Academic writing

Academic writing is writing which communicates ideas, information and

research to the wider academic community. Academic writing is expected
to adhere to the features of academic writing, which together distinguish
it from other forms of writing.

1. Features of academic writing

Structured
Academic writing should have a clear structure. The structure will often
derive from the genre of writing. For example, a report will have an
introduction (including the aim or aims), a method section, a discussion
section and so on, while an essay will have an introduction (including
a thesis statement), clear body paragraphs with topic sentences, and a
conclusion. The writing should be coherent, with logical progression
throughout, and cohesive, with the different parts of the writing clearly
connected. Careful planning before writing is essential to ensure that the
final product will be well structured, with a clear focus and logical
progression of ideas.

Evidenced
Opinions and arguments in academic writing should be supported by
evidence. Often the writing will be based on information from experts in
the field, and as such, it will be important to reference the information
appropriately, for example via the use of in-text citations and a reference
section.

Critical
Academic writing does more than just describe. As an academic writer,
you should not simply accept everything you read as fact. You need to
analyse and evaluate the information you are writing about, in other
words make judgements about it, before you decide whether and how to
integrate it into your own writing. This is known as critical writing. Critical
writing requires a great deal of research in order for the writer to develop
a deep enough understanding of the topic to be truly critical about it.

Precise
Academic writing should use clear and precise language to ensure the
reader understands the meaning. This includes the use of technical (i.e.
subject-specific) vocabulary, which should be used when it conveys the
meaning more precisely than a similar non-technical term. Sometimes
such technical vocabulary may need defining, though only if the term is
not commonly used by others in the same discipline and will therefore not
be readily understood by the reader.

Objective
Academic writing is objective. In other words, the emphasis is placed on
the arguments and information, rather than on the writer. As a result,
academic writing tends to use nouns and noun phrases more than verbs
and adverbs. It also tends to use more passive structures, rather than
active voice, for example The water was heated rather than I heated the
water.

Formal
Finally, academic writing is more formal than everyday writing. It tends
to use longer words and more complex sentences, while avoiding
contractions and colloquial or informal words or expressions that might be
common in spoken English. There are words and collocations which are
used in academic writing more frequently than in non-academic writing,
and researchers have developed lists of these words and phrases to help
students of academic English, such as the Academic Word List,
the Academic Vocabulary List, and the Academic Collocation List.

Balanced
Academic writing should be balanced. This means giving consideration to
all sides of the issue and avoiding bias. As noted above, all research,
evidence and arguments can be challenged, and it is important for the
academic writer to show their stance on a particular topic, in other words
how strong their claims are. This can be done using hedges, for example
phases such as the evidence suggests... or this could be caused by...,
or boosters, that is, phrases such as clearly or the research indicates.

Hedging: Using cautious language

Hedging, also called caution or cautious language or tentative
language or vague language, is a way of softening the language by
making the claims or conclusions less absolute. It is especially common in
the sciences, for example when giving a hypothesis or presenting results,
though it is also used in other disciplines to avoid presenting conclusions
or ideas as facts, and to distance the writer from the claims being made.

The following is a short extract from an authentic academic text, with

the hedging in blue (the full article is available
here: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.j5855).
Although duration of smoking is also important when considering risk, it is
highly correlated with age, which itself is a risk factor, so separating their
effects can be difficult; however, large studies tend to show a relation between
duration and risk. Because light smoking seems to have dramatic effects on
cardiovascular disease, shorter duration might also be associated with a higher
than expected risk.

Hedges can be contrasted with boosters (such as 'will' or 'definitely' or

'always'), which allow writers to express their certainty. These are less
commonly used in academic writing, though tend to be overused by
learners of academic English in place of more cautious language.

Introductory verbs
There are various introductory verbs which allow the writer to express
caution rather than certainty in their writing. The following is a list of
some of the most common ones. Some of these are linked to
cautious nouns, adverbs or adjectives, in which case these are also given.
 tend to ➞ tendency (n)
 assume ➞ assumption (n)
 indicate ➞ indication (n)
 estimate ➞ estimate (n)
 seem to ➞ seemingly (adv)
 appear to be ➞ apparently (adv)
 doubt ➞ doubtful (adj)
 believe
 suggest
 think

Modal verbs
Another way of being cautious is to use the modal verbs expressing
uncertainty, in place of stronger, more certain modals such
as will or would. The following are modals which express uncertainty.
 may
 might
 can
 could

Adverbs
There are many adverbs which can be used to express caution. Some of
these are associated with cautious adjectives or nouns, in which case
these are also given. The adverbs can be divided into two types: modal
adverbs, which are related to the possibility of something happening, and
adverbs of frequency, which give information on how often something
happens.
 probably ➞ probable (adj), probability (n)
 possibly ➞ possible (adj), possibility (n)
 seemingly ➞ seem to (v)
 apparently ➞ appear to be (v)
 arguably
 perhaps
 maybe
 presumably
 conceivably

Adjectives
The following adjectives can be used to express caution. Again, some of
these are associated with other word forms, in which case these are also
given.
 probable ➞ probably (adv), probability (n)
 possible ➞ possibly (adv), possibility (n)
 likely ➞ likelihood (n)
 doubtful ➞ doubt (v)
 unlikely
 uncertain

Nouns
The following nouns can be used to express caution. Some of these are
associated with other word forms, in which case these are also given.
 probability ➞ probably (adv), probable (adj)
 possibility ➞ possibly (adv), possible (adj)
 likelihood ➞ likely (adj)
 assumption ➞ assume (v)
 tendency ➞ tend to (v)
 indication ➞ indicate (v)
 estimate ➞ estimate (v)
 evidence
 trend
 claim

Other phrases
There are three other ways to express caution. The first is to use words
or phrases to show frequency, degree, quantity and time.
 sometimes
 often
 generally
 usually
 commonly
 frequently
 occasionally
 in general
 as a rule
 approximately
 roughly
 about
 reasonably
 somehow
 somewhat

The second way is to use introductory phrases, such as the following.

 It is generally agreed that
 In our opinion
 In our view
 It is our view that
 We feel that
 We believe that
 I believe that
 To our knowledge
 One would expect that

The final way is to use if clauses.

 if true
 if anything

Example passage
Below is an example passage. It is taken from the Limitations section of
an article in the BMJ (formerly British Medical Journal). It is used to give
examples of different types of hedging in an authentic academic text (use
the buttons to highlight different types of hedging). The full article,
published on 17 July 2019, is available
here: https://www.bmj.com/content/366/bmj.l4786.

This study has a few limitations. Firstly, we excluded 25% of the

households from analysis because of missing information on either
income or BMI. It is unlikely that such missing information is related to
price elasticity or purchase behaviour [...] however, it may have resulted
in some bias for the pooled values across groups. [...] Secondly, the
baseline daily energy purchase estimates are sample
average estimates that do not consider age or sex of the household
members who could have different energy requirements. [...] Thirdly, we
used a static model for weight loss based on changes in energy
consumption, which might not fully reflect actual mechanisms of weight
change. [...] Fourthly, the study does not reflect on the substitution of
nutrients alongside changes in energy. For example, reduction in energy
from high sugar snacks could lead to substitution of other foods that are
lower in energy content but perhaps higher in other nutrients of concern,
such as saturated fats or salt. The health impacts of such substitutes
should be further analysed and considered in the decision making process
around food price policies. Furthermore, the satiety index of sugary
snacks can vary greatly: some high sugar snacks could reduce
overeating at meals, hence the overall impact of reduced consumption of
high sugar snacks would be partly cancelled out by consumption of larger
portions during mealtimes. Studies of sugary drinks only would be prone
to this phenomenon, as the satiety effect of sugar sweetened beverages
is generally low.50 Fifthly, we assumed that all food purchased was
consumed, which is unlikely, and some food will inevitably be waste.
However, although the link between purchasing and consumption is far
from perfect, it is strong (eg,51), and our estimates on the effect of price
rises on change in energy purchased is likely to be similar to that on
consumption even if absolute values differ.

2. What is academic style in English?

Academic English, like any writing, has its own conventions or 'style'. It is
a formal, written style, which means that it has aspects which make it
different from 'spoken' academic English, and at the same time, being
'formal', it is quite different from ordinary writing which you might use in
letters, emails, or stories.

Ten rules for good academic writing in English are:

Rule 1
Use formal vocabulary, such as words from the academic wordlist (AWL),
and words for numbers up to ten. Avoid less formal or idiomatic
vocabulary.
✓ Many fathers nowadays...
✗ Many dads these days...

✓ Major urban centres, such as London and Beijing...

✗ Major urban centres, like London and Beijing...

✓ There are a significant number of people who believe...

✗ There are lots of people who believe...

✓ There are three main reasons for this.

✗ There are 3 main reasons for this.

Rule 2
Use formal verbs instead of two-word verbs.
 ✓ increase, decrease, discuss, improve, deteriorate, continue, raise
✗ go up, go down, talk about, get better, get worse, go on, bring up

Rule 3
Use the full form of verbs, not contractions.
✓ do not, cannot, will not, did not
✗ don't, can't, won't, didn't

Rule 4
Use formal grammar structures, such as nominalisation (noun
phrases) and clauses, rather than too many simple sentences.
✓ The increasing pollution of the environment is a global concern.
✗ The environment is increasingly polluted. This is a global concern.

✓ Note-taking, which is an important skill for EAP students, is difficult to

master.
✗ Note-taking is an important skill for EAP students. It is difficult to
master.

Rule 5
Use statements. Avoid rhetorical questions, which are less formal (though
these are common in spoken academic English,
i.e. lectures and presentations).
✓ There were four main reasons for the decline.
✗ What were the reasons for the decline?

✓ Written English is different from spoken English.

✗ How are written and spoken English different?

Rule 6
Use impersonal language, such as 'There is...', 'It is...', or passive voice.
Avoid personal pronouns (I, we, you, etc.) and adverbs which show your
feeling (e.g. luckily, remarkably, amazingly).
✓There are three main problems.
✗I can think of three main problems.

✓ In the experiment, the water was heated...

✗ In the experiment, I heated the water...

✓ There were very few errors in the experiment.

✗ Amazingly there were very few errors in the experiment.
Rule 7
Be as precise as possible. Use exact figures or values wherever possible,
rather than 'about' or 'several'. Use words such as 'factor', 'issue', 'topic',
'aspect' instead of vague words such as 'thing'.
✓ There are three main reasons for this.
✗ There are several reasons for this.

✓ The turning point was in the late 1980s.

✗ The turning point was about 30 years ago.

✓ There were three factors which led to this result.

✗ There were three things which led to this result.

Rule 8
Be sure to cite your sources. Avoid making vague claims.
✓ Russell (2001) states that over 50% of the population are unaware of
the problem.
✗ Everybody knows that most people are unaware of the problem.
✗ Most people are unaware of the problem.

Rule 9
Use hedging (i.e. tentative language), such as 'possibly', 'probably',
'may', 'might', 'appears to', and 'seems to' to qualify statements. Avoid
absolute statements and words such as 'always'.
✓ Education may reduce crime.
✓ It appears that education reduces crime.
✗ Education reduces crime.

✓ This is possibly caused by the effects of global warming.

✓ This may be caused by the effects of global warming.
✗ This is caused by the effects of global warming.

✓ ESL students often make mistakes with tenses.

✗ ESL students always make mistakes with tenses.

Rule 10
Use appropriate transition signals to make explicit (i.e. clear)
links between ideas and to introduce new sections of an essay. Avoid
numbering or bullet points (except in certain reports), and basic
transitions to begin sentences (e.g. 'And', 'But', 'So'). Also be careful not
to use too many transitions (not at the beginning of every sentence!).
✓ Turning to the question of inflation...
✗ 2. Inflation.

✓ In addition, inflation is an important factor.

✗ And inflation is an important factor.

Exercise
The text below has some style problems (shown in red colour).
What rule is being broken? How would you correct the problem?

Many students use poor academic style in their writing, like using I, we
and you. A simple way to improve this is to study good examples of
academic style and to follow them. Their writing score will go up as a
result. And it will be useful at university. Style is always a problem for
ESL students, who make lots of mistakes when they start to write
academic English, by using, for example, phrasal verbs instead of more
formal verbs. This is something that such students need to learn to
overcome if they wish to reach a higher grade. What other ways are there
for students to improve their style? One way is to ask the teacher for
advice. A considerable number of students don't listen to their teachers,
and therefore do not improve. This is a terrible situation. It is important
for students to remember that they are now adults, not kids. If they do
not follow teachers' advice, their writing style will not improve.
Example passage
Below is an example passage. It is taken from the Limitations section of
an article in the BMJ (formerly British Medical Journal). It is used to give
examples of different types of hedging in an authentic academic text (use
the buttons to highlight different types of hedging). The full article,
published on 17 July 2019, is available
here: https://www.bmj.com/content/366/bmj.l4786.

This study has a few limitations. Firstly, we excluded 25% of the

households from analysis because of missing information on either
income or BMI. It is unlikely that such missing information is related to
price elasticity or purchase behaviour [...] however, it may have resulted
in some bias for the pooled values across groups. [...] Secondly, the
baseline daily energy purchase estimates are sample
average estimates that do not consider age or sex of the household
members who could have different energy requirements. [...] Thirdly, we
used a static model for weight loss based on changes in energy
consumption, which might not fully reflect actual mechanisms of weight
change. [...] Fourthly, the study does not reflect on the substitution of
nutrients alongside changes in energy. For example, reduction in energy
from high sugar snacks could lead to substitution of other foods that are
lower in energy content but perhaps higher in other nutrients of concern,
such as saturated fats or salt. The health impacts of such substitutes
should be further analysed and considered in the decision making process
around food price policies. Furthermore, the satiety index of sugary
snacks can vary greatly: some high sugar snacks could reduce
overeating at meals, hence the overall impact of reduced consumption of
high sugar snacks would be partly cancelled out by consumption of larger
portions during mealtimes. Studies of sugary drinks only would be prone
to this phenomenon, as the satiety effect of sugar sweetened beverages
is generally low.50 Fifthly, we assumed that all food purchased was
consumed, which is unlikely, and some food will inevitably be waste.
However, although the link between purchasing and consumption is far
from perfect, it is strong (eg,51), and our estimates on the effect of price
rises on change in energy purchased is likely to be similar to that on
consumption even if absolute values differ.

Introductory verbs
Modal verbs
Adverbs
Adjectives
Nouns
Other
 Text Answer will
appear here
Many students use poor academic style in for example (Rule 1)
their writing, like using I, we and you. A
simple way to improve this is to study
good examples of academic style and to increase (Rule 2), In
follow them. Their writing score will go addition, (Rule 10)
up as a result. And it will be useful at often (Rule 9)
university. Style is always a problem for a considerable number of
ESL students, who make lots of mistakes (Rule 1)
when they start to write academic
English, by using, for example, phrasal a problem (Rule 7)
verbs instead of more formal verbs. This There are other ways in
is something that such students need to which students can
learn to overcome if they wish to reach a improve their style. (Rule
higher grade. What other ways are there 5)
for students to improve their style? One
way is to ask the teacher for advice. A do not (Rule 3)
considerable number of delete (Rule 6)
students don't listen to their teachers, children (Rule 1)
and therefore do not improve. This is a is unlikely to/may not
terrible situation. It is important for (Rule 9)
students to remember that they are now
adults, not kids. If they do not follow
teachers' advice, their writing style will
not improve.

301 Digital Workshop:

Academic Writing
https://xerte.shef.ac.uk/play.php?template_id=278#page1