59 CHAPTER 8 EOMETRIC DESIGN OF TRACK 8.1 Introduction A railway track laid along a straight line is said 10 be an ideal track. But, due to general topography of the terrain and some other factors, it becomes necessary to deviate the track alignment from its straight alignment Hence. a curve or a combination of curves is inserted between the straights Design Parameters. (1) Gradients (2) Grade compensation (3) Radius and degree of curve (4) Super elevation or cant (5) Safe speeds of trains (6) Curves: Horizontal and vertical (7) Widening of gauge on curves 8.2 Gradients The amount of slope in longitudinal direction in a railway track, is called a gradient or grade. When a track rises in the direction of movement of trains. if is Known as an up- dient or falling gradient 1s the one when the gradient or positive gradient whereas a down gi railway track looses elevation in the direction of the movement of trains. Gradients are measured by the following methods: (a) The number of units of rise or fallin 100 units of horizontal distance (1%, 2" 4, ete ) (b) The horizontal distance for one unit of rise or fall Chin SO, 1 in 100, ete).60 8.3 Classification of the Gradients (1) Ruling gradients (2) Momentum gradients (3) Pusher gradients (4) — Gradients in station yards Ruling gradient: Ruling gradient 1s the maximum gradient, which may be permitted on the section of the track Grade resistance: The extra amount of energy required by the locomotive to pull the train up the gradient, is called grade resistance. G Tya18 - eee _ts Figure 8.1 Grade Resistance Let 6 =slope of the track Ww train load ‘The component of the train load acting in opposite direction of motion Extra tractive power required “sin @ tan @ when U 1s very small) w BE AB W gradient or Grade resistance =W. , rate of grade W sin8 Wsin® » Wtan6 Example 8.1: A train weighing 500 tonnes is pulled up a gradient | in 200 by a locomotive Determine the grade resistance61 Solution Given Ww 500 tonnes, Grade + 1 in 200 ©. Grade resistance - W x grade Grade resistance = 2 5 tonnes Ans. 8.4 Grade Compensation Whenever a train is pulled along a curve, an additional tractive force is required, The ruling gradient is the maximum gradient on a particular section of the track. Ifa curve lines on a ruling gradient, the total resistance due to the gradient and curvature will exceed the tuling gradient. In order to avoid the total resistance beyond the permissible ruling gradient, the gradients are reduced on curves. This reduction in gradient, is known as grade compensation on the curves. The curve resistances are generally expressed as a percentage per degree ofa curve BG. track 0.04 % per degree M.G. track 0.03 0 per degree N.G. track 0.02 per degree Example 8.2: If the ruling gradtent is 1 in 250 on a particular section of BG. track and if'a curve of 4 degrees 1s situated on this ruling gradient, what should be the actual ruling gradient Solution As per Indian Railways recommendations, the grade compensation for B.G. tracks is 0.04 % per degree of curve ©.Grade compensation for 4 degree curve O04 x4 0.16% Ruling gradient is lin 250 250 x 100 = 0.4 %o«Required ruling gradient = Ruling gradicnt-grade compensation =0.40-0.16 = 0.24 %orl in417. Ans. Example 8.3: What would be the gradient for a B.G. track when the grade resistance together with curve resistance due to a curve of 3° should be equal to the resistance due to ruling gradient of 1 in 200? (R. = 0.0004 WD) Solution Let W = weight of the train 1 in x = required gradient Resistance due to | in x gradient Resistance due to ruling gradient | in 200 a 200 Resistance due to a curve of 3° = 0.0004 x 3 W From the given condition, the grade resistance + curve resistance = resistance due to ruling gradient 2 Ux. W + 0.0004 x 3W- 1200 W or Ux > 1200 0.0012 0.0050 0.0012 = 0.0038 x 10.0038 263.16 say 1 in 265 Required gradient lin 26S, Ans. Example 8.4: The ruling gradient on a particular section of M.G. track is I in 250. Ifa S- degree curve is situated on this gradient, determine the permissible gradient on the curveSolution Grade compensation on M.G. tracks ~ 0.03 % per degree Grade compensation = 0.03 x5=0.15% Gradient | in 250 = 0.40 % Permissible gradient allowed = 0.40-0.15 = 0.25% Le. 1in400 Ans. Example 8.5: While aligning a B.G. track with a ruling gradient of | in 250, a horizontal curve of radius 350 m is encountered. Find the compensated gradient at the curve Solution Degree of curve 1750/R * 1750/350 = 5 Ruling gradient in percentage = 1/250.x 100 = 0,40 Reduction in grade =5x0.04 = 0.20% Actual gradient on 5° curve = 0.40-0.20 = 0.20% i.e Compensated gradient =1in 500 Ans. Example 8.6: To what extent should a ruling gradient of 1 in 150 on a broad gauge line be downgraded to accommodate a 3 degree curve? Solution The grade compensation on B.. tack 1.04% degree «. The grade compensation for 3 degree curve ~ 0.04 x 3 = 0.12% Reduction in the ruling gradient 0.12% Ans. 8.5 Radius and Degree of a Curve ‘The main curved portion of a railway track is kept circular ie. the radius at every point of the curve is same. ‘The radius of a railway curve is sometimes represented by the degree of the curve64 Degree of a railway curve: The degree of a curve is defined as under: "The angle subtended at the centre of the curve by an arc of 100 ft. (30.5m) length is defined as a degree of the curve" OR The angle subtended at the centre of the curve by a chord of length 100 ft (30.5m) is defined as a degree of the curve Relationship between the radius and degree of a curve (a) Based on an arc of 30.5 m length (Figure 8.2) Let R= radius of the curve in metres D = degree of the curve Now, total circumference 2 *R makes 360° at the centre ne Dian, ar \ Figure 8.2 Degree of curve 30.5 mare makes an angle =D 5 = 360.30.5 © 2a _ 1747.52 R or De , rounding to R i.e. for 1° curve, the radius is 1750 metres. (b) Based on a chord of 30.5 m length (Figure 8.3) Let — R = radius of the curve65 D = degree of the curve By definition, the angle ACB is degree of the curve Figure 8.3 Construction: Draw a perpendicular bisector CT on the chord AB 2 Now.sin >= pina AC R where Dis in deg rees (sin® = 6, if Ois in radians) Example 8.7: Calculate the radius of a circular curve of a 1/2° curvature Solution If R = radius of the curve D © degree of the curve 178066 8.6 Relationship between Radius and Versine of a Curve The distance between the midpoint of the long chord and midpoint of the curve, is called the versine of the curve OR The maximum distance of the curve from the long chord, is called the versine of the curve. Figure 8.4 Let R= radius of the curve C= length of the long chord v= versine of the curve From the simple geometrics of a circle, MN (2MO-MN) = AN x NB or vQQR-v) = C/2x C2 or apv-y =f or , ignoring v_ being toosmallas compared to 2Rv C or = aR Substituting the values of R and C in metres, the versine value in centimetres is given by v= (100 C*y 8R67 vats R Example 8.8: A curve of 6 degrees is to be laid with the help of rails of 12.8 m length, Determine the rise of rail at the centre. Solution C=12.8m in centimetres 3x6 or Rise of rail at centre = 7.02 cm. Ans. 8.7. Super Elevation When a vehicle negotiates a curve, it is subjected to a constant radial acceleration which produces centrifugal force acting horizontally at the centre of gravity of the vehicle, radially away from the centre of the curve, In order to counteract this force, the outer rail of the track is raised slightly higher than the inner rail. The difference in elevation between the outer rail and inner rail, is called super elevation or cant. 8.8 Derivation of the Formula for Superelevation Let W= weight of the moving vehicle v = velocity of the vehicle in metres per second P centrifugal force acting on the vehicle through its centre of gravity R = radius of the curve in metres @ = acceleration due to gravity in misec* G = gauge of he track in metres68 S = distance between the tops of rails & = angle of inclination € = super elevation in metres Now, the amount of centrifugal force Figure 8.5 Super Elevation Now, resolving the forces acting on the vehicle along inclined surface AB, we get P coso = W sina. (i) Substituting the values of P, cos o and sin « in eqn. (i) we get wy? If V_ velocity of the moving vehicle in kilometres per hour. then69 or Superelevation B.G. track, MG. track, N.G. track, 8.9 Weighted Average Speed By providing the super elevation slow moving trains do not get derailed due to excessive super elevation and the first moving trains negotiate the curve safely without any discomfort to the passengers. The super elevation provided on the basis of weighted average speed or equilibrium speed, is called equilibrium super elevation or equilibrium cant. Calculation of weighted average speed: The weighted average speed for any track, is calculated by the following formula Weighted average speed = n, where V, speed of n) trains Vy» > speed of n: trains V; speed of ns trams Vy. speed of n, trains70 8.10 Equilibrium Speed (a) If the maximum sanctioned speed of the secon on B.G. and M G tracks, 1s 50 kmph or more i.e, Vmax = 50 kmph (i) Average speed =% x Vmax, subject to a minimum of 50 kmph (ii) Average speed = safe speed of the curve The lesser of the two values is accepted for the section (b) If the maximum sanctioned speed of the section on B.G. and M.G. tracks, is 50 kmph or less ie, Vmax < S0kmph (i) Average speed = average sanctioned speed for the section (ii) Average speed = safe speed of the curve The lesser of the two values is accepted for the track section 8.11 Maximum Permissible Super Elevation and Cant Deficiency The maximum permissible super elevation on Indian Railways are as under B.G, track Metre Gauge Narrow Gauge 165 mm 102 mm 16 mm ‘As a general rule, the maximum permissible super elevation on India Railways 1s about one-tenth of the gauge 8.12 Cant Deficiency The cant deficiency may be defined as the difference between the cant necessary for the maximum permissible speed on a curve and the actual cant provided. Higher cant deficiency causes more unbalanced centrifugal force and discomforts to the passengers,71 8.13 Negative Super Elevation When a branch line diverges from a main line on a curve of contrary flexure, the super elevation necessary for the average speed of trains running over the main line, cannot be provided. The speed of the trains over the diverging track and main line track has to be teduced considerably. The reason for the reduction of speed is that, on the branch line track, the inner rail remains at higher level than the outer rail Figure. 8.6 Negative super elevation Let AH = outer rail of the main line BC = inner rail of the main line BF = outer rail of the branch line AE = inner rail of the branch line S, = super elevation on the main line S» = super elevation on the branch line. Considering the curvatures of the tracks, the following conditions should be satistied: (1) On the main line track, point A should be at higher level than B by an amount of S (2) On the branch line track, point B should be at higher level than A by an amount of S> (3) The point K in both the tracks should be at the same level jed simultaneously within one But, the contrary conditions (1) and (2) can not the ft layout. In such situation a small amount of cant deficiency is permitted and accordingly speeds on both the tracks are restricted, particularly on the branch line, The amount by which the actual super elevation falls short of the equilibrium super elevation, is called cant deficiency or deficiency in super elevation or negative super elevation.72 Calculation of restricted speeds on the main and branch lines: To obtain the restricted Speeds on the main line or branch line or on both lines, proceed as under: (1) Assume a suitable speed on the branch line and calculate the value of the equilibrium cant for the branch line using the formula GV aR Whereis in centimetres, (2) Deduct the permissible can deficiency for the gauge from the equilibrium cant obtained in step (1). (3) Obtain the negative cant on the branch line, which is equal to the difference of the equilibrium can and the permissible cant deficiency (4) Now, the maximum super elevation to be permitted on the main line cur s equal to the negative cant deficiency permitted on the branch line. (5) Obtain the restricted speed on the main line for the net super elevation ie. cant deficiency + maximum cant permitted, Example 8.9: Calculate the maximum speed of a train on a B.G. the track having a curvature of 5 degrees and cant of 80 mm Solution Assumption: cant deficiency on B.G. track = 7.60 cm, Equilibrium cant’ ~ Actual cant + cant deficiency 8.00 + 7.60 15 60cm Radius of the curve73 or Ans. Max. speed Example 8.10 The speeds of 40 trains which make a daily run on a curved main track, are as under: 16 trains at a speed of 50 kmph. 10 trains at a speed of 60 kmph. 8 trains at a speed of 70 kmph 4 trains at a speed of 80 kmph 2 trains at a speed of 100 kmph. Determine the weighted average-speed for the section of the track for calculating the value of super elevation. Also, determine the deviation from the maximum speed. Solution Weight average speed nV, + nVe tA Vy + nen. ent _ 16x50 +10 = 604 8*70 _ 800+ 600 + $60 7 40 Weighted average speed = 62 kmph74 Deviation from the maximum speed ~ maximum spe: = 100 - 62 ~ 38 kmph. - weight average speed Deviation =38kmph. Ans Example 8.11: If the degree of the curve of the main track in example 8.9 is 2, determine the equilibrium cant for the trains Solution Weighted average speed = 62 kmph. Radius of the curve =1750/2 = 875 m 2 rR _ 1,676 x62 x62 1.27875 or superelevation,e=5.8cm, Ans Example 8.12: A 5 degree curve diverges from a main curve of 4° in an opposite direction in the layout of a B.G. yard. If the speed on the branch line is restricted to 40 kmph, determine the speed restriction on the main track. Assume permissible cant deficiency as 7.5 cm. Solution Here, radius of branch line = Ss sim Equilibrium cant for a speed of 40 kmph _ GV?75 6x 40x 40 27 x 350 = 6.03cm, Permissible negative super elevation for the branch line = Equilibrium cant ~ permissible cant deficiency = 6.03 ~ 7.50 = -1.47em ie. outer rail of the branch line may be kept 1.47 cm lower than the outer rail of the main line. «Actual super elevation on main line to be restricted = 1.47. cm ~. Theoretical super elevation on the main line = Actual super elevation +permissibel cant deficiency = 147+ 7.50 =8.97 em -. Restricted speed on the main line may be obtained from the relation Gv" or speed on main line V+ 54.53 kmph. Ans. from a main curve of 4° in an opposite direction Example 8.13: A five degree curve divergs in the layout of a BG, yard. If the speed on the main curve is restricted to 54.53 kmph, determine the speed restriction on the branch line. Assume: permissible cant deficiency as 7.5 cm.76 Solution Radius of the main line curve 1750 =4375m . Equilibrium cant for a speed of 54.53 kmph. = 8.97¢m. Actual super elevation on the main line track = Equilibrium cant-cant deficiency = 8.97-7.50 = 1.47 em. *, Max negative cant on the branch line =-1.47em Now, theoretical super elevation on the branch line = Negative cant + cant deficiency =-1.47 + 7.50 = 6,03em Restricted speed on the branch line may be obtained from the equation GV 6.03 = say 1kmph, Ans. k diverges trom Example 8.14: What do you understand by cant deficiency, Ifa 8° curve main curve of 5° in an opposite direction in the layout of a B.G. yard, calculate the super elevation and the speed on branch line. if the maximum speed permitted on the main Tine is 45 kmph.7 Solution Here G = 1.676 m: V = 45kmph pa 1750, 5 Equilibrium cant on main line curve cv? pono 127R 1.676 x45 = 45x e= 1676x4 > 27.635 1.27 x 1750 Assume a permissible can deficiency on B.G. track = 7.6 em ©. Actual cant to be provided on main track = Equilibrium cant - deficiency =7.635-7.600=0.035 em Negative cant on branch line = -0.035 cm. Ans Theoretical cant on the branch line track = negative cant + cant deficiency = 0.035 47.600 = 7,565 em Let V be the restricted speed on the branch line Of Vinw on the branch fine 35.4 kmph say 35 kmph. Ans, 8.14 Horizontal Curves neither practicable nor feasible to lay straight railway tracks. Due In any country it is to general topography of the region, cultural features and other umvoidable conditions, the78 alignment of the railway tracks requires changes from the straights. Such changes in the directions are provided gradual and not at sharp corners. This necessitates the insertion of curves between straights 815 Classification of Horizontal Curves Horizontal curves are classified as under (1) Simple curves (2) Compound curves (3) Reverse curves (4) Transition curves. (1) Simple curves: The horizontal curve which consists of a single arc of a circle, is called a simple curve of simple circular curve. Simple circular curves are designated either by their degree or radius. They are inserted between two straights or between two transition curves (Figure 8.7) (2) Compound curves: The horizontal curve which consists of two or more ares of different circles with different radii, having different centres on the same side of the common tangent and bending in the same direction, is called a compound curve (Figure 8.8) (3) Reverse curves: The horizontal curve, which consists of two ares of different circles of same or different radii, bending in opposite directions with a common tangent at the junction, is called a reverse curve (Figure 8,9). (4) Transition curves: The horizontal curve of varying radii introduced between a straight and a circular curve, is called a transition curve (Figure 8. 10) A transition curves is also known as curve of easement. The radius of a transition curve varies from the infinity at its beginning to a definite minimum value at the junction of the circular curve. / : V ct Figure 8.7. A simple curve Figure 8.8 A compound curve79 Figure 8.9. A reverse curve Figure 8.10. A transition curve 8.16 Elements of a Curve (Figure 8.11) Figure 8.1 |. Elements ofa curve 1, Back tangent. The tangent T, [at T), the point of commencement of the curve, is called ‘back tangent Forward tangent, The tangent | T: at T2, the end point of the curve, is called ‘forward tangent’ Point of intersection. The point | where back tangent when produced forward and the forward tangent when produced backward intersect, is called the point of intersection 4. Angle of intersection. The angle between the back tangent | T; and the forward s called the angle of intersection of the curve tangent |80 5. Angle of deflection. The angle through which forward tangent deflected is called angle of deflection of the curve. It may be either to the right or to the left. [t is generally denoted by A 6. Point of commencement, The point T; where the curve originates from the back tangent, is called the point of commencement of the curve. It is also sometimes known as point of the curve. 7. Point of tangency. The point T; where the curve joins the forward tangent, is called point of tangency 8. Deflection angle to any point on the curve. The angle between the back tangent and the chord joining the point of commencement to that point on the curve, is called deflection angle of the point. In Figure 8.11 the deflection angle to the point A on the curve is IT; A which is generally denoted by 6. 9. Tangent distance. The distance between the point of intersection and point of commencement of the curve, or the distance between the point of intersection and point of tangency, is called the tangent distance. 10. Length of the curve. The total length of the curve from the point of commencement to the point of tangency, is called length of the curve. 11. Long chord. The chord joining the point of commencement and point of tangency, is called long chord. 12. Mid-ordinate. The ordinate joining the mid point of the curve and long chord, is called Mid-ordinate. 13. Normal chord. A chord between two successive regular pegs on the curve, is called a normal chord. 14. Sub-chord. When a chord is shorter than the normal chord, it is called a 'sub-chord ‘These sub-chord generally occur at the beginning and at the end of the curve 8.17 Calculation of Various Elements of a Curve Given Data. The following data is generally available (i) Chainage of the point of intersection (ii) Either the angle of intersection | or angle of deflection A (iii) The radius of the curve R.8 Derivations of the values of elements of curve 1 The length of back tangent = length of forward tangent =Rtan® 2 The length of curve _ RY 180 Chainage of the point commencement T; ~ Chainage of point of intersection - length of the back tangent Chainage of the point tangency T; = Chainage of the point of commencement + Length of the curve 8.18 Vertical Curves While crossing low ridges or valleys in rolling ground, the railway tracks are aligned on gradients iie., upgrade or down grade. An upgrade is generally followed by a down gradient and vice varsa. Sometimes two up gradients or two down gradients may also follow in quick succession. Curve in vertical plane, introduced to smoothen the vertical kink at the point of intersection of two gradients, is called a vertical curve. Length of the vertical curves: The length of a vertical curve is decided according to the algebraic different of the grades and also by the permissible rate of change of the grade. Let gi =up gradient 2 ~ down gradient r= rate of change of grade per chain >) chains 8. then a chains The Indian Railways have recommended the rate of change of grade for the main line tracks for max. speed as 0.01 % per 30 mon summits and 0.05 % per 30 m in sags.82 Design of vertical curves: For the design of vertical curves, the following steps may be followed: Let gi = up grade g = down grade r= rate of change of grade (1) Calculate the length of the vertical curve from the formula (-B fi 2 chains then (2) Calculate the rise or fall per chain length for the given grades ie e = 5x 30m where g. is up grade 5% 30m whereg isdown grade (3) Calculate the value of the constant K for the formula aC an where 2n is the length of the vertical curve (4) Chainage of Ty, the point of commencement of the vertical curve Chainage of point of intersection-half the length of the curve. (5) Chainage of T>, the point of tangency = Chainage of point of intersection + half the length of the curve (6) R.L of the point of commencement ‘Ty = RL. of point of intersection # gy’ 100 x L:2 Use (-ve) sign for summit curve and (+ ve) sign for valley curve: (7) RL of point of tangency Ts =R.L. of point of intersection + gy 100 x Li2 Use (-ve) sign for summit curve and (ve) sign for valley curve (8) R.L of the point eRL ort, +RLoflFigure 8,13, A valley curve (9) RL. of the point _RLof E+R.L.of C (10) (a) Maximum depth of cutting =RL. of C-R.L. of F (b) Maximum filling =R.L. of F-RL. of C (11) Calculate the tangent elevation of each peg as under Tangent elevation of nth point RL. of the point of commencement + ne (12) Calculate the tangent correction of the nth point as under Tangent correction of nth point kn? (13) Calculate the RL. of the nth point as under RL. of nth point - Tangent elevation of nth point + tangent correction. etc. calculate the R.L.. of the 1” points. (14) Substituting the value ofn 1.2. Example 8.15: Calculate the length of a vertical curve if an up gradient g\~ 1% is followed by a down-gradient g; ~0.5%. Assume the rate of change of grade for the section as 0.01% per 30 m chain84 Solution Given B17 1.0%: gs 0.5% r= 0.01% per 30 m chain Length of vertical curve pai 8) r _ 140.5 ~ 0.01 “Length of vertical curve =15 x 30 =450 m Ans. 8.19 Widening of Gauge on Curves Due to impounding action of the wheels on curves, the gauge of the track gets widened and the rails get tilted outward. To prevent the tendency of tilting the rail outward, the gauge of the track on curves is suitably widened. The amount of widening of gauge depends on the radius of the curve, gauge and rigid wheel base of the vehicles. The most common formula used for determination of extra width of gauge is where d= extra width of gauge in mm. B = rigid wheel base in metres R = radius of the curve in metres L = lap of the flange in metres = y(D +h) where D = diameter of wheel in mm h > depth of wheel flange below top of the rail Note. The following points may be noted (iy The extra width of @ should not exceed 25 mm for B.G. tracks and 16 mm for MG. tracks (ii) The general practice on Indian Railways is not to widen the gauge on curves less than 4s85 Example 8.16: The wheel base of vehicles moving on B.G. tracks is 610 cm where as the diameter of wheels is 1524 mm and the flanges project 32 mm below the top of rail. Determine the extra width of the gauge required by using the standard formula adopted on Indian Railways. Assume the radius of the curve as 240 m. Solution Q) Here B=6.10m mm Ans. Example 8.17: Determine the extent of gauge widening required for a broad gauge track on a 5° curve, given the following data B~ rigid wheel base 6 m D = diameter of wheel = 1.5 m h = depth of flange below rail top = 3.2.cm Solution Radius of the curve 17805 350m. B 6 m.D- LSm Lap of the Mange in metres aim, 486 _ (B+ Ly «125 _ (6 +0.443) x 125 350 350 = 14.825mm ~ Gauge widening= 15mm Ans d