The Russian Federation + ez0enaPnicaL pisrmmuTiON FEDERAL UNION OF 85 REGIONS AND ‘oF power REPUOLICS, THOUGH MCREASINGLY + RELarioNsiP BETWEEN PRESIDENTIAL + UgotsLATURE BICAMERAL: STATE DUMA (LOWER HOUSH), FEDERATION COUNCIL (UPPER HOUSE) + panery system DOMINANT PARTY CUNITED RUSSIA) WHY STUDY RUSSIA? Russia istrative of many ofthe biggest tends that have shaped the modern world lastcontury. The 1917 Bolshevik Revolution n Russia was the intoductlon fo communist ev lutions and the establishment of left-wing regimes across much of Europe, Ala, and Latin America. Russa acted as one ofthe two polr powersof the Cold Wat, supporting and shaping sin the lar vgimes within its sphere ofinuence, The communist regime fire to deliver base consumer goods led to its eventual collapse in Russi, beginning the waves of democratia- ‘don, marketiation, and globalization that have defined the modern pois and economic climate. Rusia transition from authortaranisn to democracy, however, seen to have taken a major U-turn back towatd auhorltaranism sinee 2000 Thee sory can enhance our understanding of which formal and informal institutions and pocal cultural components are necessary fr afll democraticranstion to occur.SOVEREIGNTY, AUTHORITY, AND POWER Rusia federal state, whose constitution speclfis six catogorizations of eighty-three dif- ferent local governments united together under one national federation, with thee supreme branches of government. ihodas the solution tothe diverse needs and Ancerests of the many di ty groupe across ofthe ‘county, but the last decade o so has seen the erosion of federalism as lca levels of pve ‘ment lose more and more power to the central national level, Vadim Putin seems to be ‘consolidating an authoritarian rule over what was once a promising yet ledling democracy, ane centealizing contol ofthe federation at the national levels par ofthat agenda, teri Geographic Influences on Political Culture massive country, the largest ertory of any statin the world today even after the {oss ofits smaller republics that declared independence from dhe Soviet Union inthe 1990s. It spans across eight time zones, and borders fourteen sates, with nelghbors as diverse as ‘inland anl Norway inthe west fo Ching and North Kora inthe eas. of ethnic diversity within Russe, though approximately 80 percent ‘ofthe people are ethnically Russian, Despite tis lange and mass, much of Russ territory i «extremely cold and dry renderingit useless for agriclture and cliization, Most Russians ive {nthe western portion of the county that lsconsiered pat of Burope, and the eastern tertl- ‘ory in Asi i very sparsely populated. Interestingly, for most of Rusian history, Russa arge Jan mass aia nor prowde twit any kind of opportunity for naval power or ade through ‘theseas since tad no access to warm water fr ports. Historically, his access has often been ‘the object of Russian military campaign, including Peter the Great's acquisitions in the sev ‘enteenth andl eighteenth centuries illustrated on page 131), and was even one ofthe moti tions fo the recent 2014-205) annexation of the Crimean Peninsula fom Ukraine.ein Ptr Cent 2-25 Although Siberia and other seomingly uninhabitable eastern territories did serve much ‘ofa purpose forte state in its distant history, the totalitarian regime of Joseph Stalin used those remot areas as foreed-abor camps for political prisoners, and they increasingly served ssa crucal component ofthe Sovet Indust economy. Bven though the prison camps are langy unused now natural resources suchas land natural gas that use to belocked under the surface ofthe iy tundra are now accessible thanks to modeen exploration technology. [hind only the United Stats, Russa isthe words second largest producer of natal gas, tnd has at times been the largest. Components of Russian Political Culture svarisM “The avert etn Russland surrouting ssa cesta sal heme Russe politcal culture: statlm. Remember that Britains ative elation as a smal sland allowed it wo develop its domestic ptt culture and instiutons without much fear of foreign intervention, Rusia, by contrast, has (~Rugsas story of ferelon wasn been subject to regula invasion by foreign powers and has devel- | and the relate lack of geographic oped « politcal culture that deeply values @ strong and powerful | protection has contbuted toa state that an defend the people fom roubles Respectforvighsand | litical ule that values a strong civ liberties has not yet emerged as a major prioity ofthe Russian | S86 tat can defend and provide =a forts people.QUALITY OF RESULT Related to statism, Russi relative lck of arable farm land and unstable food supply ere ated a climate in which citizens expected the state to step into eate for people in times of ‘need. The susceptibiliy to famine and starvation historkealy has bull ina deep suspiconand resentment ain the wealthy within Rusia, Westen tadtlons by contrast often describe ‘wealthy individuals as having “earned” what they have, and look up to higher classes with ‘aspirations of achlevingthe same fr themselves. In Russia itis often assumed that those who ‘are wealthy gained what they have ilictly or through exploitation of others. Ruslan often see thestate as the solution to"solve” the problem of inequality ‘SKEPTICISM ABOUT THOSE IN POWER Interestingly, though Russians often cust the stateas the instrument to solve their problems, individuals who exerelse the power of the state rarely have the confidence ofthe Russian people. Authorities in bureaucratic jobs are frequently assumed by Russians to be cortupt ‘orincompetent, This dynamic leads toa common resignation to poor result, ven that the people assume the state isthe only force that ean prove solution, ye it cannot be trusted to git right, [BASTVS, WEST (SLAVOPHILE VS, WESTERNIZER) vents in ealy Ruslan history created a dvide between Russia and the rest of Europe tel ously, economically, pottialy, and culturally. As Western Europe emerge asthe center ‘of wealth and power, Rassian political culture was atthe same time experiencing a constant Internal struggle over whether to model themselves after progressive Buropean traditions, values, and practices, or fo remnin tre to thei ovm dlstinely Eastern ways This struggle is often embodied in transitions that occur beqween leaders who are "Westernizers™ (such ‘as Ptcr the Great, 1692-1725, or Bots Yost, 1991-1990), and those who are“Savophiles’ (such as nobles who opposed Peter the Great, or perhaps Vadimir Putin in modern Russa), Battles play out regulary in Russian polities over which countries to build partnership with, howto structure the Russian economy, an! the degree to which the sate should protec ell estes such as freedom of speech and religion, among many others ts even visible In arguments over how Russians should dress, and what types of musie they should stn o POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGE Early Traditions ‘The pln of Russia adopted Christianity a8 state religion in 98, and closely ied church and cite rvenor and functions together. Thar religious and cultural pacticos fllowod [yzantine example rather than a Western example. For instance, church liturgical writings and sermons were in the regional Stave language, rather than in the Latin or Gree of the ‘aay Chistian writings ofthe West. The schism between Eastern and Wester Churches was formalized in 1054 when the leaders of each side excommunicated one another Russian political traditions and institutions would forever rman divided and dstnet from those ‘hat wo emerge in Western Europe. The ideas tha tehaped Rurope during the Protestant Reformation an! the Enlightenment, which paved the way for individual ight and challenge to exiting authority, never took oot In Russlan politeal culture AP COMPARATIVE GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS‘The Mongo! invasions of Russia established cooperative nobility, but under van I van the Grea, 1462-1505, and Ivan IV (ian the Tribe), 1587-1504, Rusia secured its indepen: ‘dence and laid the foundation fr the modern Russian state Tsarist Rule ‘Tears of Russia were intl prines over Moscow, established under Mongollan rule, but after Ivan I, the tars began long tration of strong, authoritarian, autocrat ule, This form of government was oceaslnally dlsrupted by a westerizing leader, suchas Pte the Great (1682-1725) though often attempis at reform and westernization ended in disaster snd ‘chaos internally. Peter traveled across Western urope on a tou to learn abot Western bus ness, shipbuilding, military training and structure, and polit life, He forced Russian nob ity to adopt Wester practices on everyting from how to dll solders down to how to deess And shave ina effort to build Russia into a modern power Catherine the Great (1762-1796) held similar goals fr westernization, drawing inspiration {om ideas about slence, philosophy, and religious toleration from Enlightenment thinkers ‘ofthe west, She resisted, however, any calls for liberalization of rights to allow fr freedom lof speech or the press, and maintained rule as an authoritarian, modeling the enlightened despot that characterize the poltal systems of many Eastern Europes states of er time ‘Afer Napoleons invasion of Russia briefly interupted tsarst authoritarianism, Russian etwas came to believe that ideals ofthe Enlightenment could never take rot in Russet ‘backward political system. Tis conflict between the saris regime an Nbealizng forces led {o the Decembrst Revol in 1825, which was crushed by Tua Nicholas I and his force. The ‘eglme was challenged again after a loss inthe Crimean War (1853-1856) agalnst a coalition of| France, Britain, the Ottoman Empire, and Sardinia, which convincod many that Russia could ‘never compete with Western European powers unless t modernized ts regime. Tare cracked {dow upon dissenters who challenged thei rule with the creation of secret polle frees, and ‘the rile and imprisonment of political rts. ‘The most significant attempts at reform occured under Alexander It (1855-1681) who freed Russian srs, established local epresontative assemblies elle zemstvas, reorgnized ‘he Russian judiciary to make moveindependent, nd ended manty noble privileges He was even in the process of erating an elected national parliament tobe calle the Duma, As was ‘often the casein Russa hese westernizing reforms result in chaos and eves. Alexander as assassinated by cities who believed his reforms were not going far enough, ands sue- cessor son, Alexander I (1861-1894) ripped apart the reforms and plans for farther reform to camry outa crackdown against disidents within Rusia, The Path to Revolution Inadition co the backdrop of Russian tsarst authoritarianism, two eventsbrought about the Russian Revolution in 1917. The fst was Russa loss inthe Russo-Fapanese War of 195, in which Russia was soundly defeated by what was once a smulaly backward Eastern nation, Japan had modernized under aWestern model, however, an built world-class military that Russia was ill poparod fo contend with, Stet rots against the state broke out in protest, and ‘Tsar Nicholas (1894-1917) capitulated by creating the Duna, an elected national represen ‘ative assembly, to move Russa oto a path ef constitulonal monarchy. The outbreak of World War I brought Russia into the fighting to defend Serbia against, Astsian aggression, The war unfolded very badly fr Russa, sufering more miliary and “THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION 133civilian casualties against German and Austrian advances than any other county, Soldiers ‘often fought with no shoes oF guns, food was in short supply, and soles increasingly defected and mutinied against thelr officers. Nicholas Il was forced to abdicate the throne in response tothe chaos, and the state collapsed. Marxism, Leninism, and the Revolution of 1917 Many of Russias poles agitators were Manse. Maram ie political and economie We ‘ology framed by Kar Marx in his nineteenth-century writings, the most famous of which Is the Communist Manifesto, Marsism deczies the apitalist economic Ea peas RS system and private property asan expoltatvesystem that effectively Central meant that an inner eite | steals theeffortsandlabor ofthe workIngcass (called the protstariat ‘would be empentared to make all ‘by Mart eeate wealth forthe property-cwning classes (called the ‘meaningful petal decisions on ‘ourgeolsle by Mars). Maraism advocates an organized revolt ett of te mass bythe proletariat againe the bourgeoisie to eretea solely in whlch lof the workers collectively ow the product of thet abor and no longer need to work in horeible conditions fr meager wages anda poor standard of living, Most notable among the revolutonery agitators ws Viadimlr Lena, who had written 3 pamphlet in 195 after the Russo-Japanese War ented What Is To Be Done, in which he ‘advocated the ereation snd support of smal elite revolutionary leadership of professional Intellectuals who could guide the workers n purslt of evolutionary success. This principle came tobe known as democrat centalism, thea tata smalland elite central lesdership ‘would be entrasted with power and decision-making authority, but that they would exercise {his power on behalf ofthe best interests of ll people. To be clear, there is very thisides that scholars today would consider “democrate” In the understood defini ‘word tf much more “ental” than “democratic” ‘Ate the collapse ofthe tate in erly 1917, «provisional government was formed under [Alexander Kerensky and the State Duma, but Kerensky continued Russia involvement in ‘World War I. By late 1917, revolusdonary worker’ unions across Rusia revolted, These revo tonaees, called Sovets, put Lnins Bolshevik Party in contol ofthe state, renaming i the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) Lenin rie to powered to the outbreak of Civil War in Russia between the White Army, led ‘by Russian military leaders opposed to Maraism and the Revolution, who were largely funded bythe Allied Powers of World War I, and the Red Army, made up of rvolutionates led by Lenin. Hy 1920, the Reds had secured vetoryand control ver Russia, but Lenin made conces> ‘sions tothe demands of the Whites, Lenin's New Eeonomle Polley (NEP) gave peasant farmers private property ovmership of therland, in addition to right (0 eam profits on sles of their produce. The plan was successflin solving Russi’ fod problems and brought considerable procperty tothe Rucean countryeide, but it didnot let because Laninsuffared a serie of rok in 1922 and 1923 that et his death Stalinism Joseph Stalin emerged from the partys intemal power struggle to rule over Kuss successor frm 1922 01959, While Lenin ad privately rtelzed Stalin asbelng unio cexsip due to his excessive power sind ambition, and even recommended his removal from the post of General Secretary, Stalin used doctored Imagery of Lain with himselfand propa tnndized depictions ofthe Bolshevik Revolution to depict himself as a trusted confidant and [AP COMPARATIVE GOVERNMENT AND POLITICSpreferred suocessor to Lenin tains reforms place all economic activity under the contol ofthe state, ending the New BeonomePoley. Stalin labeled the wealthy peasant landov- sas kak, and casi outa program to seize thelr property understate control known ascollectivization, Kulaks who resisted collectiviztion were regulary ether sen to foreed- Jaboreampsin emote parts ofthe country, summarily killed by state forces ox Inmany eases, turned in by ther neighbors sympathetic tothe demands of the regime. The collective farms ‘owned by the state would serve the purpose of feeding the cites, whose workers were doing ‘what Stalin perceived to be the most Important workor tutning Russia from abackwvard agra lan ation intoa modern industrial power. The objective of ndustealization was expressed the Five-Year Plan, sting ambitious goals for production of modern industrial necessities, Including tel, of and electricity. Inaddtion ro majo economic reorganization, Stalin reorganized Russian poles to place the Communist Party, rather than the Soviets atthe contr ofthe Russian state. Communist Patty membership was selective allowing only about ? percent ofthe country tojoln. Leaders ‘were selected an! promoted bated on a practice called nomenklatur Ingleaders would identity promising lower-level m substantial effets on the Russian polite system since rising in the ranks of Russian soci- ‘ety and politics required personal conneetion and serve to those ‘already in power. The party wasorganizedinapyramidical hierarchy, (The Communist Party recralted with hetop leaders concentrated intheCentealComteeofabout | and promoted sites through 500 members and the Paltbure afte men who fneoned az] omer mang at of thexecutve leaders of government agencies and departments.The | Mané® of potent party memb ‘General Seeretary who led the party would act asa dictatorial chit | _¥¥O Soult Baveniay move ‘executive during Stalin's ime. Stalin id not riskupheavalwithinthe | jargey on peraonal connectlons to party against his rule, During hele, he conducted purges of the ranking members. party n whlch he signed off onthe execution of almost one milion party members who weresuspectedof disloyalty, many of whom were top officials or gonerals hehad personally placed in power under nomenkatur, While Russia ‘had known a onghisory of authoritarianism, under Stalin the programs of popagands, e¢2- nomi control, ad political control moved Russa into toaltasianism, Paranoia within the nist Party over who Would be next tobe victim of purge led many Communists to support major reforms to loosen the ttalitarian nature ofthe state after Stalin death in 1953 Tn foreign policy Stalin agenda vas characterized by the outbreak of hostility between Aussi and the West after their cooperation in World War I This tension came to be known ‘asthe Cold War (1945-1091).The source ofthe confit was disagreement over how to rebuild fascist Germany, and more Important, the status of the republics between Germany and ‘Russia. While the United States, Britain, and France favored constitutional democracy and market capitalism, including free elections for all dhe berated peoples of Eastern utope, ‘Stalin sought to create a buffer betwoen Russia and Germany of alld communis states in the event of another Geeman testmament, Winston Chusehill famously characterized the miltary buildup along the border between democratic and communist countries as an ron ‘Curtal, which had descended across Europe, dividing the East from the Wet omReforms After Stalin Iikita Khrushchev rode a reformist wave within the party to win the power stugale afer Stalin death, and he delivered the now famous secret speech tothe assembled Communist arty leadership, i which he decried Stalin program of personality cu ar ule by total tarlan fat. Khrushchev revealed the existence of Lenin eter that eicized Stalin, ad this ‘beg a programm of de-Stalinzation of the party. The Gulag forced-Iabor eamps were greatly redced in size, and eventually disbanded in 1960, Monuments and artwork eslebrating the personality cult of Stalin were systematically removed, and places bearing his name were ‘renamed, Most Importantly power within the party was decentralized from one person down. ‘olowerlevel groups, and the purges were denounced Khrushchev als teed to deescalate the tension betwoen the East nd West in the Cold Wat ‘through a program of "peacefal coexistence” This ideal was challenge by the Cuban Missle Criss of 1962, after which Russa was forced to remove is facilities in Cuba, and Khrushchev ‘appeared diplomatically weak to many Communist Party leaders during the es. He was soon replaced by the communist hardliner Leonid Brezhnev (1964-1962), who ertculated snd exerelsed the Brezhnev Doctsine of Soviet military intervention in any country wire ‘communist ule was threatened. Economie Problems and Reform Under Gorbachev [None ofthe economic programs of Khrushchev or Brezhnev addressed underiyingeconomle problems ofthe structre ofthe Soviet economy. After Stal, the Soviet economy was esen- Lally “neither nor economy postessed neither the economic incentives of profit and ‘competition tht make a market economy work, nor the Ideological fir, fear of punishment, ‘nd shave labor that drove prodiction during Stains tme, While the Soviet state was able 10 send saeltes into orbit, and build a military and nuclear arsenal to eval the United States ‘asthe dominant poner ofthe day, basic consumer goods sch as bread and toothpaste were ‘consistently absent on butren store shelves. Mikhall Gorbaehe, General Seretary fom 1985, 101991, promised reforms (o save the communist economy fom certain disaster through a {ee pronge program, 1 GLANS: Rather than continuing to attempt suppresion of bad news ofthe Russian ‘economy and dysfunction of its politica institutions, Gorbachev allowed glasnost, ot “openness ofthe sharingand discussion ofinformation asalimited frm offreespoech, Unfortunately for Gorbachev, Russians’ long-held fstratons about coruption and incompetence of the state were released in frestormof ritelsm, and the problem was ‘especially acutein the Sovle republics ro the west that resented Russian domination. ‘= PeRestHOMA: Perestroika was a program oflimitod market reform ttryand bring mod ‘em scenic practice Rin. Th gromeneent heen authoring private corn nes to compete with state-owned industry, an! removed some of the state’ functions to be performed exclasvely by the market. alk imposed penalties on underperform: ing state companies to ty to end the problem of shortage. The sea of reform was smal and gradual Pthaps the reforms were never bg enough to addres the oots of ‘Russia problems, or perhaps Russian politcal culture just wasnt prepared to make & ‘market system work Regardless, most ofthese reforms were largely unsuccessful and others weve never fully implemented thanks tothe collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991.1» pemocrarizAnion: Gorbachev attempted to preserve the existing Communist Party structure while incorporating limited democracy though the cation of a directly lected Congress of Pople Deputies, who would also be empawered to chooses pres ‘dent of the Soviet Union. In adlition, each republic ofthe Soviet Union would dvetty lect its own president for example, in Russa, the peopl elected Boris Yelisin in 1991, Democratization created an entirely new poltieal class in Russa: namely, elected rep- resentatvescrtlel of Gorbaches Some ofthese critics were hard-liners opposed to reform altogethor, whereas others saw the reforms a fa oo limited tobe us Collapse of the Soviet Union In August 1991, conservative Communist Party hardliners opposed to Gorbachev's reforms staged a coup «état to remove him from office while he was out of town. When tanks surrounded the White House (where Russias Supreme Soviet assembly would meet), protesters took o oppose the coup, Bors Yeltsin famously delivered e speech ontop ofoneof ‘he tanks immobillzey the crowds in which he pressed the rltary not to support thsanl- constitutional action, and he elle fora general strike by the people unt the coup ended, nce the coup ended, Gorbachev remained offically in power over the Soviet Unions how- ever thevstbl instability within the Communist arty prompted many Soviet Republics who wanted independence to take ation. By Decomber, eleven ofthe teen Soviet Republics had leftthe Soviet Union without resistance from the Red Army (which historically had been used to reassert control under the Brezhnev Doctrine) Without “union” to lead anymore, and with Boris Yeltsin increasingly contolling political ffir in Russia, Gocbachev and Sovet leaders were forced to concede that there was essentially no Soviet Union lf, and announced the formal dissolution of the USSR on December 25, 1991, Hors Yatsin would now acta the chi executive as president ofthe newly independent Russian Federation, ‘The Yeltsin Years Yelisin attempted to act quickly to bulld Russia into a westerized modem co ‘democracy, Polealy he worked with ales in the Duma to draft the Russian Cons 0 1998, which created a thee-branch government, featuring a dretl elected and powerful present as chef executive, bicameral legislature with a diectly| elected lower house called the Duma, and a Constitutional Court empowered with judilal review and consttionalinerpetation, In order to enhance the egtimacy ofthe new constitution twas “submited tothe people of Russia ina referendum for ratification, federalism means that some regional ‘governments have more local autonomy ever peleymaking powar and twas adopted with the support of 545 pereentofthevoters. | than others, Russia constitation created a federal system of government, in which power vas divided between the three branches ofthe cents Russian government, and eighty three lower-level administrative governing distil. These areas have varying levels of autonomy, meaning some have more local authority and inde pendence than others This called asymmetric federalism, a8 oppose tothe typical sym ‘metrical fecal system, in which ll lower-level regional governments are given consistent, ‘mia, constitutionally defined powers generally equal toone another Beonomically Yon worked to radically transform Russa int a market economy a rap lly as posibe through the program that came to be known as shock therapy. While ited successes can be identified from shock therapy, such asthe creation of an emergent class of‘businessmen and investors who di quite wel for themselves Inthe privatization of Rusian Industry, for most Russians the legacy of shock therapy was high inflation, unemployment, the ‘end of many guarantees ofthe Sovet well state and a dectning standard of ving, There are ‘many allegations across Rusla regarding the role of corruption in shaping the emergence of Russi newy wealthy private classes, the wealthiest of which eame tobe known aol ‘Olgas were often stteched tothe state industries they acquired shares nas insidersin the old communistsystem an others ad friends cose to power. Oligarchs protected Yeltsin in his reelection bid in 1996 by proving hin with amassie Infusion of eampalgn cash and favoabl ‘media coverage in the networks they owned, and ycelved more shares of contol in state com panies boing privatized in the "loans for shares” seandal, Toward the end of Yeltsin second term, the oubled economy along with his own erratic behavior and alcoholism accelerated bis ex from polis, and he surprisingly resigned in December of 1998. This allowed Prime ‘Minister Vadim Puta to step into the presidency al stad fr election asthe incumbent in 2000, though many assert the same oligarchs were behind this deelsion as well Putin: Stability and the Retreat from Democratization Putin's time in power has been characterized by a series of reforms that have recentrlized ‘control nto Moscow from the federal system of Russias constitution, and that have managed ‘and limited democracy to ensurehis hod on power 1 CREATION OF FEDERAL sUPER-DISTRICTS: In 2000, responding to terorst attacks ‘elleved to have originated in the Russian sepublic of Chechnya, Putin created seven Super Dstits. The prsident-appolnted leadership of these csticts supervises the policymaking focal authori, suiking down any policies they fin tobe problematic POWER TO REMOVE GOVERNORS: The 1992 Constitution gave voters the power 10 directly elect thelr cv gavesnors in ther local region, but the Constitution was mended to allow the president the power remove a governor ithat governor would ‘ot conform local lw tothe Constitution (or pethaps he president’ interpretation of the Constitution). 1» owen To APporer CoveRNORS: Another change was mad in 2004 to en direct elee- tion of governors altogether: Now the president may nominate an appointee as gover or upon confiemation ofthe local legislature s+ FEDERATION COUNCIL REFORM: The 199% Constitution created the Federation Council ‘san upper house to represent the interests of local governments Previously, regional ‘Duma leaders and the governor of each of the elghtythee loal governments would assemble as the Federation Counel, bu in 2002, Putin got the Constitution amended 1 prohibit them from serving inthis pacity The governors now appoint Federation Council official ater than tke the office themselves. 1+ MANAGED ELECTIONS: The 2004, 2008, and 2012 presidental elections ll exhibited ‘signs ofthe state heavy influencing the outcome, if not fly “rigging” the election, {hough fad or sham ballot counts. Many candidates who attempted to run were “aqualifed” by the electoral commission due to excesive numbers of “fraudulent lor “improper” signatures on petitions or paperwork, or other technicalities. The ca Aidats let to oppose Putin or Datel Medvedev on the ballot were highly unlikely to truly challenge them for veto Opposition candidate have also found it very dificult to organize rales or speakon the broadcast airwaves without experiencing harassment Intimidation by authorities, [AP COMPARATIVE GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS1 Stars DUMA MLECTION REFORM: In 2005, the lave changed State Duma elections fom a partially singl-member-striet (SMD) and partly proportional representation (PR) stem toa filly PRsystem, and ised tho PR threshold to win representation rom 5 per ‘ent to 7 percent. The practical result ofthis policy was that many canddates who were regionally popular and could win an SMD race could noonge stand for ofc, and many smal partes who could get percent ut not7 percent othe vote were fiozen out office, bringing a massive share of the Duma under the consol of Pts pty, Unlted Russ (Changingpoltical conitonsted toa evesion othe SMD-PR mixed system in 2013, 11 EXTENDING THE PRESIDENTIAL TERME The 1893 Constitution called fora president to serve no more than twe consecutive four-year terms, Putin honored that requirement by choosing not to stand for eleton in 200, bu essentially appointed a successor in Dm Medvedey, who in turn appointed Putin ashi prime minister from 200802012 Putin continued exerising most of his presidental powors informe from this post, and the Duma changed the presidential term to six years during this time, Putin unsut Prisingly announced he would un for present agin in 2012, and Medvedev dd not ‘stand to challenge him asthe incumbent president. Putin won with 636 percent ofthe ‘ote, with th closest opposition candidate receiving 17.2 percent. Medvedev is once again Putin prime minster, While Russia remains @ democratic federal systom of government officially and consti tational, thas moved in an increasingly centralized, authoritarian, and unitaty ditection lunder Putin, Puins reforms and foreign policy stances are increasingly putting Russia at ‘as with the Wes agai, and ineldents sch asthe invasion and annexation of Crimes from ‘Ukzaine (2014-2015) have led some to declare that anew Cold Waris emerging. Despite all this, Russias economy isin much beter shape today than itwasat the end ofthe Yeltsin years (hous much ofthis i the result of high ol and natural gs pice), and Russa appears to seem diferent from those intended by hold a presidentiacloction in 2016, and Vladimir Putin was eoected 77 percent of the vote for another six-year erm, itaton, Ras CITIZENS, SOCIETY, AND THE STATE ‘Significant Social Cleavages [ETHNICITY AND NATIONALITY Approximately 80 percent of Russans identify as ethically Russian, an the remaining 29 percent are made up of a diverse aray of people, including Tatars, Baskes, Chuvash, ‘Chechens, Armenians and many others. None of these groups make up more than 3.9 percent ‘atthe population (the Tears are the second largest group) nd mort of thm ace wal below 1 percent individually. Wwenty-one ofthese groups are given theirawn autonomous repubile™ In the esitory they inhabit, which i the term forthe regions with the most local autonomy In Russi asymmetrical federal system. Most of these groups are relatively well integrated Ito Russian soiey, though the Chechen people of Cheehya are a major exception, There hasbeen a longstanding struggle for independence from Russian Chechnys, resulting wo ‘wars in the 1990s and terrorist attacks aginst Russia by Chechen separatists i 2002 (thes -zure ofa theater in Moscow) and 2004 (the oceupation ofa school in Beslan, South Ost ‘THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION 130RELIGION ‘The dominant religion in Russiabasistorially been Russian Orthodony, which was tlodcosely to the stat since the days of eal princes before the development of Russia isl. During ‘atly Communist rule, the state attempted to rd the soclety of religion, especially Orthodox ‘Christian, characterizing tasone ofthe tools that tars and property owners had used a keep the masses under contol to ther own benefit, Stains desperation for socal support Hh World War I aginst Nazi aggression forced him toseck cooperation wih the Orthodox Church, tnd since then, various leaders of the Communist Party ether re to combat the Chueh for ological goals, or enoperate withthe Church as usefl tol to the regime. ‘Today a one might expect from the backstory, religion in Rusia is complicated. About 40 percent of Russians identi as belng Russlan Orthodox Chistian, 5 perent identi as ‘Muslim though this numbers the fastest eising segment), and about 4 percent identifyas some other pe of Christian, tn addon, 25 percent of Russians consider themselves agnostic or ‘non-religious while anther 13 percent identify a atheists. That said, of those wo deny. aaslan Orthod, very few actualy attend religious services regula, which may inicate that ‘dentifcation as Russian Orthodox may be more attached to ethnic and national pride than to teal religious devotion for most Rusia, One study concluded that fewor than 10 percent of Russians evratend Orthodox services, and that somewhere between ony 204 percent were integrated into Church hie asa regular activi: The growing Islamic minority has become a source of recent tension in Russa, as many ethnic Russians resent the “ultra invason” of -Muslins In les ke Moscow, where there are naw estimated to be at least 4,000 mosques SOCIAL CLASS “Tarst Russia strictly divided Musians into a las system based on birthright and noble ta ts, Once the 1917 Revolution changed the regime, it abolished the old las structure witha “Marxist ideal of lasses cle This deal didnot play outin reality, asa new cassstructure ‘emerged with Communist Party officials ontop, urban manages and workers in the mile, ‘nd rural peasants om the bottom. The Communist Party class steuture was atleast blind to social background, and did give many who used to be on the bottom opportunities to move ‘up the social ladder The basis of the new Russ ‘entrepreneurship, as some individual ind great success in busines and ea themselves lvingalifestletheich of any developed country might envy Other Russians who have been left behind bythe new economy fel betrayed by reforms that have ended the old ‘Communist policies of guaranteed employment and old-age pensions, and often hol resentment of Russa ich who “stole the crown ewels ofthe od state-owned industries in the chaos of the 190s, Periodally—often neat an electon—one of Rusia’ bllonalres wil come under scrutiny and investigation fort business dealing, get put on televised public tal ancl tem gec sent ot Sibel prison be igh of Russian wots LURDANVS. RURAL |About 74 percent of Russians live in wrban environments, compared to 26 percent in rural environments, Rusia did not move toward a modern urbanized scley until foseph Stalin "Five-Year Plane of industraization, whic forced many Russans to leave the countryside face punishment, Russians inthe city enjoy marginally higher standard of ving, ae often better educated than their rural counterparts, and are more likely to support Western ideals ‘hat might challenge the curent presidents management of democracy. Mo AP COMPARATIVE GOVERNMENT AND POLITICSCivil Society Russian cv society took a corporat form under Communist rule The sate systematically ‘chose which groups to prillege with acces to influence state policymaking, and banned the formation of independent trade unions, poltieal clubs, or athe independent civil society ‘organizations State-sanctioned groups such as the Young Pioneers, would recelve state sp port and funding to indoctrinate youngmen into the ideology ofthe regime through activites similar to the Boy Scouts. Today, Russian civil soley I poorly developed. Most Russians never attend a church sevice, and only about 1 percent claim to belong to a politcal party as anything mote than a vote. Very few Russians join clubs of any kin, whether they af for politica causes, charity or even recreation. While cil society has grown since the pasnost reforms ofthe 1980s, ts stil hampered by state policies that monitor and harass groups ‘that are rtcal of che state. One exception is youth movements, such as Nash, which tied to bull patriotic nationalism among young Russians to support Putin agulnst Russi’ for ign enemies and domestic erties. Nash hosted youth camps to provide ideological emi ‘nats intended to enhance the power ofthe Ruslan state, even encouraging its members to smarty early and have lots of children to stem Russias declining population ers, Ks men bers staged rales supporting Putin reelection campaigns, and rallied against “eoruption” ‘of opposition figures, while receiving funding from te stateand business interests feendly to the state. Although Nashi snow defunct, corporatist themes are stl deeply rooted in Russian iu society. POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS. Linkage Institutions ELECTIONS Russi system of managed elections, among similar systems In other sates, led tothe ere- ation ofa new term in Comparative Politics: liberal democracy (ot possibly transitional democracy). Like liberal democracies, liberal regimes hold elections, an the votes are ‘counted accurately, with the winning candidates duly taking ffce and exercising political Power. What makes them ibera is everyting leading up to election day Significant este tons exist on whether candidates are able to feely compete for ‘office or no, Restrictions in the media prevent opposition eandi- (usps constitution slows voters dates ftom being able to communicate their message and persuade | to choose officals through national votersto take achanceon them. iberal democracies ae not elly | eectons; however, there are {democracies inthe end, since those in power are essentially able to | my slaifean imitations on the ability of potential candidates to pattilpate and compete fr election tory agamnst the incumbent government ‘use the state to protect thelr place in power, meaning the fundamen- {al featur of democracy. the power of voter to held a gnenramat accountable and remove It by ballot, dows really seem to exist. Despite this authoritarian structure, Rusia Constitution allows for {hie types of eletions atthe national level Presidential Elections Russians directly elect the chief executive toa si year term (formerly a four-year term) in & ‘o-ballot majority system, If no candidate wins a majority (more than 50 percent) ofthe ‘vote in the ist round, a second round runoff akes place betwoen the top two candidates,“There has not been a runoff needed since 1996, Elections in Russia in 2004, 2008, 2012, nl 2018 were heavily ected by international observers and domestic dissidents ws lacking _most of the basie competitiveness and civil ibertes protection necessary to guarantee the will ofthe people was uly reflected, 1996 Boris Yeltsin ccumbent) | 5.0% st ound, 54.4% (2nd ound) "2000 ‘Vedi Putin incumbent) sam ‘2008 ‘ViadiirPatin incumbent) 79% “2008 mii Medvedev 73% 2012 ‘Vieainir Putin oso 2018 Vieaimir tin dncumbent) 787% ‘State Duma Elections ‘Rusia’ eglstativeelacton system has changod from a SMD-PR mix to 2 fully PR systom and now back to | SHO-PR mis largely because each ‘of those reforms would benef the prident’sperty at the te ofthe change “The State Duma has 450 members. The Constitution originally pro ved that elections would accur evry fou years the year before the presidential election. I also provided that half the seats would be ‘warded to the winning candidates of SMD constituencies, and half ‘would be awarded to candidates on a party list based onthe results ‘ofa nationwide PR vote, provided that the party received a least 5 percent ofthe vote, Reformsin 2006 changed the system toa fly PR system, with a7 percent threshold to win representation. The reforms hada substan effect ‘on the composition a the State Dum after the 2007 elect 2005 227, 2007 a5 15. zon 235) 22. 2016 eA 7 By 2011, the secession and the decline nol prices led many voters to turn away fom the ‘United Russia Party, though the party stil hela marly ofthe Duma. It appeared increas Ingly likely thatthe next elections might not produce @ Unit Russia majority, and Putin requested yet another refocn tothe electlon system, returning tothe SMD and PR mix ofthe pet, perhaps in onder to placate proterte after the elections of 2011, but lv Hay ballaving that United Russia candidates who might nt win over SO percent of party st vote may stil at least come up with plualitis in most SMD constituencies. The election system form had its intended effet. Coupled with an aggressively national- Isic campaign strategy, significant estrctions on opposition parties to allow ther to qualify for the ballot and campaign, and low voter tumout, the United Russia Party easily won & supermajority of 343 seatsin the 2016 Duma elections. {COMPARATIVE GOVERNMENT AND POLITICSlection Reglonal and Loe ‘Russia sa federal system made up of central national government and eighty-five “federal subjects" governing on a regional level. Each federal subject held elections for goverior and reglonal legislature under the Constitution of 1993, After Chechen terrorists seized school hostage in Beslan, North Ossetia (a Russian federal subject), in 200, Pati signed a law that fave the president the power to dismiss regional governors and Inter signed another lave canceling clestons for governor altogether and giving the president the power to appoint each reglonal governor with the consent of the replonal legislature, This consolidation of power inthe executive significantly reduced the federal nature of Russia and made regional ‘aovernments largely an extension ofthe national executive. This poner to appoint governors lasted until 2012. When Putin announced he was running fr president leading into the 2012 election, it sparked a wave of proests across Russia demanding free and far elections Little has been reformed to make elections much fer or fairer than they have been since 20, bbu resident Medvedev di sign a lave tat restored regional elections for governor in 2012. Under the new lag there ae steep requirements for gathering enough signatures for candi- ‘testo quality for the ballot, and itis extremely difficult fr any candidate to do so without support. This system is referred to asthe munlelpal ltr by opposition gues as it pre- ‘vents rel opposition fom contending for oie. The president retains the power to disniss ‘governors and appoint acting governors a short-term replacements uni the next election. ‘An appointed acting governor automatically qualifies fr the ball. n 2017, Putin dismissed and replaced eleven governors three weeks before regional elections. Al of Putin appoln- tees easly won election afterward, Rusia federal system has been increasingly centtalled ‘under national and presidential control since Put se to power Referendum (On certain occasions, Russian voters ar called upon to approve or reject a patiular policy by vote, These instances are rate, but they include te ratification ofthe 1993 Constitution; a constitutional referendum in Chechnya in 2007, which made a numberof technical changes Jn the Chechen republic and declared Chechnya would remtin an “inseparable part of Rossi and the referendum in Colmes to join Russa after Russian mltary intervention in 2014, International observers regarded the Cvimean referendum ae deeply flawed given thae ‘took place while Crimea was sill occupied by Russian soldiers and the reported figures of ‘over 96 percent in favor of joining Russa with 8 percent voter turnout came under intense scrutiny by data analysts and reporters on the ground, POLITICAL PARTIES. Russi political party structure far mone Mid than that of ita. Fan Ruse dominant party, United Russia, has only stood for election since 2003, an the mos stable “opposition parties" are not realistically going to challenge for power Most of Russia liberl democratic forces have a difficult time organizing and communicating tele mestage against Putin and the forces ofthe state and these partis regula disband and veorganize United Russia United Russia was formes in 2001 asa union of the Unity and Fatherland parte, promising to avoid the Yeommurism vs. capitalism” dehotomy plaguing Russian pole at the time, and to “THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION vsbring ability othe Russian political ystems, Practically the pty vas formed forthe purpose ‘of supporting Presiden Putin in the legistature. The party appears to support al manner of ‘candidates regardless oftheir ideological belie, provided thet they suppor the presidental ‘uinistaton, ln tis regard, Rusia canbe characterlzed asa clear example of dominant party system, meaning United Russa acts asa party of power existing not to implement & particular ideological agenda, but rather to secure and maintain power for its members. Partles ‘of power are typically based on large patron-clien network and wl fequentty demonstrate tvidence of conuption in puble dministation. These ae both eetalnly the case for Unitod Russia, One pol in 2013 found that St percent of ussans agreed wit the characterization that “United Russias the party of crooks and thieves” ttm orignal colned by Russian political activist Alexet Navalny Interestingly, Navany hasbeen azested numerous times for a variety ‘of suspected white-collar crimes, usally within days feuding alls against Putin and United Russia, and he has served time in prison and under house aes. ‘Communist Party of the Russian Federation (CPRE) “TheCPRF was oundedimmodiately after Boris Yelisinbanned the existence oftheCommunist, Party of the Soviet Union, the previo ruling paty of the USSR nthe ist legiative ele tions in 1985, 1 won the most seats in the Duma and emerged as Yeltsin's primary oppos tion. Since the rise of Putin, the party as decline nasa among the Russian pul wh ‘most of is voters consisting of ekerly Russian “conservatives” who yearn for he “good old days" of Soviet Comiunism The party sfactionalized into thse who support tational Manistteninstsorker-centeced values and those who ste dhe market-based eforms under Deng Xiaoping in China as the mode! for development. The party has not had much trouble with placing candidates onthe blot for election or engaglng in other opposition politica ‘cts but thismay simply be because the pry stands tle chance of actualy challenging Putin for pau. ts candidate has come In second place in every presidential election since 1996, bu wth vote totals nowhere near the United Russia candidates, receiving just over 17 percent in both 2008 and 2012 for itsleader, Gennady Zyuganox an only 12 percent in 2018 forts candidate, Pavel Grodin Uberal Democratle Party of Russta (LDPI Despite its name, the Liberal Demoerate Party s nother liberal nor democratic nits Kleol- ‘ogy-The best description forte partys fercely nationalist and far ight, following the raleal ‘ideology of its controversial leader, Vadimts Zhisinovsky. apes to ereatea new Russian "Empire through the unification of many former Soviet republic. Simla to the CPRE thas ltl trouble qualifying candidates forthe bllt or expressing opposition viewpoints, and it ‘does eatvely poorly in elections, with Zhirinovsky never passing 10 percent ofthe vote in is sixeampalgns forthe presidency. aaa en new os. Actual Liheral Opposition Parttes potential to win elections and Russias Uberal opposition partes (the actual Hera, unlike the challenge Putin for power freauentiy | _L.ppR) are poory organized and disunife, partially because ofthe lack ofa charismatic political figure who can bring the epposition| together, but also because ofthe harassment and intimidation that ‘ave aeificult experience In ‘communicating thelr message and ‘getting thelr candldates onthe bal. frequenly comes from challegingthe current administration Since 1144 AP COMPARATIVE GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS2000, an anay of parties demanding far elections and an end to political cotruption have contended or office, including Yabloko, The Union of Right Force, Democratle Cholee of asia, and Solidarnost, o name afew of the mote noteworthy and successful, Canddates ftom these parties hav often found immense dificlty qualifying fr the ballot, getting media Interviews, and organizing rales. For example, when Gary Kasparox one of Russias most famous chess champions, attempted to run for president in 200, the only medi outlet that ‘would evr grant him an interview was Echo Rasta, a radio station with reputation among ‘the oppositionas theonly independent media voice, When he otganized a march in Moscow, police were positioned all around the perimeter of the march area, When the match began, ‘one of the partiipants produced Bolshevik Nag symbol banned ater the collapse ofthe USSR. Police immediately descended upon the marchers and arrested matty ofthe partc- ‘ants, including Kasparov, who maintains that the person who produced the flag was likely planted bythe police. Kasparov di not quali forthe ballot in. 2008 sine he could not meet ‘the requirement to hold a rally of feast 500 attendees to announce a candidacy and have ‘them sign a petition. The venue scheduled to host Kasparov's announcement cancelled his contract wo days before the event Neay every Russian liberal opposition figure has simi obstruction in thei attempts to contend fr the presidency o stories about intimidation and sin the Dum, INTEREST GROUPS ‘tae corporatism under the Soviet Union has dampened the development of Russian civil, society, and Russia interest group system serves as further evidence, While there is said {0 be over 300,000 registered non-governmental interest groups in Russa, groups Hkely to expres opposition views, sch as those aimed at protecting human rights, are frequently bated fkom ficial registration, A 2006 law ly with, and the rules were highly unclear, leaving Public Chamber (_ Chamber. ‘officials great deal of leway in interpreting whether an NGO met ‘he regulatory requirements to restr or not. Business, trade, an labor groups are typically alowed to form and act politcal, but the most influential groups are usually those with Insider tiesto the state, a¢ opposed to those representing the interests ofthe largest shares ‘ofthe publi. Many ofthe most influentil business interests are companies in whieh siloviki ‘ceupy executive positions ar serve on the board of directors, Sov sa Russian term for ‘people who worked in the security services such asthe KGB (Russi Soviet spy service) the Fedoral Sourty Servo (PED), agencice that Viadimie Putin Ite movdorn day cueceecor worked for during his iyeareer. outcancns ‘Tho super-wealthy oligarchs of Russia emerge in the chaos of shock therapy privatization of ‘the cary 1980s, using insider tes, compton and other lit business practices to gun con- ‘tol of the most valuable formerly state-onned industries ofthe former Soviet Union, When olgarhs backed Ylsin in 1996 and propped Putin up in 2000, many believed it was the oligarchs who would continue to pul the strings ofthe Russian state going forward, Putin Russia's systom is highly corporate, ‘ave the Federal Public Chamber the authority review the ogi | faenaping the formation and ration of foreign NGOs and determine that they could not operate | activity of intrest groups and lil in Russiaifitwasin the national nteresttoban them. The reporting | socety from the state eve through requirements were incredibly cifiult and costly for NGOs to com- | Isttutions lke the Federal Pubichanged this arrangement, making lear tothe oligarchs privately that they could Keep thelr ‘veath aslongas they remained aut of Russian politics. Oligates who defied this ulimatum have suffered severe consequences ‘ors Berezovay was a media tycoon who owned Rusia most watched TV networks, and ‘se his networks to hep esi nthe 190s, He beeame ace of Purl afer the 2000 ection, and was subsequent investigated for aud and embezzlement eeingtoBrtln for polical sy tum. The government took over his TV network, and members of Putin inner ctle now ston ltsboaidof directors Mikhall Khordorkorsky was once Russi richest man, worth over 15 bi on, but used his money to fund opposition partis in the 2008 Duma elections and rtd the ‘manage elections and comuption under Putin, Khordorkevsky was rested and convicted for fraud ad tax evasion, and ws sentenced tos nine year prison teem beginning in 203. Near the nd ofthe sentence, naw charges for ater crimes were brought against him, and his sentence ‘vas extended. Pin pardoned Khordorkosky in 2013, and he now les in eile in Switeland “The aes of Khordorkewsky’ ol company Yuks, which was bankrupted afte the governments charges, were transfered to Roseft in susplcious auton. igor Secin, a former deputy prime minster of Putin, is Rosneft chairman ofthe boar Despite the seeming politcal motivation of these and other prosecutions of oligaths, Russians often respond positively tothe arrests, ax oligachs and mafiosos who mede their wealth inthe turmoil ofthe 19905 ae disdained by Russians, who have long valued equality of esult as erulal piece of ther political culture. There’ even a saying n Russa that “in an ‘lection yet, Putin neds to spear an oligarch” ‘THEMEDIA, ‘Under the Soviet ystem, the only media allowed to exist in the country were the Communist Party’ propaganda tools, such as Proud, the state print meaum. After the dissolution of the USSR, private media market emerged. Russa media remains predominantly privately ‘owed, but it ay be characterized as fective state-contoled. The government of Russa doesnot explicly censor and control what appears on broad ‘ats or what ges printed, but it exerts tremendous influence over ‘Although most Rustin melas {in subst (and not so subtle) ways. Major media oligarchs, such privately owned, there are many ‘as Borezovsky and Vladimir Gus shy, faced arrest and exile once ules and incentives in place that they became critical of Putin, Other media yeoons qulely learn that ‘motivate the mec to cover the ‘oveenment favors. ‘control of their wealth and networks hinges upon compliance with ‘the administration Journalists who publish erica stores about the ‘rovernment ae often killed under volent and mysterious crcum stances, One noteworthy example is Anna Pollkovskaya, an outspoken critic of government policy in Chechnya, who was polsoned. In another, ve employees of aexteal newspaper, Nowy Gases have died suepllously since 2000, ‘Companies with deep testo thestate, such as Gazprom, the largest natural gas company in the world often buy lage stakes of media companies, Gazprom i chaired by Viktor Zubkov, forme prime minister of Russia under Viadimie Putin, and was previously chained by Dmitt “Medvedev, che curren prime minister. When Gazprom aequled the Russian News Service, Its managers called meting with the employees of the company in which they demanded tha atleast 50 percent ofall news broadeasts must be ‘psiio” news. When editors asked wat would be considered a “positive” news story, they were told “when in doubt, ask the leadership”State Institutions ‘THE PrusipeNT “The present of Russias directly elected by voters na two-ballt majority system, He serves ‘a si-year term (Formerly a four-year term before a change in 200), and i ited to two ‘consecutive terms. present who serves two terms may tun agin after standing down for a term, a8 Vladimir Putin did in 2012 alter ‘stepping down from the presiency in 2008, The president acts a5 the Constitutional head of state, separated from the role of head of| ‘government filed by the prime minister. The president i not only ‘The president exerts tremendous power over the Russian stat, both formally an informally. ceremonial head of state asthe monarch i in Butin, though. The resident of Russia holds the most wide-reaching powers under the constitution, though sometimes it appears Russian polis more about whois in particular postion of author ity rather than the define powers ofthe position (uch as when Putin acted as prime minis: {er fiom 2008 0 2012 “The formal powers ofthe president include 1 APPONTHENT OF THE PRIME MINISTER AND THE CABINET The president may appoint 8 prime minister with the consent of a majority of the Duma However, f the Duma rejets the presidents nominee chee times, the president may dissolve the Duma and «all or new Duma cleetions. This has only been tested in 1999, when the Duma rejected ‘etsns choices for prime minister twice, then approved histhird nominee under threat ‘ofbeing dissolved. The Duma has no such simile control ever the president regarding cabinet ministers or other heads of agences. 1 Laistarive poweRs: The president may draft ils and submit the tothe legislature for thet consideration, and he may sgn o voto any bills passed by both hows, UNG DECREES WITH THE FORCE OF LAW. Te president controls the policios ofthe state through decrees sued to cabinet ministers, which actasthelawoftheland, Yeltsin Included this inthe Russian Constitution of 193 knowing it woud be very ifcult to set cooperation fom a Duma comprised of many Communists and others opposed to ‘reform. The Duma today has very Itt lean do asa check agains this power, |» SUSPENSION OF LocAL LAWS! Te president may suspend law or regulation in one of Russia regional governments ihe believes if conttary to the Russian Constitution, laws or teatles ofthe Russian Federation, oa violation of human rights ‘© NommATION: The president nominates candidates forthe Federation Council to be ‘approved or ejected bythe egonal legislatures. He also nominates judges to serve on ‘the Constitutional Court, the Supreme Court andthe Supreme Arbitration Court with pproral ofthe Federation Council. 1» anos ano eeprnves: The president may ant patcon oa eprieve for any per son under federal law He does not have tis power over crimes atthe reglonal level. 1» Foneicn poticy: The president is empowered as Russias chief woice in foreign affairs, He determines ltussi postion in issues of intemational as, negotiates and ratifies twvaties, and appoints an recalls Russia diplomat representatives, ‘THE PRIME MINISTER ‘The prime minister is appetated by the president withthe approval ofthe Dum The presi dent may dismiss a prime minister at any time, a Yeltsin di frequently during his pres “THE RUSSIAN FEDERATIONdency. Thre is no vice president, so the prime minster becomes the president inthe event ofa presidential vacancy such as when Putin became president upon Yeltsin’ resignation In 2000. He aetsas the head of according the Russian Constitution, but exercises ‘ver lille formal power. The Constitution provides that he chairs meetings of Russlas most ‘senior officals, including the cabinet, buh dented powers are primary advisory rather than exeiising functional enforcement That being sad, when Viadimlr Putin was the prime ‘minster from 2008 02012, thete was very ite doubt among Russian politial observers that Itwasstillhe and not President Modvede, who was in control ofthe state, ‘THE FEDERALASSEMBLY Russias Federal Assembly isa bicameral Tegslature with a lower house (¢he Duma) and ‘an upper house (the Federation Counel), and each possesses distinct character traits and functions. ‘THESTATEDUMA ‘TheDumaiscomposed of 450 deputies whoare chosen through abalfsingle-member-dstit, nd half proportional representation eletion, ater reforms in 2015, They are given power bythe Ruslan Constitution to pas ill nc lw with the presidents signature, approve the bulget, and confiem or reject the appointment ofthe prime minster. Their real power, how= ever, is substantially limited due to the presidents wide-reaching power to govern by decree ‘through the cabinet, which the Duma may not remove. It is also empowered to impeach the president with a two-thcd vote in both the Duma and the Federation Couneil in adtlon to ‘ guily convieson of treason in Russias Supreme Court. The Duma attempted (0 use these ‘powers aginst Yeltsin on numerous acasions from 1995 to 1998, but could never teach the twosthids threshold. ‘THE FEDERATION COUNCH ech of Russi eighty-five egional administrative unitesends two members tothe Federatlon Council fora total of 170 members. One members chosen by the reglonal governor, and the cotherby the regional legislature. Governors would fequently appoint themselves siton the Federation Council concurrently but Vladimir Putin ended this practice in 2000 upon assum ingthe presidency With the change i 2004 allowing the president to nominate regional gov- ‘ermors himself, the president has quite abit of control aver he composition ofthe Federation ‘Counc, and this contol expanded with a change ratified in2014 that added seventeen new to the Federation Council each of which is appointed by the president. Unlike thelr co Feagues in the Duma, members of the Federation Counell must disavow membership in ny politcal party upon taking heir coat The Federation Coun functions a the other lawmnaking body that passes il alongwith the Duma, but the Duma may override the Federation Council and passa ill without its approval witha two-thirds vote In adltion to this base function, the Federation Counci also possesses the power to approve changes to the borders among, Russa regional units, approve the president's decision to use armed forces outside of Rusia as they di in Crimea in 2014), approve the presidents nomination of judges to Russias highest courts, and impeach the president in cooperation wit the Duma and the Constitutional Court [AP COMPARATIVE GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS[REGIONAL GOVERNMENTS AND FEDERALISM Rassias massive country with extensive geographic, ethnic cultural and religous diversity actos its territory. The 1993 Constitution established Rusia a federal system in onder to allow regional autonomy for local governments, which could best address the diverse needs and policy preferences of their local populations But not all of Rusia eighty-five federal jects are equal in levels of local autonomy. This system, established in the constitution, {scaled asymmette federalism. The various federal subjects of Rusia fall mostly into one ‘of two categories, Oblasts are the ordinary regional governments, made up predominantly of ethnic Russians, with the ability to elect their own regional legislature and governor. Republics are more autonomous areas, with thelr own regional constitutions; a republic ie ‘usually the regional homeland ofan ethnic minority group. Tova: Wi Reptice Kein 1 Asonomens Okrps Ml Foie Cities El Astonomons Obes ‘The noteworthy republics of Rusia include Dagestan and Chechnya, both belng south: western hotbeds of Islamic insurgency and separatist movements, Rusla as fought two wars against Chechnyan separatists since 1991, andthe central government of Rusia exerts extensive contro over the actives of each gional government ‘THEJUDICURY ‘Under the Soviet system, courts functloned as another polital arm ofthe Communist Paty and exercised no judicial independence or commitment to the rule of law. The Russian CConstitation of 1998 attempted to establish an independent judiciary, but tis goal urrently cluding Russia To wit, none of the cases of poltical prosecutions brought against ‘oppositional algarchs were ever challenged by the Russian judiciary No member of the usslan security services, such asthe FSB, has ever been prosecuted for violating czens’ rights. tis generally assumed in Rusia that judges may be bought of with blbes or favors 0 achieve favorable rlings from the court, Theve are nineteen members ofthe Constitutional Curt, appointed by the president with the confirmation ofthe Federation Council The Constttional Court is given the chief power ‘ofconsttutional interprotation by the Constitution, and may exercise judi review against any laws or presidential decrees that i finds unconstitutional This power is not ever borne tin practice, though, Rumors ofa possible conlet with the Court in 2007 prompted Putin to order its elocation from Moscow to St Petersburg, @ move that many ofthe Courtjudges| ssid would cause “logistical nightmares” Supreme Court Separate frm the Constitutional Court is the Russian Supreme Court, which is the cout of last resort, othe last place a legal dispute may be settle as the final decison ater taking ‘appeals from lower-level cours It has 115 judges who are nominated by the president and confirmed by the Federation Coun, They do not have the power o review lw for consi ‘ona, though, which isthe exclusive province of the Constitutional Court. The Supreme Court wes alo ordered to relocate from Moscow to St.Petersburg in 2012 ‘epemurraRy ‘The military served asa crucial soutee of power and leytiacy forthe replme ofthe Soviet, ‘Union, and was reguly used fo enforce Soviet control over troubled areas. The military ‘was (op priority ofthe regime, ecelving the bulk ofthe government’ Finances to the det ‘ment of neatly all other functions of the stte. Despite this the rlitary over exerted much political influence and remained firmly under the control of the Communist Fart unt the Instability of thelate 1980s and 1980s, exemplified by the attempted coup eatried out by many military officials against Gorbachev in 1991. A presidential decree ater the ealapse ofthe Soviet Union gave the Russian Federation control overall forees within Rusia, and made the Russian president the commander in chet. The military seems to stil befrmly under the contol ofthe ein political leadership, s senior officials in Russia are rary rom cul Jan backgrounds. Pati has increasingly used Russi military to project Russias strength abroad in a man ner no een cnc the Soviet era, Russa hae dhe Rif largest active-duty force in the word ‘and spent $9.3 bilon on the military in 2013, hia behind only the United States and Chin Russia has engaged in many recent military campaigns in is teyion. When ete Russians in South Ossetia seceded from Georpla,Georglan forces moved into the territory to restore ‘order Hussia responded with fulscale Invasion of South Ossetia and Abkhazia under the fui of peace-enforcement” recognized the independence of the region nd the teritores Femain under Russian military occupation to the present day. Altera pro- Russian president ‘was toppled by domestic protests in Ukraine Russia sent solders into Crimea and eastern Usain without national identifiers Guch as a Russian flag), and took over government [AP COMPARATIVE GOVERNMENT AND POLITICSDullings, ealing for secession, Russa sent in the forms military shortly thereafter claim- Ing the responsibilty to "protee”ethnle Ruslan in the region who might be vitimized by ‘Ulzanian nationalist excemism, The Crimean Peninsula was annexed by Rusia ale 2014 referendum that was held under military occupation, PUBLIC POLICY The turmoilin the late yeas of communism and early years ofthe new regime gave Russians very diferent set of poley concerns than those of developed liberal democracies, Recent political stabiliy and economic grow have not benefited all Russians, and the struggle bberween those who want democratic reform and those grateful forthe end ofthe turmoil, despite the authoritarianism, continues today ‘The Economy Russias experience with shock therapy remains deeply seared into the minds of most Russians as poverty soared trates ten times above their pre-Soviet-collapse level anita tion and unemployment affected Russians more than the Great Depression had. Whether shock therapy policies, the lack of fll implementation of shock therapy, government cor ruption, or general instability during the states collapse was most responsible sil debated. ‘today. The Russan economy recovered mighty under Viadmlx Putin though 2008, thanks ‘mort to rising energy prices. The recesion of 2008 brought this grove fo hal and the government has faced serious budget problems since. While inequality exists in Rusia, is ini coefficient indicates that there is es inequality n Russa than in most of our countles of study, ad Russia has no extreme poverty (a standard of living floss than two dollars por ay, of some similar measure). Much of Russia’ economy is tl state-owned, and reliant on ‘he energy sector andather natural resouces. Diversification of Russi’ economy has boen a stated goal of Putin and Medvedev. Foreign Relations with Eastern Europe ‘Russia remains the dominant power controling affairs with its easter European neighbors ‘even after the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russias hegemony is exemplified by the case of Georgia mentioned previously, and that of Ukraine. Ukraine suffers through extremely eold winters and is dependent on Russian natural gas heat homes. The Ukrainian government heavily subsidizes its eitzen’ use of natural gas fr this purpose. Russia has often used nat ‘al gas a8 ato! of contro in diplomacy with Ukraine, cltng off acess at exueial moments of Ukrainian ngotations over trade or other matters with Western Burope. Ukrainian polities {nernally hasbeen divided between pro-Russian and antl-Russlan parties in recent decades, ‘wth Putin personally backing pro-tusian candidates with money, advisor, al even a paign appearances by Putin himself, When protests in Ukraine forced pro-Russlan President Viklor Yanukovich 1 vesign, Russia granted asylum to Yanukovich and invaded eastern ‘Uaine, starting the ers leading co the annexation of Crimea. Foreign Relations with the West Before the collapse ofthe Sovlet Union, dhe USSR was regatded a the opposing polar super power aginst the United Sates. Russia has lost ts superpower status, and has had to cope ‘with a world in which the United States is now a clea hegemon, While Yelsins presidency