endorsed for PDF COMPILED BY SAAD edexcel Edexcel AS/A level BIOLOGY B 1 Ann Fullick PEARSONPublished by Pearson Education Limited, 90 Strand, London WC2R ORL. ‘www pearsonschoolsandfecclleges co uk Copies of oficial specifications for all Edexcel qualifications may be found on the website vveww.edexcelcom Text © Ann Fullick ‘Exam-style questions © Pearson Education Limited Baited by Natalie Bayne and Jo Egré Designed by Elizabeth Amous for Pearson Education Limited ‘Typeset by Tech-Set Ltd, Gateshead (Oniginallustrations © Pearson Education Limited 2015, Mlustrated by Tech-Set Lid, Gateshead and Peter Bull Art Suidio Cover design by Elizabeth Amoux for Pearson Education Limited Picture research by Caitlin Swain (Cover photo illustration © Science Photo Library/King's College London ‘The rights of Ann Fullick and Graham Hartland to be identified as authors ofthis work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, First published 2008 Second ecition published 2015 19181716 10987654 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data ‘A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 9781447001144 Copyright notice All rights reserved. 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Clinical ‘ophthalmology, 5, 577 (2011), Clinieal Ophthalmology by Society for Clinical Ophthalmology (Creat Britain) Reproduced with permussion ‘of Tove Medical Press Limited inthe format Republish ina book via Copyright Clearance Center, Figure on page 203 from the front cover of the DEFRA publication "What nature can do for you’, hitps:// ‘wwe gov.uk/ government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_ {ata /fle/221097/pb 3897 -nature-do-for-you pa, Published by the Depariment for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs. © Crown Copyright 2010; Figure on page 240 from http://www.abpischools, ‘org.uk? page/modules/breathingandasthma/asthma? cfen, ABPL Resources for Schools, Association ofthe British Pharmaceutical Industry (ABP with permission, Text Article on page 32 from "Trehalose: an intriguing diseccharide ‘with potential for medical application in ophthalmology’. Clinical ophthalmology, 5,577 (2011), Clinical Ophthalmology by Society for Clinical Ophthalmology (Great Britain) Reprocuced with permission of Dove Medical Press Limited in the format Republish in a book via Copyright Clearance Center, Article on page 106 adapted trom ‘Deadly Ebola virus “could spread globally” alter plane brings itto Nigeria’, Daily Mail 28/07/2014 (Nick Fagge). Daily Mail: Article on page 106 adapted from ‘Epidemiology and surveillance hito// www. afro who int/en/ clusters-a-programmes/dpe/epidemic-a-pandemic- alert-and- response outbreak-nevis/4236-ebola-virus-disease-west- afriea-29 july-2014 him. © Copyright World Health Organization (WHO) ~ Regional Office for Arica. 2013. Al rights reserved. Article on page 106 from htrp:/ /ww walesnhsuk/stesplus/888/ page/74508, Public Health Wales; Extact on page 146 adapted from ‘In vitro ferlisation’, Heinemann Library (Flick, A); Poetry con page 168 trom "Oxford Ragwor’ (Short, G), with permission from Anthony Short; Article on page 168 adapted from ‘Quagga rebreeding 2 success story, Farmer's Weekly (Harvey. K), © 2014 Fanner’s Weekly Magazine: Anicle on page 188 from ‘A vapid loas cf stipes: the evolutionary history ofthe extinct ouages’. September 2008 Volume: 1 Issue: 3 (Jennifer A. Leonard et al), Copyright © 2014, The Royal Society; Anicle on page 240 from hitp.// www. abpischools org uk/page/modales/ breathingandasthna/asthma7, clin, ABP] Resources for Schools, Association of the British Pharmaceutical Industry (ABPI) with permission; Article on page 200 from Encyclopedia of Life Sciences, John Wiley & Sons, Lid (Turgor Prossure by Jeremy Prichard, University of Birmingham 2001) © 2001, John Wiley & Sons, Lid Reproduced with permission of Blackwell Publishing, ‘The Publisher would lke to thank Chris Curtis and Wade Nottingham {for their contributions tothe Maths skills section of this book. ‘The author would like to acknowledge and thank the teams at Science and Plants for Schools (SAPS), the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute ‘and the ABPI for their valuable input. The author would also like to thank the following for their support and individual contributions Dr Jeremy Pritchard: Alice Kelly: Amy Ekins-Coward: Tony Short ‘Wiliam Pulls Thomas Pulick: James Fulick, Eéward Pulick Chris Short, Every effort has been madle to contact copyright holders of material reproduced in this book. Any omissions will be rectified in subsequent printings iF notice is given to the publishersContents How to use this book TOPIC 1 Biological molecules 1.1 Chemistry for life 1 Chemistry for lie Exam-style questions 1.2. Biological molecules 1 1 Carbohydrates 1 ~ monosaccharides and. disaccharides 2 Catbchydrates 2 ~ polysaccharides 3 Lipids 4 Proteins Thinking Exam-style questions 1.3 Biological molecules 2 Nucleotides and ATP Nucleic acids How DNA works ‘The genetic code DNA and protein synthesis Gene mutation -xam-style questions 1.4 Enzymes 1 Emymes 2. How enzymes work 3. Enzyme inhibition Thinking Bigger Exam-style questions 6 10 14 16 18 at 25 28 32 34 36 38 42 47 50 52 54 56 58 62 64 66 TOPIC 2 Cells and viruses 2.1 Eukaryotic cells 1 Observing cells 2 Cell membranes 3. Eukaryotic cells 1 - common cellular structures 4 Bukaryotic cells 2~ protein transport 5 Eukaryotic cells 3— plant cell structures 6 Eukaryotic cells 4— plant organelles, 7 The organisation of cells Exam-style questions 2.2. Prokaryotic cells 1 Prokaryotic cells 2 Viruses 3 Controlling viral infections ‘Thinking Bigger Exam-style questions 2.3. Eukaryotic cell division - mitosis 1 The cell eycle 2 Mitosis 3 Asexual reproduction 4. Growth and repair ‘Thinking Bigger Examstyle questions 24. Meiosis and sexual reproduction 1 Sexual reproduction and meiosis, 2 Mutations 3 Gametogenesis, 4 Fentlsation in mammals and plants 5 Embryo development in mammals, ‘Thinking Bigger Exam-style questions 68 70 14 76 20 83 86 88 90 92, 94 98 102 106 108 uo 12 ana uur 120 122 124 126 128 132 135 140 143 148 148TOPIC 3 Classification 3.1 Classification 1 Principles of classification 2 What isa species? 3. Identifying individual species, 4 New evidence for evolution 5 Domains, kingdoms or both? ‘Thinking Bigger Exam-style questions 3.2. Natural selection 1 Evolution and adaptation 2 Natural sel 3 The evolutionary race between pathogens and ‘medicines 4 Speciation ‘Thinking Bigger Exam-style questions ction in action 33. Biodiversity 1 The importance of biodiversity 2 Biodiversity within a species 3. Beosystem services 4 Exam-style questions Ex-situ and in-situ conservation 150 152 154 158 160 182. 168 170 172 174 178 181 183 188 190 192 194 199 202 204 208 TOPIC 4 Exchange and transport 41 Celltransport mechanisms 1 Transport in cols 2, Diffusion and facilitated diffusion 3 Osmosis —a special case of diffusion 4. Active transport Exam-style questions 4.2. Gas exchange 1 The need for gas exchange surfaces 2. The mammalian gas exchange system 3 Gas exchange in insects 4 Gas exchange in fish 5 Gas exchange in plants ‘Thinking Bigger Exam-style questions 43. Circulation Principles of circulation ‘The roles of the blood ‘Transporting oxygen and carbon dioxide Blood circulation ‘The human heart Controlling the heart Atherosclerosis Risk factors for atherosclerosis ‘Tissue fluid and lymph ‘Thinking Bigger Exam-style questions 44 Transportin plants 1 Transport tissues in plants 2. The uptake of water by plants 3 Translocation of sucrose Thinking Bigger Exam-style questions Maths skills Preparing for your exams Glossary Index a 210 212 214 216 220 222 224 226 228 232 234 236 240 242 244 246 248 250 254 257 260 263 266 270 272 274 276 278 281 287 290 292 294 300 306 316How to use this book ‘Welcome to your Edexcel AS/A level Biology B course. In this book you will ind a number of features designed to support your learning, Chapter openers Each chapter starts by setting the context for that haprer’ lernings + Link to other areas of Biology are shown. incuding previous knowlege tha isbult on in the capex, fn fitue earring that you wll cover ater in yur course + The All the maths you need checklist helps you 9 teow hat maths sls willbe equ Main content ‘The main part of each chapter covers all the points from the spectfication that you need to learn, The text is supported by diagrams and photos that will help you understand the concepts, Within each section, you will ind the following features: + Learning objectives at the beginning of each section, highlighting what you need to know and understand, + Key definitions shovm in bold and collated at the ‘end of each section for easy reference. + Worked examples showing you how to work through questions, and how your calculations should be set out, + Learning tips to help you focus your learning and avoid common errors. + Did you know? boxes featuring interesting facts to help you remember the key concepts. + Questions to help you check whether you have understood what you have just read, and whether there is anything that you need to look at again,Thinking Bigger “The book festures a number of Thinking Bigger spreads that give you an opportunity to ead and work with real ie esearch and ‘writing abour science. The timeline atthe bottom of the spreads highlights which of the chapters the material relates to, These spreads will help you to + read real-life material that’s relevant to your course + analyse how scientists write + think eiteally and consider the issues + develop your own writing + understand how diferent aspeets of your leaming piece together Exam-style questions At the end of each chapter there are also cexam-style questions to hep you to + test how filly you have understood the leaning + practise for your exams. Getting the most from your online ActiveBook ‘This book comes with 3 years’ access to ActiveBook* — an online, digital version of your textbook. Follow the instructions printed on the inside front cover to start sing your ActiveBook. Your ActiveBook is the perfect way o personalise your learning, as you progress through your Edexcel AS/A level Biology course. You can: + access your content online, anytime, anywhere + use the inbuilt highlighting and annotation tools to personalise the content and make it really relevant to you + search the content quickly using the index. Highlight tool Use this to pick out key terms or topics so you are ready and prepared for revision Annotations tool Use this to add your own notes, for example links to your wider reading, such as websites or other files. Ormake a note to remind yourself about work that you need to do. “For new purchases cn IF this access code has aleady been revealed may no longerbe val. If you have bought his testhock secondhand, the code may steady have been usec by te fist owner of te BookWh Chemistry for life ‘A ralt spider Dolomedes fimbriatus sits on the surface of the water, hidden by the stems of water plants, waiting for the vibrations in the surface tension that alert her to the presence of her prey. She is lage - up ta 23 mm across - yet water-repelient hairs enable her to run across the surfac her victims. These ae usually agus vital For ths semiaquatic spider = and for ebrates that also live on or near the lite on Earth, er surface. Water is nit of life i the cell, and un Biology isthe study of living things. The chemistry! The way atoms ace bonded together affects the way chemicals work int atfects everyting, from the way plants make food by photosynthesis to the way your eyes respond to light In this chapter you will be looking at some ofthe key ways in which atoms and molecules interact to ‘make up the chemistry of life. You wil be using these basic principles the course, because they underpin the structures and functions of al the of ms you wil stud Around Jo-thitds ofthe surface of the Earth is covered in water and around two-thirds of your body is water. The oceans, rivers and lakes of the world are teeming with lifeand ll the reactions in your cells take place in solution i water. In this chapter you will be applying your knowledge of the basic ‘chemical principles to help you understand just why water ie £0 vita for life Recognise and make appropriate use of units in calculation iimetres) (eg. Use ratios (eg. representing the elationPane vac cd > Ronewsrerescene OO Sener = Tien irra eI (neuer b oe ee Oe rpicyeie ce ce la Se Reg ea > RS peaerelr ree Ponte eenee reece ear ore ee rbot Eon ee eee eee rc Water is needed for photosynthesis ee ee Pee eenenen cert mae + Theimportace of vaterin plant movements : eae ene co eee erg hg Peer n na a Ten) NW irran cr aU Rated ayer ence tent Seer ee ee bonding ee eee Reeve irereuenneter finerierenrias Cary ‘The importance of inorganic fons in organisms, - Coonan eter et eet ee reer) pene a eee ee] a ee Me earn ee ane eee Poet Seen eee aChemistry for life By the end of this section, you should be able to.. © explain the role of inorganic ions in plants © explain the importance of the dipole nature of water in the formation of hydrogen bonds and ‘he significance of some of the properties of water to the organisms lonic and covalent bonding Biology isthe study of living things bt ving tings are made up of chemicals If you understand Some of the basic principles of chemistry you vil alsa develop a much beter understanding of biological systems, The chemical bonds within nd between molecules affect the properties ofthe compounds they form Thsin ur affects the functions within te cell andthe orgasm. fig Ai if depends on some very fundamental chemistry The single basic unit ofall elements is the atom, When the atoms of two or more elements react they form a compound. An atom is mace up of a nucleus containing positive protons and neutral neutrons surrounded by negative electrons, We model these electrons as orbiting around the nucleus in shells. When an atom has a full outer shell of electrons itis stable and does not react. However, ‘most atoms do not have @ fll cuter shell of electrons. In chemical reactions, they are involved in changes that give them a stable outer shell. There are to ways they can achieve this: + Tonic bonding: the atoms involved in the reaction donate or receive electrons. The atom, or part of the molecule, gains one or more electrons and becomes a negative ion (anion). The other atom, or part of the molecule, loses one or more electrons and becomes a positive ion (cation). ‘Strong forces of attraction called ionic bonds hold the oppositely charged ions together MAY AIA OP OO + or « represents, tigen = G2 > fol BY a fig The formation of sodium chloride (sal) an inorganic substance thats very important inliving organisms, an sample of.on bondi 10re + Covalent bonding: the atoms involved in the reaction share electrons, Covalent bonds are very strong and the molecules formed are usually neural However. in some covalent compounds, the ‘molecules are slightly pola'sed, The electrons inthe covalent bonds are not quite evenly shared. “This means the molecule has a part tha ssightly negative and a part that is slightly positive. This, separation of charge is called a dipole, and the tiny charges are represented as 6° and 6 (see fig D) “The molecule is described as.a polar molecule. This polarity is particularly common if ane or more hydrogen atoms are involved inthe bond Oo © & + He ——> HH ( 0 @) hydrogen hydrogen ——_—hycrogen atom atom molecule H+ 3: > mde ) ‘n Ga) 2a) hycrogen —hydrogen—_oxygen atom vrater molecule som atom fig The formation ef hydrogen molecules and water molecules are examples of covalent bonding Be clear about the difference between ionic substances, charged particles and polar molecules The importance of inorganic ions When ionic substances are dissolved in water the ions separate. Cells are 60-70% water, and so in living organisms most ionic substances exist as positive and negative ions, Many of these ions play specialised roles in individual cells and in the functioning of entire organisms, Here are some of the ‘inorganic ions you will meet as you study biology, with an indication of one ar more of their roles: Important anions + nitrate ions (NO;") ~ needed in plants for the formation of amino acids and therefore proteins from the products of photosynthesis, and also for the formation of DNA «+ phosphate ions (PO,?~) — needed in all living organisms including plants and animals in the formation of ATP and ADP as well as DNA and RNA + chloride ions (Cl+)- needed in nerve impulses and many secretory systems + hydrogen carbonate ions (HCO,”) — needed for buffering the blood to prevent it from becoming 109 acidic Important cations + sodium ions (Na*) — needed in nerve impulses and many secretory systems + calcium ions (Ca?) — needed forthe formation of calcium pectate for the middle lamella between two cell walls in plants, and forbone formation and muscle contraction in animals + hydrogen ions (H")~ needed in cellular respiration and photosynthesis, and in numerous pumps and systems in organisms as well as pH balance ‘+ magnesium ions (IMg’)~ needed for production of chlorophyll in plants uThe chemistry of water Waters the medium in which all the reactions take place in living cells, Without it, substances could not move around the body ‘Water is one of the reactants in the process of phatesynthesis, con which almost allie depends. And waters a major habitat ~ it supports more life than any other part ofthe planet. Understanding the properties of water will help you understand rmany key systems inlving organisms fig Water etal for fe on Earth in many aiferent way ‘The importance of water 1a biological systems is due to the basie chemistry ofits molecules. The simple chemical formula of water isH,O. This tells us that two atoms of hydrogen are joined to. cone atom of oxygen to make up each water molecule (see fig F) However, because the electrons are held closer to the oxygen ator than to the hycragen ators, water is a polar molecule. Pe N\A i 1045" {ig F Amodel ofa water molecule One of the most important results ofthis charge separation is that water molecules form hydrogen bonds. The slightly negative axygen atom of one water molecule wil attract the slightly positive hydrogen atoms of other water molecules in a ‘weak electrostatic aractian called a hydragen bond. This means thatthe molecules of water ‘sick together’ more than you might otherwise expect, because although each individual hydrogen bond is weak. there area great many’ of them (as shown in fig G) Water has relatively high melting and boiling points compared ‘with other substances that have molecules of a similar siz — it takes more energy to overcome the attractive forges ofall the Iydrogen bonds. Hydrogen bonds are an important concept in biochemistry —for example they play an important part in protein structure (see Section 1.2.4) and in the structure and functioning of DNA (see Section 1.3.2) R figG Hydrogen bonding in water molecules. The importance of water ‘The properties of water make it very important in biological systems for several reasons + Water isa polar solvent. Because water i apolar molecule ‘many ionic substances lke sodium chioide will dissolve in it Many covalently bonded substances are also polar and they +00 will dissolve in water although they often do not dissolve in other covalently bonded solvents such as ethanol. As a result most of the chemical actions within cells occur in water (in ‘aqueous solution). + Water isan excellent anaport medium because so many different substances will dissolve init, Water also carries other substances such as starch that form colloids rather than solutions. + As water cools to 4°C, it reaches its maximum density, As it cools further the malectles become more widely spaced, ‘Asa resul, ice is less dense than water and floats, forming an insulating layer and helping to prevent the water underneath it from freezing. Italso melts quickly because itis at the top, exposed to the sun, Its very unusual for the solid form of chemical to be less dense than the liquid, but as a result of this ‘unusual property, organisms can live in water even in countries where it gets cold enough to freeze in winter + Water is slow to absorb and release heat - it has @ high specific heat capacity. The hydrogen bonds between the molecules mean it takes a lot of energy to separate them. This means the temperature of large bodies of water such as lakes and seas does not change much throughout the year, making them good habitats for living organisms, + Water isa liquid and soit cannot be compressed. This is an Jmportant factor in many lyeraulic mechanisms in ving organisms. + Water molecules are cohesive — the forces between the ‘molecules mean they tick together. This is very important for the movement of water from the rots to the leaves of plants.re + Water molecules are adhesive ~ they are attracted to other different molecules. This is also Jmportant in plant transport systems and in surface tension. + Water has a vory high surface tension because the attraction between the water molecules, including hydrogen bonds, is greater than the atraction etween the water molecules and the air As a result the water molecules hold together forming a thin skin of surface tension. Surf sion is of great importance in plant transport systems, and also affects life atthe surface of ponds, lakes and other water masses. fig wahout surace tension a rat spider could not move 1 How do ionic bonds and covalent bonds differ? 2 Whatare the diferences between onic subsancs and pola substances? 3 How are drogen bonds formed between waler molecules and what eet do they have onthe properties cf vater? 4. The propenesef water fects lin ving organisms Discuss ‘Keydefinitions 0 ‘An anion isa negative ion, formed wien an atom gains electron(s). ‘cation is a positive ion, formed when an atom loses electrons) lonic bonds are attractive forces between oppositely charged ions. Covalent bonds are formed when atoms share electrons. ‘A dipole isthe separation of charge in a molecule when the electrons in covalent bonds are not evenly shared. A polar molecule is molecule containing a dipole. Hydrogen bonds are weak electrostatic intermolecular bonds formed between polar molecules Containing atleast one hydragen atom, B