689; suc. 1734; d.
1761. His first wife was sister of Lord Pitsligo; his second wife,
a sister of Sir Wm. Gordon of Park, both ardent Jacobite
leaders.
[343] Alexander (Fraser), 12th lord; b. c. 1684; suc. 1715;
d. 1748. ‘He was a supporter of the Hanoverian Government,
but took no active part in public affairs.’ (Scots Peerage, vii.
446.)
[344] See ante, p. 113, n. 3.
[345] Buchan, northern Aberdeenshire and part of eastern
Banffshire; Formartine, the district south of Buchan, between
the sea and the Don.
[346] The laird of Leys was then Sir Alexander Burnett, 4th
bart.; d. 1758.
[347] Rev. George Law, of Aberdeen; acted as chaplain to
Stonywood’s regiment; made prisoner at Culloden; tried at
Southwark in December, and acquitted. I am not aware of any
active part taken by Seaton. It is mentioned that the French
officers were made burghers of Aberdeen in December, and
that Seaton received a similar honour; also that in February his
lodging was ransacked and ‘some papers, mistically written for
five or six years back, found.’ (Spald. Club. Misc., i. 360 and
385.)
[348] Fourth son of Alexander, 2nd Duke of Gordon; b. c.
1724; lieutenant in the Navy, but joined Prince Charles at
Edinburgh. Was appointed by him Lord-Lieut. of Banff and
Aberdeen shires. Escaped after Culloden, and died at
Montreuil, 1754.
[349] At Fountainhall, East Lothian, twelve miles from
Edinburgh. The Duchess was Henrietta Mordaunt, daughter of
the celebrated Earl of Peterborough. On her husband’s death
in 1728, she brought up her numerous children as Protestants,
though her husband’s family was hereditarily Catholic. For this
she received, in 1735, a pension of £1000 a year, which it is
said she forfeited for entertaining Prince Charles to breakfast
on the roadside as he passed her gates. Her son, the 3rd
duke, took no active part in the ’45, but his influence was
against his brother and the Jacobites. He seems to have
remained in Gordon Castle down to March, but he left it on the
8th, ‘in the most secret manner he could,’ probably to avoid
meeting Prince Charles, who visited the castle a few days
later. The Duke then joined Cumberland in Aberdeen. (S.M.,
viii. 138.)
[350] William Baird (b. 1701; d. 1777) of Auchmeddan, in
the Aberdeenshire parish of Aberdour, on the borders of Banff,
the last of an ancient family, of which the baroneted families of
New Byth and Saughton are cadets. His wife was a sister of
the 1st Earl Fife, then Lord Braco. He was author of a
genealogical history of the Bairds (reprinted, London, 1870)
and another of the Duffs, which was privately printed in 1869.
[351] Charles Gordon of Blelack, near Aboyne, Deeside.
[352] A district of Aberdeenshire, south of Strathbogie and
south-west of Formartine, comprising the valleys of the Urie
and the Gadie.
[353] Lord John Drummond landed a force of about 800
men, composed of his own French regiments of Royal Scots
and a piquet of fifty men from each of the six Irish regiments in
the French service. They landed on 22nd November at
Montrose, Stonehaven, and Peterhead. Two of Drummond’s
transports were captured by English men-of-war; among the
prisoners so taken was Alexander Macdonell, ‘Young
Glengarry,’ Mr. Lang’s Pickle the Spy.
[354] These were Lord John Drummond, brother of the
titular Duke of Perth, and Lord Lewis Drummond. The latter
(1709-92), the lieut.-colonel of Lord John Drummond’s French
Royal Scots, was the second son of John (Drummond), 2nd
(but attainted) Earl of Melfort, whose father had been created
Duke of Melfort by James vii. while in exile in 1692, and Duke
of Melfort in the French peerage by Louis xiv. in 1701. Lord
Lewis lost a leg at Culloden. He died in Paris, 1792.
[355] These manifestoes are printed post, pp. 292, 293.
John Haliburton was an officer in the French service; he
arrived at Inverness with despatches two days before the
battle of Culloden. (Murray’s Mem., p. 433.) After Culloden he
assisted in the distribution of the money (of which Cluny’s
treasure was a part) landed by the French ships at
Lochnanuagh in May 1746. (Albemarle Papers, p. 338.)
[356] This highland dress for lowland men is detailed by
Lord Lewis Gordon to Stonywood as ‘plaid, short cloaths,
hose, and shoes.’ (Spald. Club Misc., 408.)
[357] John (Campbell), 4th Earl of Loudoun; b. 1705; suc.
1731; d. 1782. Raised a regiment of Highlanders in 1745
(disbanded 1748). Adjutant-general to Sir John Cope at
Prestonpans; sent to Inverness to command the troops in the
North, October 1745; commander-in-chief in America 1756,
but recalled the same year; general, and colonel 3rd (Scots)
Guards 1770.
[358] ‘Order of the Rt. Hon. the Ld. Lewis Gordon, lord-
lieutenant of the counties, and governor of the towns of
Aberdeen and Bamff.—Whereas I desired and ordered J. Moir
of Stonywood, to intimate to all the gentlemen and their doers,
within the said counties of Aberdeen and Bamff, to send into
the town of Aberdeen, a well-bodied man for each 100l. Scots,
their valued rent, sufficiently cloathed, and in consequence of
my order he wrote circular letters to all the heritors in the
above counties, desiring them to send in a man sufficiently
cloathed, &c. for each 100l. Scots of their valued rent; which
desire they have not complied with: Therefore I order and
command you, to take a sufficient party of my men, and go to
all the lands within the above counties, and require from the
heritors, factors, or tenants, as you shall think most proper, an
able-bodied man for his m—— K—— J——’s service, with
sufficient Highland cloaths, plaid and arms, for each 100l. of
their valued rent, or the sum of 5l. sterl. money for each of the
above men, to be paid to J. M. of Stonywood, or his order of
Aberdeen: and in case of refusal of the men or money, you are
forthwith to burn all the houses, corn and planting upon the
foresaid estates; and to begin with the heritor or factor residing
on the lands; and not to leave the said lands until the above
execution be done, unless they produce Stonywood’s lines,
shewing they have delivered him the men or the money. Given
at Aberdeen this 12th day of December, 1745.
Subscrib’d Lewis Gordon.’
[359] See ante, p. 103.
[360] Of Monymusk, 2nd bart.; b. 1696; d. 1778; M.P. for
Aberdeen.
[361] A brother of the laird of Castlehill, Inverness, in
whose house Prince Charles stayed in February 1746. He was
a captain in Lord John Drummond’s French regiment of Royal
Scots. After Culloden he was treated as a prisoner of war. By
1749 he had become lieut.-col. of the regiment. (L. in M., ii.
286.) The laird of Castlehill was Sheriff-depute of Inverness-
shire, and was not a Jacobite.
[362] Highland squatters. ‘Humly’ is the ordinary north-
country term for hornless cattle. Robert Jamieson in a note to
Letter xxii. in the 5th edition of Burt’s Letters from the North of
Scotland, published in 1818, says: ‘In the days of our
grandfathers the lower class of highlanders were, by their
lowland neighbours (in the north-east lowlands at least),
denominated humblies, from their wearing no covering on their
head but their hair, which at a more early period they probably
matted and felted.’
[363] Donald Ban MacCrimmon, of the celebrated race of
hereditary pipers to the chiefs of Macleod. This is the only
mention I can recall of this pleasant story of his relations with
his brother musicians. There is an exceedingly picturesque
account (perhaps more picturesque than authentic) of
MacCrimmon’s descent from a musician of Cremona, given in
the Celtic Review, ii. 76, 1906. Though MacCrimmon escaped
death at Inverurie, he was killed in the fiasco at Moy on 16th
February. (See ante, p. 108.)
When leaving Dunvegan for the anti-Jacobite campaign of
’45-’46, he had a presentiment that he would never return, and
composed the words and music of a celebrated lament, which
was translated or paraphrased by Sir Walter Scott:—

Farewell to each cliff on which breakers are foaming,

Farewell each dark glen in which red-deer are roaming,
Farewell, lonely Skye, to lake, mountain, and river,
Macleod may return, but MacCrimmon shall never.

The Banshee’s wild voice sings the death dirge before

me,
And the pall of the dead for a mantle hangs o’er me;
But my heart shall not fly, and my nerve shall not quiver,
Though devoted I go—to return again, never!

[364] Sir Alexander Bannerman, 3rd bart., of Elsick,

Kincardineshire (the Mearns). His mother was a Macdonald of
Sleat. He escaped to France; died in Paris 1747.
[365] This seems to be a mistake. Lord Ogilvie’s regiment
marched to the north through Ogilvie’s country from Perth, by
Cupar Angus, Cortachy, Clova, Glenmuick, Logie Colston, and
Tarland, to Keith. (Spalding Club Misc., i. 332.)
[366] ‘Kelly’s’ probably means John Roy Stewart’s
regiment, which was originally intended for the Earl of Kellie.
 [367] Now spelt Clatt. Rev. Patrick Reid; ord. 1723; d.
1759.
[368] John Baggot, a Franco-Irishman, commanded the
Prince’s Hussars (raised at Edinburgh), of which John Murray
of Broughton was titular colonel. By the French Ambassador
he is returned after Culloden as ‘blessé assez
considérablement mais sans danger de la vie.’ (Cottin, Un
Protégé de Bachaumont, p. 62.)
[369] Rev. William Taylor; ord. 1737; d. 1797, aged eighty-
nine.
[370] On 22nd Feb., three troops (about 130 men) of
Fitzjames’s regiment of horse landed at Aberdeen from France
but without horses. There was great difficulty in mounting the
men. Kilmarnock’s horse (sometimes called Strathallan’s, or
the Perthshire Squadron) were dismounted and the horses
given to the French cavalry, while the men were formed into
foot-guards. By this time, says Maxwell of Kirkconnell,
Pitsligo’s horse was dwindled away to nothing, and many of its
members had joined infantry corps. Two of Fitzjames’s
transports, the Bourbon and the Charité, with 359 of all ranks,
including the Comte de Fitzjames, were captured by English
cruisers.
[371] On 21st Feb. a picquet of 42 men of Berwick’s
(French) regiment landed at Peterhead.
[372] I can trace no record of this landing. It may refer to
Berwick’s picquets (see p. 151), or it may be a mistake.
[373] William Henry (Ker) (1710-75), afterwards 4th
Marquess of Lothian; captain 1st Guards (Grenadiers) 1741;
aide-de-camp to Cumberland at Fontenoy; lieut.-colonel in
Lord Mark Ker’s Dragoons (11th Hussars) 1745; commanded
the cavalry of the left wing at Culloden. His brother, Lord
Robert Ker, a captain in Barrel’s regiment, was killed in the
battle.
[374] Humphrey Bland (1686-1763), author of A Treatise
on Discipline. At this time he was a major-general and colonel
of the dragoon regiment now the 3rd Hussars. He was
governor of Edinburgh Castle from 1752 till his death. He
became Commander-in-Chief in Scotland in 1753.
 [375] Probably a mistake for lieut.-colonel (the command is
too great for a subaltern’s), and evidently means Robert Rich
(1714-85), son of Field-Marshal Sir Robert Rich, whom he
succeeded as 5th bart. in 1768. Rich was at this time lieut.-
colonel of Barrel’s regiment the 4th (now the K. O. Royal
Lancaster regiment). At Culloden Rich was badly wounded
and lost his hand.
[376] See post, p. 307.
[377] Probably means ‘light-footed laddies.’ Cf. Oxford
Dict., s.v. ‘leger.’
[378] Robert Hunter of Burnside, Monifieth, was captain in
the Prince’s Life-Guards, and was very active throughout the
campaign. He escaped to Bergen in Norway after Culloden,
and for a time was held prisoner there, but apparently soon
released, for in October he is on French King’s pension list for
1800 livres as a ‘gentilhomme eccossois arrivé depuis peu en
France.’
[379] This took place on 17th March. The officer
commanding the Jacobite party was Major Nicolas Glascoe, a
lieutenant in Dillon’s Irish-French regiment. He acted as major
and military instructor to the 2nd battalion of Lord Ogilvie’s
regiment. He was made prisoner after Culloden, and tried at
London in November, but pleading that he was born in France
and held a French commission, he was released as a rebel,
the irons were knocked off his legs, and he was treated as a
prisoner of war.
[380] The husbands of these ladies were all in the Jacobite
army.
[381] Cullen House was the home of Lord Findlater.
[382] William Thornton, of Thornville, near Knaresborough,
raised and equipped a company, known as the ‘Yorkshire
Blues,’ at his own expense in October 1745. He joined Wade’s
army at Newcastle, and his company was attached to
Pulteney’s regiment (13th, now Prince Albert’s Own
Somersetshire Light Infantry), which was below strength. His
henchman and servant was John Metcalf, better known as
‘Blind Jack of Knaresborough,’ afterwards celebrated as a civil
engineer and maker of roads, but at this time a horse-coper
and itinerant musician. At Falkirk the company served as
escort to the artillery which covered itself with disgrace. Blind
Jack fought at the battle in which his master and Lieutenant
Crofts were taken prisoners. After the battle Blind Jack
retreated to Edinburgh along with the remains of the company,
now reduced to forty-eight from an original strength of sixty-
four. In a quaint little book, The Life of John Metcalf (3rd
edition, Leeds, 1802), there is a long and graphic account of
how this blind man succeeded in rescuing his master. Donning
a ‘plaid waist-coat,’ the Jacobite uniform, he made his way
from Edinburgh to the battle field, where among the marauders
hunting for plunder he found the wife of Lord George Murray’s
cook, who gave him ‘a token’ for her husband. Giving out that
he wished to be employed as a musician to Prince Charles, he
made his way to Lord George Murray’s quarters at Falkirk,
where that General gave him a glass of wine, and he had a
conversation with several of the Jacobite leaders. Confined on
suspicion for some days, he was acquitted by a court-martial.
Finding his captain, he had him disguised as a Highlander and
managed to escape with him. How Crofts and Simson
escaped I do not know. The rev. ensign was Patrick Simson,
minister of Fala, near Dalkeith (b. 1713; ord. 1743; transferred
to Clunie, Dunkeld, 1759; d. 1771). How he joined Thornton’s
‘Blues’ I do not know; one would rather have expected to find
him in the Glasgow regiment (see post, p. 198). The original
ensign of the company had died at Newcastle, and Thornton
may have appointed Simson when in Edinburgh. Simson had
the reputation of being a sportsman, particularly an angler.
(Scott, Fasti.) The Dict. of Nat. Biog. says that Blind Jack
fought at Culloden, but it is not so stated in the life quoted
above, and if this passage is correct it precludes the
possibility. There is no mention in the Life of this incident at
Ellon, nor any account of the company leaving the army.
[383] Cumberland left Aberdeen on April 8th.
[384] Meaning ‘a verminous swarm of red-coats.’
[385] A very considerable list of houses burnt in Aberdeen
and Banff shires is given in the Lyon in Mourning, ii. 334, 335.
[386] ‘By the Earl of Ancrum, Aid de Camp to His Majesty,
and commanding the forces on the Eastern coast of North-
Britain. Whereas arms have been found in several houses,
contrary to his Royal Highness the Duke’s proclamation, this is
therefore to give notice, That where-ever arms of any kind are
found, that the house, and all houses belonging to the
proprietor or his tenants, shall be immediately burnt to ashes;
and that as some arms have been found under ground, that if
any shall be discovered for the future, the adjacent houses
and fields shall be immediately laid waste and destroyed.’
[Lord Loudoun’s orders]:—‘Whereas great part of the
King’s arms belonging to the regiment commanded by the Rt.
Hon. the Earl of Loudon, were taken away by the rebels in
Sutherland, and by them distributed to people of different parts
of the country; who, notwithstanding the many orders
published by his Royal Highness the Duke, still detain them in
their possession: These are to advertise such as do not deliver
them in to the storehouse at Inverness, or to the commanding
officer of any part of his Majesty’s forces who happens to be in
their neighbourhood, by the first day of August, that the
possessors where-ever they are found, whether civil or
military, and of what rank soever, shall be prosecuted with the
utmost rigour, as the law in that case directs.’
[387] This was an incident that occasioned fierce
indignation in Aberdeen. August 1st was the date of the
accession of the Hanoverian dynasty. Lord Ancram ordered
the bells to be rung and the houses to be illuminated. It had
not been the custom to illuminate, and the magistrates only
ordered the bells to be rung. The soldiers of Fleming’s
regiment (36th, now the Worcestershire), egged on by their
officers, broke the windows, stoned the inhabitants, and did
damage to the extent of £130, a large sum in those days to a
town of the size of Aberdeen. In spite of the pretensions of the
military authorities, who maintained that they were not liable to
the civil government, the magistrates arrested a Captain
Morgan and other officers, who were ringleaders in the riot.
Morgan had been very active in hunting fugitive Jacobites, and
his commanding officer, who calls Aberdeen ‘this infamous
town,’ attributes his arrest to this cause. Representations were
made to the Lord Justice-Clerk and to Lord Albemarle, the
Commander-in-chief in Scotland, who both took a serious view
of the case, the former writing to the latter that ‘the officers in
the army were trampling on those very laws that they so lately
defended at the expence of their blood.’ Ancram was rebuked
by Albemarle, and removed from Aberdeen; though the trouble
still smouldered it was temporarily patched up. (Alb. Pap., p.
27 seq.; Scots Mag., viii. 393.) Six months later the regiment
left Aberdeen, marching out (it is said) to the tune ‘We’ll gang
nae mair to yon toun.’ Cf. post, p. 189.
[388] Hugh (Abercromby-Sempill), fifth son of Anne,
Baroness Sempill, and Francis Abercromby of Fetterneir.
Succeeded his brother as 11th Lord Sempill 1727; served at
Malplaquet, 1709, as an ensign; succeeded Lord Crawford as
colonel of the Highland Regiment (Black Watch), 1741; colonel
of the 25th (K. O. Scottish Borderers) 1745; brigadier-general
1745; commanded the left wing at Culloden; superseded Lord
Ancram at Aberdeen 12th August, 1746; and died there 25th
November following.
[389] Should be 25th; Sunday 24th was spent at Kendal,
and Lancaster was reached the following day. (L. in M., ii. 120,
193.)
[390] I have little doubt that this name is a mistake for
Geohagan, an Irishman, captain in Lally’s regiment, to whom,
Lord Elcho states, the Prince gave a commission to raise an
English regiment. The officers of the army remonstrated, and
the commission was withdrawn. (Elcho, Affairs of Scotland, p.
327.) Geohagan was one of the French officers taken prisoner
at Carlisle.
[391] Not identified.
[392] David Morgan was a Welshman from Monmouthshire,
a barrister-at-law. He joined the Prince at Preston on 27th
November, along with William Vaughan and Francis Towneley,
all being from Wales. When at Derby it was determined to
return to Scotland Morgan refused to go, saying, ‘it were better
to be hanged in England than starved in Scotland’ (Tales of a
Grandfather). He left the army at Ashbourne, on 6th
December, to go to London to procure intelligence, with the
knowledge and consent of the Prince and of Sheridan
(Murray’s Memorials, 434). At his trial he pled that he had
escaped as soon as it was in his power, but this plea was
repelled. He was executed at Kennington Common on 30th
July, along with Towneley, and seven other English officers.
Morgan is thus described in the Compleat History of the Trials
of the Rebels (p. 170): ‘David Morgan was about 51 Years of
Age, born in Wales, and bred to the Law, and had frequently
(as a Barrister) attended the Courts at Westminster-Hall, and
elsewhere. He was a Person of a very mean Look, and seldom
kept Company with any Gentlemen of his Neighbourhood; and
if it had not been for his Estate, he might have starv’d, for he
was so very lofty, and of so bad a Temper, that no body but
such as were beholden to him cared to employ him. This
Morgan was possessed of a very good Estate in St. Leonard’s,
Shoreditch, but he let it all run to Ruin, because he would not
pay the Ground-Rent. The Rebels call’d Morgan the
Pretender’s Counsellor, and his Advice was consulted on
every Occasion. Even after he was condemn’d, he was
haughty and insolent beyond expression; and the very
Afternoon before his Execution, he grumbled to pay the Cook
who dress’d his Dinner, and said she was very extravagant in
her Demands. The Morning (about Six o’Clock) before he went
to Execution, he order’d Coffee to be made, and bid them take
Care to make it very good and strong, for he had never drank
any since he had been in that Prison fit to come near a
Gentleman; and because it was ready before he was unlock’d,
he seem’d angry, and in a great Passion.’
Morgan was the author of a rather dull satirical political
poem of 630 verses, entitled The Country Bard or the Modern
Courtiers, inscribed to H.R.H. the Prince of Wales, a quarto
originally printed in 1741, and republished in 1746 after his
execution. It is prefaced by a dedicatory letter to Sir Watkin
Williams Wynn, the Welsh Jacobite baronet. In his dying
declaration, handed to the sheriff on the scaffold, Morgan
writes that he is a member of the Church of England, and that
he has fully set forth his faith in a poem of two books entitled
The Christian Test or the Coalition of Faith and Reason, the
first of which he had already published, and the latter he
bequeathed to his daughter to be published by her. Morgan
seems to have had a certain notoriety as member of a
Jacobite club at Westminster, judging by a very coarse jeu
d’esprit bearing the title A Faithful Narrative of the wonderful
and surprising Appearance of Counsellor Morgan’s ghost at
the meeting ... giving a full and true Account of the Behaviour
of the Club on that occasion.... This folio, for it has that dignity,
is followed by another entitled An Appeal from the late David
Morgan, Esq., Barrister-at-Law ... against a late Scurrilous
Paper.... My copy of the second pamphlet bears the note in
contemporary handwriting ‘By one Fielding a concealer of the
Law,’ and it is possible it may be by Henry Fielding, who at this
time gave himself to ironical writing of this kind in the True
Patriot and the Jacobite’s Journal. Both pamphlets are full of
topical allusions and scarcely concealed names. Morgan was
also the subject of a brutally coarse print entitled ‘An Exact
Description of the Solemn Procession of Councellor Morgan’s
ghost to the Rump of the Westminster Independents.’
[393] The only elucidation of this I can suggest is from a
passage in the Appeal above mentioned in which Morgan’s
ghost is made to visit his friends, but ‘with neither a greyhound
upon his breast nor a writ in his hand,’ perhaps suggesting that
in life he was in the habit of carrying writs and being
accompanied by a greyhound.
[394] The colonel appointed was Francis Towneley, an
English Roman Catholic; b. 1709; fifth son of Charles
Towneley of Towneley Hall, Lancashire; went to France 1728,
and entered the French army; served at the siege of
Philipsbourg under the Duke of Berwick, but after the peace
following the War of the Polish Succession, returned to
England, and lived privately in Wales until 1745. The French
king sent him a colonel’s commission about the time of the
intended invasion of 1744. (See Towneley MSS., privately
printed.) He was given command of the Manchester regiment,
as told here; was left governor of the town of Carlisle when the
army retreated to Scotland in December; entirely opposed to
surrendering to Cumberland, flying into a passion with
Hamilton, the governor of the castle (see pp. 118, 193), and
declaring ‘that it was better to die by the sword than to fall into
the hands of those damned Hanovarians.’ (Evidence at Trial.)
At Hamilton’s trial evidence was given that he too desired to
hold out to the last, but was overruled by his officers. Towneley
was tried at Southwark in July 1746; pled that his French
commission entitled him to be treated as a prisoner of war, not
a rebel; but this was repelled as, being an Englishman born, it
was illegal to serve a sovereign at war with the British king;
executed on Kennington Common, July 30th, and Hamilton on
Nov. 15th.
[395] The Prince’s Life Guards: there were two troops, one
commanded by Lord Elcho, the other by Colonel Elphinstone,
afterwards Lord Balmerino.
[396] The army left Manchester on 1st December. The
quarrel which caused Lord George Murray’s resignation of his
commission as lieut.-gen. took place at Carlisle on 15th
November, when the command was given to the Duke of
Perth. Daniel cannot be correct in stating that Lord George
was not reinstated until the army was at Manchester; the
quarrel was made up before leaving Carlisle on November
20th, when Lord George led the van. Daniel, who did not join
the army until the 24th or 25th, is probably writing from hazy
recollection of what he had been told.
[397] Weir or Vere was the principal witness at the trials of
the officers taken prisoner at Carlisle.
[398] Jean Louis Ligonnier, generally termed Sir John
Ligonier, K.B., a naturalised French Protestant; b. at Castres,
France, 1680; emigrated to Dublin; fought under Marlborough
through most of his campaigns; major-general 1739; lieut.-
general 1743; commanded the infantry at Fontenoy;
commanded the army sent to Staffordshire to oppose the
Jacobites, until relieved by the Duke of Cumberland, 27th
November; commander-in-chief 1757; created Viscount
Ligonier 1757; Earl Ligonier 1766; field-marshal 1760; d. 1770.
He had a brother Francis, who succeeded Colonel Gardiner in
command of the Dragoon regiment, now 13th Hussars.
Francis Ligonier, though suffering from pleurisy, fought at
Falkirk, caught more cold, and died a few days later.
[399] 6th December 1745 (Black Friday).
[400] The journals of the day and most authorities estimate
the number at about 800. They consisted of Lord John
Drummond’s own French regiment, ‘the Royal Scots,’ and the
Irish picquets, or 50 men picked from each of the six Irish
regiments in the French service. Two of the transports were
taken on the voyage and 260 of all ranks made prisoner. On
the eve of Culloden, the French envoy reported to his
government that the numbers of French troops then were: Irish
Picquets reduced to a half but recruited by 148 prisoners and
deserters up to 260 men; Royal Scots about 350; detachment
of Berwick’s regiment (p. 151) 42; Fitzjames’s horse 131;
making a total of about 780. (Cottin, op. cit. p. 36.)
[401] See ante, p. 143.
[402] ‘Tuesday, 10th December.—They have ordered a
contribution of £5000 for the insolence of the mob, but with
much ado they have got it to one-half, to raise it by one
o’clock.’ (Journal of Elizabeth Byrom, Manchester, in 1745.)
 [403] Hon. Arthur Elphinstone; b. 1688; held captain’s
commission in Shannon’s foot (25th, now King’s Own Scottish
Borderers), which he resigned in 1716 to join Mar’s Jacobite
army; served in the French army; on a pardon being offered to
him he declined to accept it until he had received the
Chevalier’s consent, which was given; joined Prince Charles at
Edinburgh; received the command of the second troop of Life
Guards; on the death of his brother, 5th January 1746, he
succeeded as 6th Lord Balmerino and 5th Lord Coupar; the
army was then at Stirling. The day after Culloden he
surrendered to the Grants. Tried by the House of Lords and
condemned to death; beheaded, 18th August 1746.
[404] Col. James Alex. Grant or Grante, a member of the
staff of the French Royal Observatory. He landed at Montrose
in October along with the French envoy. He served as master
of ordnance to Prince Charles. He planned the siege of
Carlisle, which succeeded. He communicated a plan for the
siege of Stirling Castle, which was abandoned, as it exposed
the town to destruction, and the charge was given to another
French engineer, Mirabel de Gordon, who utterly failed. Grant
planned the siege of Fort Augustus, which succeeded. He then
planned the siege of Fort William, but was disabled at the
outset by a contusion from a spent cannon ball: Mirabel was
given charge of the siege, and again signally failed. Grant
prepared an elaborate map of the expedition, published in
French, English, and Italian editions, which are all described in
the Itinerary, pp. 104-107.
[405] The Yorkshire Hunters, a corps of volunteer cavalry,
which did not distinguish itself greatly. Its war-song, set to
music, will be found in the Gentleman’s Magazine, December
1745.
[406] Daniel probably means the Dutch troops, some of
which landed at Berwick and the Tyne in Sept. ’45. The
Hessians did not come over until Feb. ’46.
[407] See ante, p. 150.
[408] Should be Cluny Macpherson.
[409] This is the celebrated ‘Skirmish of Clifton,’ fought
18th December; described by Sir Walter Scott in Waverley,
chap. lix. and note. Both sides claimed the victory. The late
Chancellor Ferguson wrote an exhaustive monograph on the
subject (Kendal, 1889) showing that both were technically
right. The Jacobite rear-guard fought to protect the army’s
retreat to Carlisle, and entirely succeeded in their object;
Cumberland’s troops retained possession of the field, but were
too crippled to pursue. Daniel, I think, shows a certain animus
in entirely ignoring Lord George Murray, who directed this
action and fought it with great bravery and skill.
[410] At the surrender of Carlisle to Cumberland on 30th
December the following officers were captured:—
English, 20 officers and 1 chaplain—of these 9 officers and
the chaplain were executed;
Scots, 17 officers and 1 surgeon—of these 5 officers were
executed;
French, 3 officers, who were treated as prisoners of war.
In addition 93 English, 256 Scots, 5 French non-
commissioned officers and men were taken prisoner.
[411] This date is wrong; it should be 20th December, the
Prince’s birthday and the day he left Carlisle. The date is often
given as 31st December, which is the New Style equivalent.
Old Style was used in Great Britain until 1752.
[412] The Rev. John Bisset, one of the ministers of St.
Nicholas Church, Aberdeen, from 1728 to 1756. He was a
man of strong personality who spoke his mind, and was not
very popular with his brethren. Bisset kept a Diary during the
Rising of ’45, most of which is printed in the Spalding Club
Misc., vol. i. In that volume there is no reference to this
sermon, nor do I know when it was preached. It is referred to
in general terms by the late Mr. Watt in his County History of
Aberdeen and Banff, p. 303. The sermon was probably printed
or Daniel could not have quoted it, but Mr. P. J. Anderson, who
has kindly searched the Aberdeen University Library, cannot
find a copy. Bisset, though uncompromisingly inimical to the
Jacobites, declined an official meeting with the Duke of
Cumberland as a member of the Aberdeen Synod, but he
obtained a private interview as ‘he had reasons for being
alone.’ Bisset so deeply offended the duke that he refused
ever after to enter a Presbyterian church. (Henderson, Hist. of
the Rebellion, 5th ed., p. 307.)
 [413] This refers to the Prince’s army. The Prince himself
was never in Aberdeen.
[414] A party of Dumfries townsfolk had cut off a
detachment of the Jacobite army’s baggage during the
advance to England in November. As a reprisal Prince Charles
fined the town £2000. Only £1100 could be raised in the time
given, so he carried off the provost and another citizen as
security till the balance was paid. (Scots Mag., vii. 533, 581.)
[415] The army began to arrive on Christmas Day. Charles
himself entered on foot at the head of the clans on 26th
December. He remained in Glasgow until 3rd January.
[416] A very different story is told by Provost Cochrane of
Glasgow, who wrote: ‘Our very ladys had not the curiosity to
go near him, and declined going to a ball held by his chiefs.
Very few were at the windows when he made his appearance,
and such as were declared him not handsome. This no doubt
fretted.’ (Cochrane Correspondence, Maitland Club, p. 63.)
Probably both versions have a certain amount of truth, and the
situation must have been similar to that of an earlier royalist
leader when riding through Edinburgh:—

‘As he rode down the sanctified bends of the Bow,

Ilk carline was flyting and shaking her pow;
But the young plants of grace they looked couthie and
slee,
Thinking, luck to thy bonnet, thou Bonny Dundee!’

[417] The Prince’s Master of the Household says: ‘The

Prince dressed more elegantly when in Glasgow than he did in
any other place whatsomever.’ Lord Elcho says he was
‘dress’d in the French dress.’
[418] Mirabel de Gordon, a French engineer, who
completely failed at the siege of Stirling, as he afterwards did
at the siege of Fort William. Lord George Murray says of him
that he understood his business, but was so volatile he could
not be depended upon: Lord Macleod states that he was
always drunk.
[419] Brown was a French-Irishman, a captain in Lally’s
regiment, who came over with the French envoy in October.
He was left in Carlisle, but escaped at the surrender. After
Falkirk he was sent to France to carry the news of the victory
to Louis xv., who made him a colonel in the French army. He
returned to Scotland in March in the Hazard sloop, which was
driven ashore by four men-of-war at Tongue in Sutherland,
when the passengers and crew were captured by Lord Reay
and his militia.
[420] Probably William Maxwell of Carruchan,
Kirkcudbrightshire, who acted as chief engineer in the defence
of Carlisle against the Duke of Cumberland.
[421] See ante, pp. 173, 187. Whatever may have been
expected or mentioned verbally, Cumberland’s written
conditions were: ‘All the terms H.R.H. will or can grant to the
rebel garrison at Carlisle are that they shall not be put to the
sword, but be reserved for the king’s pleasure.’
[422] Lord George Murray was criticised at the time, even
by his friends, for being on foot fighting with his men instead of
being on horseback as a general watching the action and
controlling events. (Elcho, Affairs of Scotland, p. 376.)
Criticism was also extended to other generals and staff-
officers, particularly to O’Sullivan, who was never seen during
the action and was accused of cowardice.
[423] Sir Robert Munro of Foulis, 24th baron and 5th bart.;
b. 1684; suc. 1729; M.P. for Wick Burghs 1710-41. His mother
was an aunt of Duncan Forbes of Culloden. Entered the army
early, and was captain in the Royal Scots by 1705; served
under Marlborough in Flanders, where he made a lifelong
friendship with Colonel Gardiner (killed at Prestonpans); a
commissioner of the Forfeited Estates Commission 1716-40;
appointed lieut.-colonel and commandant of the new Highland
Regiment (Black Watch) when embodied 1740; fought at
Fontenoy; promoted in June 1745 to be colonel in the 37th
(now the Hampshire Regiment), which he commanded at
Falkirk.
Dr. Duncan Munro (b. 1687), Sir Robert’s brother, had been
a doctor in India but retired home in 1726. He accompanied
his brother from fraternal affection in the hope of being of use
to him, for the colonel was very corpulent.
For George of Culcairn, a third brother, who fell a victim in
’46, see ante, p. 103.
 [424] I am not aware of any ministers killed, though there
may have been some in the Glasgow and Paisley volunteer or
militia regiments, which suffered severely. In the Glasgow
regiment, commanded by the Earl of Home, was John Home,
afterwards celebrated as author of Douglas and of a History of
the Rebellion. He was lieutenant, and during the battle in
command of a company of Edinburgh volunteers. Home with
several other volunteers was taken prisoner and lodged in
Doune Castle. One of the prisoners was the Rev. John
Witherspoon (1723-94), then minister of Beith, near Paisley;
afterwards in 1768 president of Princeton College, New
Jersey, a leader in the American Revolution, and a very active
member of the first congress of the United States. Home gives
a graphic account of their escape in his history. Later in the
year Home became minister of Athelstaneford in East Lothian.
[425] Lockhart was a major in Cholmondeley’s regiment,
the 34th (now the Border Regiment). He was taken prisoner at
Falkirk and released on parole. After Culloden he especially
distinguished himself by extraordinary barbarity and the
perpetration of terrible cruelties on the hunted fugitives. For
instances refer to the Lyon in Mourning.
[426] Every man of common sense who has the least Idea
of Military Matters must well know that, where there is only a
small Body of Cavalry attached to an army of light Infantry, as
in this case, such Cavalry must be inevitably harrassed
because there are not many bodies of horse to relieve each
other. [Note in the Drummond Castle MS.]
[427] A village between Stirling and Bannockburn; spelt St.
Ninians, but locally pronounced St. Ringans.
[428] John Baggot, see ante, p. 150.
[429] See ante, p. 101.
[430] Gordon Castle.
[431] See ante, p. 151.
[432] This is a vague and incorrect report, probably the
camp rumour, of Lord George Murray’s doings at this time. By
a remarkable secret march from Inverness, he simultaneously
surprised, on 17th March, a large number of military posts
garrisoned by the Government militia in Perthshire, taking 300
prisoners. He then laid siege to Blair Castle, defended by Sir
Andrew Agnew, but his guns were too small to hurt the old
castle. He probably would have starved out the garrison, but
the advance of Cumberland’s army caused his recall to
Inverness.
[433] This being from an enemy is perhaps the most
flattering tribute to President Forbes’s achievement for his
Government.
[434] Cf. post, p. 364.
[435] See ante, p. 155.
[436] See ante, p. 157.
[437] Cumberland left Aberdeen on 8th April.
[438] Lady Catherine Gordon, daughter of the 2nd Earl of
Aberdeen.
[439] See post, p. 230.
[440] 15th April.
[441] This is a calumny founded on ignorance of what was
passing at a distance from the local situation of the writer—
Lord George was leading the van to the attack of the Enemy’s
Camp, which would have been surprised if the rear division
had not hung back, and retarded the advance of the van ’till it
was too late to storm. [Note in the Drummond Castle MS.]
[442] The fact was directly the Reverse—Lord George had
used every endeavour to induce the Prince to cross the River,
and occupy strong ground which Brigadier Stapleton[656] and
Colonel Kerr[657] had examined two days before at his
Lordships desire. [Note in the Drummond Castle MS.][658]
[443] Ruthven in Badenoch, on the east side of the Spey,
near Kingussie.
[444] Daniel is a little out in his recollection of time.
Culloden was fought on 16th April, while he left Scotland on
4th May (see p. 223), only eighteen days after the battle.
[445] This gold was 40,000 louis d’ors. Part of it, ‘Cluny’s
Treasure,’ was concealed in Loch Arkaig, and left there for
nine years under the care of Cluny Macpherson.
[446] The British ships were the Greyhound, the Baltimore,
and the Terror. (S. M., viii. 238.)
 [447] William Harrison, a native of Strathbogie, who, when
most of his brethren had been taken prisoner or driven from
their charges, went to the sheriff of Argyllshire, ‘told him frankly
that he was a Catholic priest, but had neither done nor meant
harm to anybody, and begged protection. The sheriff was well
pleased with his confidence, and gave him a paper signed by
himself requiring of everybody to allow him to go about his
lawful business unmolested. In consequence of this, Mr.
Harrison, in the summers of 1746 and 1747, visited almost all
the Catholics in the Highlands, administering the sacraments,
and exhorting the people to patience and perseverance in the
faith.’ (Bishop Geddes’s MS.)
[448] The ships left Lochnanuagh on May 4th. (L. in M., iii.
383; Scots Mag., viii. 239.)
[449] Son of Thomas Sheridan, a fellow of Trinity College,
Dublin, D.C.L. (Oxon.) and F.R.S., an Irish Protestant who
followed James ii. into exile and became his private secretary.
His wife (it is said) was a natural daughter of the king. The
son, Sir Thomas, who was a Catholic, was engaged in the ’15;
appointed tutor to Prince Charles 1724 or ’25, and created a
baronet ’26. Attended the Prince at the siege of Gaeta ’34. In
April ’44 after the abandonment of the French invasion the
Prince asked for him, and his father reluctantly sent Sheridan
to France, warning his son to be careful in his dealings with
him. Sheridan accompanied the Prince to Scotland and acted
as his private secretary throughout the campaign. On arrival in
France in ’46 he was summoned to Rome by the Chevalier;
accused of deserting the Prince but exhibited his written
orders to leave. He died at Rome a few months later, his death
being variously attributed to mortification at the Chevalier’s
reproaches, or to grief at the Prince’s disasters.
[450] He had accompanied the Marquis d’Eguilles to
Scotland as interpreter.
[451] John Hay of Restalrig, near Edinburgh, brother of
Thomas Hay, Lord Huntington, who married the sister of John
Murray of Broughton (see p. 49). He was an Edinburgh Writer
to the Signet, admitted 1726; Substitute-Keeper of the Signet
1725-41 and 1742-46; fiscal 1732-34; treasurer 1736-46. He
acted as treasurer to the Prince, and when Murray of
Broughton fell ill at Inverness in March he succeeded him as
Secretary. Lord George Murray attributed much of the disaster