Scribd Logo
Upload

Welcome to Scribd!

  • AMV 2022 Bartle The Elements of Real Analysis Second Edition Wiley 1976-1-1 1 PDF

    Uploaded by

    Tuti Hartati
    1 views494 pages

    Original Title

    AMV 2022 Bartle the Elements of Real Analysis Second Edition Wiley 1976-1-1 1 PDF

    Copyright

    © © All Rights Reserved

    Available Formats

    PDF or read online from Scribd

    Did you find this document useful?

    Is this content inappropriate?

    Report this Document

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    1 views494 pages

    AMV 2022 Bartle The Elements of Real Analysis Second Edition Wiley 1976-1-1 1 PDF

    Uploaded by

    Tuti Hartati

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    of 494
    The Elements of Real Analysis Second Edition Robert G. Bartle Professor of Mathematics University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign John Wiley & Sons., New York .- London - Sydney - Toronto Copyright © 1964, 1976 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Published simultaneously in Canada. No part of this book may be reproduced by any means, nor transmitted, nor translated into a machine language with- out the written permission of the publisher. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data: Bartle, Robert Gardner, 1927- The elements of real analysis. Bibliography: p. Includes index. 1. Mathematical analysis. II. Title. QA300.B29 1975 515'8 — 75-15979 Printed in the United States of America 10987654321 To my parents Preface At one time an undergraduate student of advanced mathematics was expected to develop technique in solving problems that involved consider- able computation; however, he was not expected to master “theoretical subtleties” such as uniform convergence or uniform continuity. He was required to be able to use the Implicit Function Theorem, but not to know its hypotheses. This situation has changed; it is now considered important that all advanced students of mathematics—future mathematicians, com- puter scientists, physicists, engineers, or economists—grasp the basic theoretical nature of the subject. They will then understand both the power and the limitation of the general theory more fully. This textbook developed from my experience in teaching real analysis at the University of Illinois since 1955. My audience often ranges from unusually well-prepared freshmen to graduate students. Most of them are usually not mathematics majors, but they have studied at least the equival- ent of three semesters of (nonrigorous) calculus, including partial deriva- tives, multiple integrals, line integrals, and infinite series. It is desirable for all of the students to have a semester of linear or modern algebra to prepare the way for this course in which analytic theorems are proved. However, since many of the students I encounter do not possess this background, I begin the study of analysis with a few algebraic proofs to start them on their way. In this edition, I introduce the algebraic and order properties of the real number system in Sections 4 and 5 in a simpler manner than was used in the first edition. In addition, I introduce the definitions of a vector space and a normed space in Section 8, since these notions occur so frequently in modern mathematics. I also shortened several sections to make the mater- ial more readily available and to provide additional flexibility in using this book as a text. I added many new exercises and projects but tried to keep the book at the same level of sophistication as the first edition. There have been only minor changes in the first part of the book. However, since experience has shown that the discussion of differentiation and integration in R? was too brief in the first edition, I assembled the theory of functions of one variable into a single chapter, and expanded considerably the treatment of functions of several variables. In Sections 1 to 3, I present the set-theoretic terminology and notation vii viii PREFACE, that is employed subsequently and introduce a few basic concepts. How- ever, these sections do not give a systematic presentation of set theory. (Such a presentation is not needed or desirable at this stage.) These sections should be examined briefly and consulted later if necessary. The text really starts with Section 4, and Section 6 introduces ‘“‘analysis.”” It is possible to cover Sections 4 to 12, 14 to 17, 20 to 24.1, and most of 27 to 31 in one semester. I would exercise the instructor’s prerogative and briefly introduce certain other topics (such as series) at the expense of soft-pedaling (or even omitting) various results that are not essential to the later material. Since the entire text provides a little more material than can usually be covered in one year at this level, the instructor probably will limit discussion of some sections. However, it will be useful to the student to have the additional material available for future reference. Most of the topics generally associated with courses in “advanced calculus” are dealt with here. The main exception is the subject line and surface integrals and Stokes’s Theorem; this topic is not discussed, since an intuitive treatment is properly a part of calculus, and a rigorous treatment requires a rather extensive discussion in order to be useful. Sections 4 to 10 L__, 14,15,16 1 2 20,21 25 7 3 poo 1 ! Bai ee) I | 77,28 28 34,35, 26 ! p— Lrceetestastestenteaeaaeae 4 \ i ! 29, 20, 31 26 | | le) [serrate Wye See ! | 1 1 san] [aw 2.3 3,38 42 [4s PREFACE, ix The logical dependence of the various sections of this textbook is indi- cated by the adjoining diagram. A solid line in this diagram indicates a dependence on the preceding section; a dotted line indicates a slight dependence. All definitions, theorems, corollaries, and lemmas, for in- stance, are numbered consecutively according to the section number. I assigned names to the more important theorems whenever a name seemed appropriate. The proofs are set off from the text by the head proor and end 0.E.D. It is not possible to over-emphasize the importance of the exercises and projects; only by applying serious and concerted efforts to their solution can one hope to master the material in this book. The projects develop a specific topic in a connected sequence of exercises; we believe they convey to the student at least a taste of the pleasure (and torment!) of doing research in mathematics. I hope that no student will fail to try his hand on several of these projects, for I believe that they are a particularly valuable feature of this book. In writing this book, I have drawn from my classroom experience and have been influenced by many sources. I benefited by discussions with students and colleagues and, since the publication of the first edition, I have had an extensive correspondence with students and teachers at other institutions. I thank everyone who has made comments and suggestions. Their interest in improving the book encouraged me to undertake this revision. Professors K. W. Anderson, W. G. Bade, and A. L. Peressini read the manuscript of the first edition and offered useful suggestions. I particularly thank my colleague, Professor B. C. Berndt, for his extensive and incisive comments and corrections. I am also grateful to Carolyn J. Bloemker for her patience and painstaking typing of the revised manus- cript under a variety of circumstances. Finally, I appreciate the assistance and cooperation of the Wiley staff. 23 June 1975 Robert G. Bartle Urbana-Champaign, Illinois Chapter Summaries Introduction: A Glimpse at Set Theory 1 1. The Algebra of Sets, 1 Equality of sets, intersection, union, Cartesian product VY. Functions, 11 Tabular representation, transformations, restrictions and exten- sions, composition, injective and inverse functions, surjective and bijective functions, direct and inverse images & Finite and Infinite Sets, 22 Finite, countable, and uncountable sets, the uncountability of R and} |. The Real Numbers 27 Uthe Algebraic Properties of R, 28 The field phoprties of R, irrationpliy of V2 5. The Order Properties of R, 32 Order propeffies, absolutd-yflue 6. The Completeness Property of R, Suprema and infima, Archimedean Property, the existence of V2 |/ Cuts, Intervals, and the Cantor Set, 45 The Cut Property, cells and intervals, Nested Property, the Cantor set, models for R ll. The Topology of Cartesian Spaces 52 U8? Vector and Cartesian Spaces, 52 Vector spaces, inner product spaces, normed spaces, the Schwarz Inequality, the Cartesian space R” pen and Closed Sets, 62 Open sets, closed sets, neighborhoods . The Nested Cells and Bolzano-Weierstrass Theorem, 68 Nested Cells Theorem, cluster points, Bolzano-Weierstrass Theorem Vo the Heine-Borel Theorem, 72 Compactness, the Heine-Borel Theorem, Cantor Intersection Theorem, Lebesgue Covering Theorem xi xii CHAPTER SUMMARIES. AZ. Connected Sets, 80 The connectedness of intervals in R, polygonally connected open sets are connected, connected sets in R are intervals UG. the Complex Number System, 86 Definition and elementary properties Ill. Convergence 90 4. Introduction to Sequences, 90 Convergence, uniqueness of the limit, examples LAS. Subsequences and Combinations, 98 Subsequences, algebraic combinations of sequences [A6. Two Criteria for Convergence, 104 Monotole Convergence Theorem, Bolzano-Weierstrass Theorem, Cauchy sequences, the Cauchy Criterion uh Sequences of Functions, 113 Convergence, uniform convergence, the uniform norm, Cauchy Criterion for Uniform Convergence The Limit Superior, 123 The limit superior and inferior of a sequence in R, unbounded sequences, infinite limits 19. Some Extensions, 128 Order of magnitude, Cesiro summation, double sequences, iterated limits IV. Continuous Functions 136 20. Local Properties of Continuous Functions, 136 Continuity at a point and on a set, the Discontinuity Criterion, combinations of functions 21. Linear Functions, 147 Linear functions, matrix representation, the norm 22. Global Properties of Continuous Functions, 150 Global Continuity Theorem, Preservation of Compactness, Pre- servation of Connectedness, Continuity of the Inverse Function Theorem, bounded continuous functions 23. Uniform Continuity and Fixed Points, 158 Uniform continuity, Lipschitz condition, Fixed Point Theorem for Contractions, Brouwer Fixed Point Theorem 24. Sequences of Continuous Functions, 165 Interchange of limit and continuity, approximation by step and piecewise linear functions, Bernstein polynomials, the Bernstein and Weierstrass Approximation Theorems CHAPTER SUMMARIES xiii 25. Limits of Functions, 174 Deleted and non-deleted limits, the deleted and non-deleted limit inferior, semi-continuity 26. Some Further Results, 182 The Stone and Stone-Weierstrass Approximation Theorems, Polynomial Approximation Theorem, Tietze’s Extension Theorem, equicontinuity, Arzela-Ascoli Theorem V. Functions of One Variable 193 27. The Mean Value Theorem, 193 The derivative, Interior Maximum Theorem, Rolle’s Theorem, Mean Value Theorem 28. Further Applications of the Mean Value Theorem, 201 Applications, L’Hospital’s Rules, interchange of limit and de- rivative, Taylor’s Theorem 29. The Riemann-Stieltjes Integral, 212 Riemann-Stieltjes sums and the integral, Cauchy Criterion for Integrability, properties of the integral, integration by parts, modification of the integral 30. Existence of the Integral, 227 Riemann Criterion for Integrability, the integrability of continu- ous functions, Mean Value Theorems, Differentiation Theorem, Fundamental Theorem of Integral Calculus, Change of Variable Theorem 31. Further Properties of the Integral, 240 Interchange of limit and integral, Bounded Convergence Theorem, Monotone Convergence Theorem, integral form of the remainder, integrals depending on a parameter, Leibniz’s for- mula, Interchange Theorem, Riesz Representation Theorem 32. Improper and Infinite Integrals, 257 Improper integrals of unbounded functions, infinite integrals, Cauchy Criterion, Comparison Test, Limit Comparison Test, Dirichlet’s Test, absolute convergence 3. Uniform Convergence and Infinite Integrals, 267 Cauchy Criterion for uniform convergence, Weierstrass M-Test, Dirichlet’s Test, infinite integrals depending on a parameter, Dominated Convergence Theorem, iterated infinite integrals we Vv . Infinite Series 286 34. Convergence of Infinite Series, 286 Convergence of series, Cauchy Criterion, absolute convergence, Rearrangement Theorem xiv CHAPTER SUMMARIES 35. Tests for Absolute Convergence, 294 Comparison Test, Limit Comparison Test, Root Test, Ratio Test, Raabe’s Test, Integral Test 36. Further Results for Series, 305 Abel’s Lemma, Dirichlet’s Test, Abel’s Test, Alternating Series Test, double series, Cauchy multiplication 37. Series of Functions, 315 Absolute and uniform convergence, Cauchy Criterion, Weier- strass M-Test, Dirichlet’s Test, Abel’s Test, power series, Cauchy-Hadamard Theorem, Differentiation Theorem, Unique- ness Theorem, Multiplication Theorem, Bernstein’s Theorem, Abel’s Theorem, Tauber’s Theorem 38. Fourier Series, 330 Bessel’s Inequality, Riemann-Lebesgue Lemma, Pointwise Con- vergence Theorem, Uniform Convergence Theorem, Norm Con- vergence Theorem, Parseval’s Equality, Fejér’s Theorem, Weierstrass Approximation Theorem Vil. Differentiation in R’ 346 39. The Derivative in R’, 347 Partial derivatives, directional derivatives, the derivative of f:)R° > R’, the Jacobian 40. The Chain Rule and Mean Value Theorems, 360 Chain Rule, Mean Value Theorem, interchange of the order of differentiation, higher derivatives, Taylor’s Theorem 41. Mapping Theorems and Implicit Functions, 375 Class C', Approximation Lemma, Injective Mapping Theorem, Surjective Mapping Theorem, Open Mapping Theorem, Inver- sion Theorem, Implicit Function Theorem, Parametrization Theorem, Rank Theorem 42. Extremum Problems, 397 Relative extrema, Second Derivative Test, extremum problems with constraints, Lagrange’s Theorem, inequality constraints Vill. Integration in R’ 412 43. The Integral in R’, 412 Content zero, Riemann sums and the integral, Cauchy Criterion, properties of the integral, Integrability Theorem 44. Content and the Integral, 422 Sets with content, characterization of the content function, further properties of the integral, Mean Value Theorem, iterated integrals CHAPTER SUMMARIES xv 45. Transformation of Sets and Integrals, 437 Images of sets with content under C' maps, transformations by linear maps, transformations by non-linear maps, the Jacobian Theorem, Change of Variables Theorem, polar and spherical coordinates, strong form of the Change of Variables Theorem References 456 Hints for Selected Exercises 458 Index 475 INTRODUCTION: A GLIMPSE AT SET THEORY The idea of a set is basic to all of mathematics, and all mathematical objects and constructions ultimately go back to set theory. In view of the fundamental importance of set theory, we shall present here a brief resumé of the set-theoretic notions that will be used frequently in this text. However, since the aim of this book is to present the elements (rather than the foundations) of real analysis, we adopt a rather pragmatic and naive point of view. We shall be content with an informal discussion and shall regard the word “set” as understood and synonymous with the words “class,” “collection,” “aggregate,” and “ensemble.” No attempt will be made to define these terms or to present a list of axioms for set theory. A reader who is sophisticated enough to be troubled by our informal develop- ment should consult the references on set theory that are given at the end of this text. There he will learn how this material can be put on an axiomatic basis. He will find this axiomatization to be an interesting development in the foundations of mathematics. However, since we re- gard it to be outside the subject area of the present book, we shall not go through the details here. The reader is strongly urged to read this introduction quickly to absorb the notations we shall employ. Unlike the later chapters, which must be studied, this introduction is to be considered background material. One should not spend much time on it. Section 1 The Algebra of Sets If A denotes a set and if x is an element, it is often convenient to write xeEA as an abbreviation for the statement that x is an element of A, or that x isa 1 2 INTRODUCTION: A GLIMPSE AT SET THEORY member of the set A, or that the set A contains the element x, or that x is in A. We shall not examine the nature of this property of being an element of a set any further. For most purposes it is possible to employ the naive meaning of “membership,” and an axiomatic characterization of this rela- tion is not necessary. If A is a set and x is an element which does not belong to A, we shall often write x€A. In accordance with our naive conception of a set, we shall require that exactly one of the two possibilities xeA, xéA, holds for an element x and a set A. If A and B are two sets and x is an element, then there are, in principle, four possibilities (see Figure 1.1): (1) xEA and xeB; (2) xEA and xéB; (3) x€A and xeB; (4) x€A and xéB. If the second case cannot occur (that is, if every element of A is also an element of B), then we shall say that A is contained in B, or that B contains A, or that A is a subset of B, and we shall write ASB or B2A. If A&B and there exists an element in B which is not in A, we say that A is a proper subset of B. It should be noted that the statement that A ¢ B does not automatically preclude the possibility that A exhausts all of B. When this is true the sets A and B are “equal” in the sense we now define. 1.1 Derinirion. Two sets are equal if they contain the same elements. If the sets A and B are equal, we write A = B. yy, (4) Figure 1.1 1. THE ALGEBRA OF SETS 3 Thus in order to show that the sets A and B are equal we must show that the possibilities (2) and (3) mentioned above cannot occur. Equivalently, we must show that both Ac B and BCA, The word “property” is not easy to define precisely. However, we shall not hesitate to use it in the usual (informal) fashion. If P denotes a property that is meaningful for a collection of elements, then we agree to write {x : P(x)} for the set of all elements x for which the property P holds. We usually read this as “the set of all x such that P(x).” It is often worthwhile to specify which elements we are testing for the property P. Hence we shall often write {xES:P(x)} for the subset of S for which the property P holds. Examples. (a) If N={1, 2, 3,...} denotes the set of natural numbers, then the set {x N:x?—3x+2=0} consists of those natural numbers satisfying the stated equation. Now the only solutions of the quadratic equation x’— 3x +2=0 are x=1 and x= 2. Hence, instead of writing the above expression (since we have detailed information concerning all of the elements in the set under examination) we shall ordinarily denote this set by {1, 2} thereby listing the elements of the set. (b) Sometimes a formula can be used to abbreviate the description of a set. For example, the set of all even natural numbers could be denoted by {2x :x € N}, instead of the more cumbersome {y € N: y = 2x, x EN}. (c) The set {xe N:6 reo | | | | Pecueed Dif) avaEii }<—____—_——_ 4 —_____ >| ® Figure 2.1. A function as a graph. 2. FUNCTIONS 13 instead of (a, b)¢f. We often refer to the element b as the value of f at the point a, or the image under f of the point a. Tabular Representation One way of visualizing a function is as a graph. Another way which is important and widely used is as a table. Consider Table 2.1, which might be found in the sports page of the Foosland Bugle-Gazette. The domain of this free-throw function f consists of the nine players D(f)={Anderson, Bade, Bateman, Hochschild, Kakutani, Kovalevsky, Osborn, Peressini, Rosenberg}, while the range of the function consists of the six numbers R(f)={0, 1, 2,4, 5, 8}. The actual elements of the function are ordered pairs (Anderson, 2), (Bade, 0), (Bateman, 5), (Hochschild, 1), (Kakutani, 4), (Kovalevsky, 8), (Osborn, 0), (Peressini, 2), (Rosenberg, 4). In such tabular representations, we ordinarily write down only the domain of the function in the left-hand column (for there is no need to mention the members of the team that did not play). We could say that the value of this free-throw function f at Anderson is 2 and write f(Anderson)=2, or Anderson +> 2, and so on. Weare all familiar with such use of tables to convey information. They are important examples of functions and are usually of a nature that would be difficult to express in terms of a formula. TABLE 2.1 Player Free Throws Made Anderson Bade Bateman Hochschild Kakutani Kovalevsky Osborn Peressini Rosenberg RNOMREUON 14 INTRODUCTION: A GLIMPSE AT SET THEORY Figure 2.2. A function as a transformation. Transformations and Machines ‘There is another way of visualizing a function: asa transformation of part of the set A into part of B. In this phraseology, when (a, b) € f, we think of f as taking the element a from the subset D(f) of A and ‘“‘transforming” or “mapping” it into an element b = f(a) inthe subset R(f) of B. We often draw adiagram suchas Figure 2.2. We frequently use this geometrical representa- tion of a function even when the sets A and B arenotsubsets of the plane. ‘There is another way of visualizing a function: namely, as a machine which will accept elements of D(f) as inputs and yield corresponding elements of R(f) as outputs. If we take an element x from D(f) and put it into f, then out comes the corresponding value f(x). Ifwe puta different element y of D(f) into f, we get f(y) (which may or may not differ from f(x)). If we try to insert something which does not belong to D(f) into f, we find that it is not accepted, for f can operate only on elements belonging to D(f). (See Figure 2.3.) | ae f nm) | fe) Figure 2.3. A function as a machine. 2. FUNCTIONS 15 This last visualization makes clear the distinction between f and f(x): the first is the machine, the second is the output of the machine when we put x into it. Certainly it is useful to distinguish between a machine and its outputs. Only a fool would confuse a meat grinder with ground meat; however, enough people have confused functions with their values that it is worthwhile to make a modest effort to distinguish between them notationally. Restrictions and Extensions of Functions Iff isa function with domain D(f) and D, isasubset of D(f), itis often useful to define a new function f; with domain D, by f(x) = f(x) for all xe Dy. This. function f; is called the restriction of f to the set D;. In terms of Definition 2.2, we have fr={(a, b)ef:ae Di}. Sometimes we write f: = f | D, to denote the restriction of the function f to the set Di. A similar construction (that appears less artificial) is the notion of an “extension.” If g is a function with domain D(g) and D2 > D(g), then any function g» with domain D2 such that g2(x) = g(x) for all x € D(g) is called an extension of g to the set D2. Composition of Functions We now want to “compose” two functions by first applying f to each x in D(f) and then applying g to f(x) whenever possible (that is, when f(x) belongs to D(g)). In doing so, some care needs to be exercised concerning the domain of the resulting function. For example, if f is defined on R by f(x) =x? and if g is defined for x = 0 by g(x) =x, then the composition gof can be defined only for x = 0, and for these real numbers it is to have the value Vx°. 2.2 DEFINITION. Let f be a function with domain D(f) in A and range R(f) in B and let g be a function with domain D(g) in B and range R(g) in C. (See Figure 2.4.) The composition gef (note the order!) is the function from A to C given by gef={(a,c)e A XC: there exists an element be B such that (a, b)ef and (b,c) € g}. 2.3. THrorem. If f and g are functions, the composition gof is a function with D(gof)={x € D(f): f(x) € D(g)}, R(gef) ={g(f(x)):x € D(gef)}- 16 INTRODUCTION: A GLIMPSE AT SET THEORY R@of) OM) v«-n HB Rpnd Figure 2.4. Composition of functions. 2.4 Examp.es. (a) Let f,g be functions whose values at the realnumber x are the real numbers given byt f(x) =2x, g(x) =3x7-1. Since D(g) is the set R of all real numbers and R(f) < D(g), the domain D(gef) is also R and gof(x) =3(2x)?>—1=12x?—1. On the other hand, D(fog)=R, but fog(x) =2(3x?— 1) =6x7—2. (b) If h is the function with D(h) ={x € R:x = 1} defined by h(x) =Vx-1, and if f is as in part (a), then D(hef)={xe R:2x =1}={xe R:x=} and hof(x)=V2x—1. Also D(feh)={xeR:x=1} and foh(x)=2Vx—1. If g is the function in part (a), then D(h o g)={xeR:3x*-1> l}= {xeR:x<—Vi or x=V3 and heg(x)=V3x7-2. Also D(geh)= {xER:x = Ipand geh(x)=3x—4. (Note that the formula expressing geh has meaning for values of x other than those in the domain of geh.) (c) Let F, G be the functions with domains D(F)={xeR:x = 0}, and D(G)=R, such that the values of F and G at a point x in their domains are F(x)=Vx, G(x) =—x?=1. Then D(GeF)={x €R:x = 0} and Ge F(x) =—x-—1, whereas D(FeG) = {x € D(G): G(x)eD(f)}. This last set is void as G(x) <0 for all x e D(G). Hence the function FeG is not defined at any point, so FeG is the “void function.” + We also denote this by writing f:x > 2x and g:x1>3x?—1 for xeR 2. FUNCTIONS 17 Injective and Inverse Functions We now give a way of constructing a new function from a given one in case the original function does not take on the same value twice. 2.5 DeFINITION. Let f be a function with domain D(f) in A and range R(f) in B. We say that f is injective or one-one if, whenever (a, b) and (a’, b’) are elements of f, then a= a’. If f is injective we may say that f is an injection. Inother words, f is injective if and only ifthe two relations f(a) = b, f(a’) =b imply thata=a’. Alternatively, f is injective if and only if when a, a’ are in D(f) and a# a’, then f(a) # f(a’). We claim that if f is injective from A to B, then the set of ordered pairs in BXA obtained by interchanging the first and second members of ordered pairs in f yields a function g which is also injective. We omit the proof of this assertion, leaving it as an exercise; it is a good test for the reader. The connections between f and g are: D(g)=R(f), — R(g)=D(f), (a, bef if and only if (b, a)eg. This last statement can be written in the more usual form: b=f(a) ifandonly if a=g(b). 2.6 DEFIniTioN. Let f be aninjection with domain D(f)in A andrange R(f) in B. If g={(b,a)eBxA:(a, b)ef}, then g is an injection with domain D(g) = R(f) in B and with range R(g) = D(f) in A. The function g is called the function inverse to f and is denoted by f™*. The inverse function can be interpreted from the mapping point of view. (See Figure 2.5.) If f is injective, it maps distinct elements of D(f) into distinct elements of R(f). Thus, each element b of R(f) is the image under f of a unique clement a in D(f). The inverse function f~' maps the element b into this unique element a. Figure 2.5. The inverse function 18 INTRODUCTION: A GLIMPSE AT SET THEORY 2.7 Examptes. (a) Let F:x+>x? be the function with domain D(F)=R, the set of all real numbers, and range in R such that the value of F at the real number x is F(x)=x*. (In other words, F is the function {(x.x?):x€R}.) It is readily seen that F is not one-one; in fact, the ordered pairs (2, 4), (-2, 4) both belong to F. Since F is not one-one, it does not have an inverse. (b) Let f be the function with domain D(f) ={x € R :x = O} and R(f) = R whose value at x in D(f) is f(x)=x?. Note that f is the restriction to D(f) of the function F in part (a). In terms of ordered pairs, f= {(x, x?):x © R, x = 0}. Unlike the function F in part (a), f is injective, for if x’=y’ with x, y in D(f), then x=y. (Why?) Therefore, f has an inverse function g with D(g)=R(f)={xe¢R:x = 0} and R(g)=D(f)= {xe¢R:x>0}. Furthermore, y=x?=f(x) if and only if x=g(y). This inverse function g is ordinarily called the positive square root function and is denoted by g(y)=vy, yeR, y=0. (c) Iff,is the function {(x, x”): x € R, x < 0}, then asin (b), f:isone-oneand has domain D(f,) ={x € R: x <0} and range R(f:)={x¢R:x = 0}. Note that f, is the restriction to D(f;) of the function F of part (a). The function 81 inverse to f is called the negative square root function and is denoted by gy)=-vy, yeR, y=0, so that g:(y) = 0. (d) The sine function F introduced in trigonometry with D(F) = R and R(F)={y¢R:-1=y = + 1}iswell-known not tobe injective (for example, sin 0=sin 27 =0). However, if we let f be its restriction to the set D(f) = {xe R:—a/2

    You might also like