Professional Documents
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Information Systems Planning Guide Oct78
Information Systems Planning Guide Oct78
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Information
Systems
Planning
Guide
en
Business Systems Planning (BSP) is a
structured approach to help an organization
establish an information systems plan that
en
can satisfy its near- and long-terminforma-
tion needs. This guide offers assistance to
BSP study teams by explaining the approach
z information systems.
The guide covers BSP principles, concepts,
and study overview, then devotes a chapter
en
to each of the major activities of a BSP study,
and includes a fmal chapter to acquaint the
reader with follow-on projects.
::l
m
Second Edition (October 1978)
A form for readers' comments has been provided at the back of this publication. If
the form has been removed, address comments to IBM Corporation, Technical
Publications, Dept. 824, 1133 Westchester Avenue, White Plains, New York 10604.
IBM may use or distribute any of the information you supply in any way it believes
appropriate without incurring any obligation whatever.
1
• The sequenced activities, techniques, disciplines, lished a set of information system strategies covering
time,outputs, planning, team composition, etc., five major areas:
established to fill a particular organization's need 1. Fixed data responsibility
and situation (although consistent with BSP's basic 2. Single source and parallel distribution of data
principles and concepts, the pr6cedures are flexible 3. Central control and planning of information systems
and vary with the particular environment) 4. Organizational independence of data
5. Resource sharing of data, equipment, and
Origin of IBM's Business Systems communications
Planning Function With the knowledge of what was being done with
Learning from its own mistakes and those of other data processing, and the direction established through
companies that attempted to implement large informa- the set of strategies, the department defined a network
tion systems in the 1960s, IBM realized that a disci- . of information systems and assigned responsibilities for
plined approach was required, using proven principles the development of the systems. These systems ad-
and methodologies. In 1966 a business-wide Informa- dressed the operational, functional, and general
tion Systems Control and Planning Department was management needs for information.
established at IBM'S Data Processing Group headquar- As the definition and design efforts for the business-
ters. The Data Processing Group was a total business wide network of information systems got under way in
unit comprising the engineering, manufacturing, the late 1960s, many of IBM's customers showed
marketing, and service divisions responsible for all of interest in learning how they might better manage their
IBM'S domestic data processing business. information system resources. In an effort to assist
Until the Control and Planning Department was these interested customers, IBM established the Busi-
established, IBM had little overall direction in the ness Systems Planning (BSP) program in 1970.
internal use of computers. In fact, little coordination To conduct the program, the nucleus of the control
took place between divisions; most data processing and planning department that developed the internal
activities were confined to locations and units within information systems plan was transferred to the Data
divisions. Consequently, each manufacturing plant Processing Division headquarters. This group proceed-
and marketing region developed and operated its own ed to document proven methodologies and institute a
system. Although the individual systems carried out training program to educate regional and branch office
similar functions, they differed in design and perfor- personnel and customers in the approach. Executive
mance; they could not be used interchangeably and briefings and seminars were established to show
could not communicate with each other. The result customer executives the potential benefits of the
was a redundancy of data and excessive use of th~ data approach and the reasons why their involvement was
processing resources required to develop and maintain vital to successful implementation of information
such systems. Even with this large expenditure of systems.
resources by each division, the systems were mainly The methods used in developing this information
satisfying the local department needs of the business, systems plan and the lessons learned have since been
rather than doing an overall data processing job. used by many IBM customers. Application of BSP
When steps were taken to improve the data processing methodology has helped them to formulate their
within a division (for example, development of a information system plans and control mechanisms and
consoli,dated order entry system within the marketing to improve their use of information and data process-
division), little serious attention was given to an ing resources. Studies using the BSP methodology and
effective interface of that system with inputs from guidelines have been conducted successfully by profit
engineering and outputs to manufacturing. The and nonprofit organizations, of varying size, in many
business was not getting the return on investment from industries.
data processing that it could have because the informa-
tion needs of the business, and particularly those of the O~ctives and Potential Benefits of
generalll)anager responsible for the business, were not B -
being accommodated. With a reasonable amount of planning and control, the
The first effort of the Control and Planning Depart- user of this BSP approach should be able to attain its
ment was to inventory and profile the systems existing- objectives and realize its potential benefits.
within the business and the plans for the future. At the
same time, recognizing that the data processing effort Objectives
must be directed toward satisfying business needs and The first and most important objective of BSP is to
not solely toward individual functions and depart- provide an information systems plan that supports the
ments, the Control -and Planning Department estab- business's short- and long-term information needs and
2
is integral with the business plan. There are other Potential Benefits
objectives that help to justify and clarify the approach: Application of the approach and methodology con-
1. Provide a formal, objective method for management tained in this planning guide offers many potential
to establish information systems priorities without benefits to three management groups:
regard to provincial interests. To executive management:
2. Provide for the development of systems that have a • An evaluation of the effectiveness of current infor-
long life, protecting the systems investment, because mation systems
these systems are based upon the business processes • A defined, logical approach to aid in solving man-
that are generally unaffected by organizational agement control problems from a business
. changes. perspective
3. Provide that the data processing resources are • An assessment of future information system needs
managed for the most efficient and effective support based on business-related impacts and priorities
of the business goals. • A planned approach that will allow an early return
4. Increase executive confidence that high-return, on the company's information systems investment
major information systems will be produced. • Information systems that are relatively independent
5. Improve relationships between the information of organization structure
systems department and users by providing for • Confidence that information system direction and
systems that are responsive to user requirements and adequate management attention exist to implement
priorities. the proposed systems
6. Identify data as a corporate resource that should be To functional and operational management:
planned, managed, and controlled in order to be • A defined, logical approach to aid in solving man-
used effectively by everyone. agement control and operational control problems
The illustration below shows the overall flow of BSP • Consistent data to be used and shared by all users
and relates the BSP study to the activities that follow. • Top management involvement to establish organiza-
This relationship is expanded upon in Chapter 16, with tional objectives and direction, as well as agreed-
an explanation of the foll()w-on activities. upon system priorities
Step Output • Systems that are management and user oriented
rather than data processing oriented
Analysis To information systems management:
Evaluation of BSP Scope of study
• Top management communication and awareness
• . Agreed-upon system priorities
• A better long-range planning base for data process-
ing resources and funding
Objectives • Personnel
I
better trained and more experienced in
Executive
commitment
Team leader planning data processing to respond to business
Study team
needs
The plan that results from a BSP study should not be
considered unchangeable; it simply represents the best
Education
thinking at a certain point in time. The real value of
Preparation for the BSP approach is that it offers the opportunity to
Work plan
BSP study
Business facts (1) create an environment and an initial plan of action
that can enable a business to react to future changes in
priorities and 'direction without radical disruptions in
Business requirements
systems design, and (2) define an information system
BSP study Information architecture function to continue the planning process.
Architectural priorities
liS management
Action plan
Information architecture
Follow-on
First system(s)
projects lIS management
Data management
lIS planning
3
Chapter 1. BSP Concepts
Business Systems Planning is most often thought of as be done as a part of the BSP methodology. In either
a structured approach or methodology. This meth- event, a recognition of this basic need by senior
odology, however, is based upon some fundamental management is critical, for only with that recognition
concepts, a good understanding of which can give the will their commitment and involvement be great
BSP study team members: enough to guarantee a meaningful BSP study.
I. A better appreciation of the ';;why's" of the
methodology An lIS Strategy Should Address the Needs of All ",.•'
2. Improved confidence in applying variations to meet Levels of Management Within the Business
specific situations This requirement has several implications relative to
3. A better background with which to communicate liS structure. First, it is important to recognize the
the objectives and eventual recommendations to varying characteristics of information as needed by
senior management different activities and management levels. Typically,
The premise for conducting a BSP study is that there lower levels need considerable detail, volume, and
exists witb.in the organization a need for significantly frequency, higher levels need summaries, "exception"
improved ]computer-based information systems (liS) reporting, and inquiries, and still higher levels need
and a need for an overall strategy to attain them. BSP is cross-functional summaries, special requests, "what if'
concerned with how these information systems should analyses, "external" requirements, etc. It would be
be structured, integrated, and implemented over the impractical to construct a single system to accommo-
long term. The basic concepts of BSP can be· related to date all activities or management levels, and it would
the long-term objectives for liS in an organization. be erroneous to associate anyone type of information
requirement solely with one management level.
An lIS Must Support the Goals and Objectives of the Clearly, there is need to establish some reasonable
Business framework upon which the liS can be defined.
This most basic concept underlies the "top down" First, the emphasis in liS should be in support of
philosophy of the methodology as well as several of the management decision making. This is in contrast to
specific steps, such as executive interviews·and system more traditional bookkeeping or recordkeeping
priorities. functions. Business decisions are made for various
Since information systems can be an integral part of purposes, but most can be associated with either
a business and be critical to its overall effectiveness, planning or control. Planning, of course, is the estab-
and because they will continue to represent major lishment of various missions, objectives, and policies,
investments of time and money, it is essential that they and it occurs at all levels. Good information is vital to
support the organization's true business needs and the establishment of good plans. Control decisions, on
directly influence its objectives. BSP, then, can be the other hand, are made in order to guide an activity
thought of as a vehicle or process to translate business toward some implicit or defined (by the plan) objec-
strategy into liS strategy (see Figure I). tive. The liS can provide the measurements of the
current or actual condition to the decision maker . We
thus complete a planning, measurement and control
Business BSP I/S Strategy cycle with liS potentially an integral part. Since
Strategy planning and control are the keys to decision making, a
Mission I/S Objectives framework for liS based upon these activities can be
Goals and I/S Strategic ... I/S Policies utilized. It has been proposed, * and well accepted
objectives Planning Process ... Information
Strategies Architecture today, that three distinct but concurrent planning and
control levels exist in any organization:
Strategic planning, the process of deciding on
objectives of the organization, on the resources used
to attain these objectives, and on the policies that
Figure 1. Translation of business strategy to liS strategy are to govern the acquisition, use, and disposition of
resources
Obviously, it is important that an organization be
willing and able to express its long-term goals and
objectives. For some organizations, this can be done Planning and Control Systems: A Frame-
*Anthony, R.N.
principally through the business plan. For others, work for Analysis, Harvard Business School, Division of
where a business plan is not available or current, it can Research, 1965.
4
Management control, the process by which managers An liS Should Provide Consistency of Information
assure that resources are obtained and used effi- Throughout the Organization
ciently in the accomplishment of the organization's The keyword in this objective is consistency. The
objectives implication is that information derived from more
Operational control, the process of assuring that traditional data processing applications is not necessar-
specific tasks are carried out effectively and ily consistent, particularly when applied to new
efficiently business problems (decision areas) of broader scope.
Further characteristics of these areas are outlined in The problems in data consistency normally arise as a
Figure 2. An advantage of this framework is that it result of a historical evolution of computer usage that
does not restrict planning and control activity to any traditionally occurs. Isolated and independent applica-
particular industry, function, or management level. A tion areas are selected and mechanized, typically to
conclusion at this point is that an ljS could convenient- reduce operational costs. The'data files are defined as
ly address itself to anyone of the above three planning necessary to support the specific needs of each applica-
and control levels. tion without regard to one another or to future applica-
Resource management is also key to this philosophy tions. The data itself is converted from manual files
and represents a major vehicle for US definition. The located and maintained by the using organization.
specific resources to be managed vary in nature and As computer applications are added, new data files
relative importance from one organization to the next. are usually required since the data requirements for
Examples of traditional resources to be managed are different applications are rarely the same. These are
people, facilities, materials and money. Their require- usually created from spinoffs of existing mechanized
ments are based upon the needs to support the prime files plus any additional data that may be required
mission area of the organization, e.g., its products or from the using area. Summary-type reports for higher
services. Because an organization's product or service management levels are the result of sorting and merg-
area has all the attributes of a resource, i.e., a life cycle ing various existing data files together to create new
of activities and decision points, and yet drives the ones. Rarely is any existing data file of the form or
other resources, it is referred to as the "key resource." content required to provide newly requested informa-
Each resource, including the key resource, is managed tion of any magnitude. Thus new data files are born.
through planning and control decisions of the three Data redundancies and file update requirements
levels previously discussed. Resource management has multiply. The continual cry from management that "I
the desired characteristic of cutting across organiza- know the data that I need is somewhere in data proc-
tional boundaries - vertically across management essing, but I can't get at it" may be basically true from
levels and horizontally across functional lines. Thus a their point of view. The data may be there, but not
framework based on resources as well as planning and necessarily defined as needed, of adequate summary
control levels can be established, and an US architec- level or sequence, or of proper time period or currency.
ture can be applied within this framework.
Data Summaries, estimates, dif- Summaries, definable, need Detail, operational, defin-
requirements ficult to pre-define, much for unanticipated forms, able, internally generated
external to business largely internal
5
Data, then, exists in most organizations in varying and should be managed accordingly. It should be
form, definition, and time. The form may be uncaptured potentially available to and shared by the total business
raw data, mechanized data files, detailed DP reports, unit on a consistent basis. It should not be controlled
summarized DP reports, business documents, or by a limited organizational segment but by a central
knowledge in someone's head. The definition of any coordinator, much like other corporate resources, such
given data can have as many variations, and thus as cash and personnel. The management function
inconsistencies, as there are users of that data. For would include formulating policies and procedures for
example, "salary" to the payroll department may mean consistent definition, sourcing, technical implementa-
an employee's actual monthly pay, to the project tion, use, and security of the data.
manager an annual figure plus burden to be charged to
a customer, to the department manager a budget line An lIS Should Be Able to Live Through Organization-
item representing total expense for all reporting al and Management Change
employees. In addition, a time inconsistency is very Many data processing systems and applications are set
likely to exist between what may otherwise be compa- up to provide the information needs of a specific
rable data. Data may be captured by such varying department or other organizational entity. Others are
methods as the mail, telephone, data terminals, or built solely on the specific output report requirements
satellites. It may be "batched" over varying lengths of of a particular manager. Both types can become
time by the user or by OP before processing, or it may immediately obsolete upon a reoganization or manage-
be entered "online" as each transactiorl occurs, directly ment change. A new manager may have his own ideas
from its source. Data may be processed daily, weekly, as to what information is needed to run the depart-
or monthly on a predetermined schedule, or it may be ment. While this kind of change is inevitable, it can be
incapable of being processed until a series of prior expensive from a data processing standpoint. The data
computer runs are completed (e.g., the month-end processing system, however, should in no way inhibit
closing). The output itself may be mailed or it could be management flexibility in a dynamic enterprise. Thus,
immediately available as the result of an online the liS must anticipate and be capable of living through
inquiry. Finally, the report may be up to the second, as the long-term organizational and management changes
when reading from a terminal, or it may have lain in a of a business with minimum impact if the expected
desk for three weeks after last month's processing. The return on investments is to be realized.
combinations of time deviations between data capture, This objective cannot be realized without the proper
data processing activity, and actual data usage are support vehicle for liS, and this vehicle must be
many. independent of the various components of the organi-
With all these potential data inconsistencies, it is no zational structure. The BSP vehicle is the business
wonder that reports frequently don't "match" between process, that is, a basic activity and decision area
using departments and managers. This becomes a irrespective of any reporting hierarchy or specific
problem most often during interdepartmental decision- management responsibility. A logical set of these
making or at higher reporting levels where consolida- processes can be defined for any type of business and
tion of multifunction activities is important. Attempts will undergo minimum change as long as the product
to provide better data consistency usually result in or service area of the business remains basically the
"resystematizing" or "consolidating" existing applica- same.
tions into larger ones with broader problem scope and One example of a business process is purchasing. A
data definitions. This may yield a satisfactory system particular business might define this as "the process by
within the defined scope, but again, as still broader which raw materials are acquired from vendors." There
problems are addressed, there will undoubtedly be data mayor may not be a separate organizational unit to·'
inconsistencies between the larger systems. Resystem- accomplish this process, or indeed there may be
atizing at this scope may be extremely expensive and several. Inherent within this process are the various
difficult to justify, let alone accomplish. Comments activities and decisions necessary to accomplish the
prevail such as "our systems cannot talk to one process.
another." Defining the organization's business processes is one
What has been described is the classical "bottom of the most important parts of the BSP methodology,
up" evolution of data processing systems. In. order to and the method for doing so is tied directly to the
begin to address the data consistency problem, a previously discussed l/S framework, that is, one based
different philosophy must be adopted relative to data on resoOrces and planning and control levels. With
management. This is commonly referred to as this in mind it is convenient to define an organization's
managing data as a resource. This concept suggests that business processes in association with each of its
data is of considerable overall value to an organization defined resources. Emphasis in· BSP is normally placed
6
upon those processes necessary to manage the key
resource. Each resource of a business can be thought of Business
objectives
as having a "life cycle" made up of several stages. A
product life cycle, for example, has four stages: re-
quirements, ,acquisition, stewardship, and retirement.
The time spread of the life cycle can vary greatly with Business Business
the particular product area but is of no consequence in processes objectives
this approach. Business processes can be identified to
describe the major activities performed and decisions
made by the business in the course of managing the
t
resource throughout its life cycle. These can normally Business Business
organization processes
be organized into a process hierarchy, and this is done
without regard to organizational involvement or
responsibility. ~ .. T
The above approach results in process definitions Data
Information
processing
that encompass the three planning and control levels applications systems
previously discussed - namely, strategic planning,
management control, and operational control. Using a
product resource as the example again, the decision to
t
pursue a particular product area would be "strategic Data Data
files bases
planning," the planning and control decisions relative
to product volumes or advertising expenditures would
be "management control," and the decisions in areas of t
engineering control, manufacturing efficiency, etc., Data
would be "operational control." By using this approach classes
for all the resources it is possible to define all the
business processes that take place within any organiza- ~--- Planning ----I~~II--- Design and ----t~~1
tional segment. This may be tempered by practicality implementation
in the actual BSP as there may be little I/S support. Figure 3" Top-down analysis with bottom-up it:nplementation
interest for some of the resources.
7
Step 1 Step 2 systems can draw on these data bases as well as new
Define the Define the ones that they will create and maintain.
business
objectives
.
...... business
processes
I--- Most of the identified I/S areas will normally be in
support of processes that are operational in nature. .
That is, the decision areas inherent in the processes WIll
Step 3 Step 4 relate to the "operational control" level of planning
Define the and control. Thus these I/S's are sometimes referred to
~
Define the --..
... information as operational control systems. The ma~aged data is
data classes architecture also at an operational level and is typified by much
detail and quantity. A management control system, on
Figure 4. General I/S planning approach the other hand (Figure 5), is in support of a
"management control" category of processes. Its
A significant piece of the BSP methodology is the
managed data would typically b~ summariz~tions of
formulation of a recommended information architec-
the internally generated operational data (dotted lines
ture. The intent is to develop an implementation
strategy that can be built in modules and yet provide
in the figure) plusany other data (competitive data, for
example) as necessary to'support the processes. By
justifiable return to the business at each step. These
having "business plan" data in the data base, the .
modules or implementable pieces are generally referred executive could effect control decisions by companng
to as information systems (I/S). Each could be thought
actual versus plan tor his area of responsibility.
of as the depository or management point'for a particu- In summary, there are a number of basic concepts
lar set of the data classes. As the data classes are
and philosophies relative to information systems upon
implemented (assumed through d~ta base technology),
which the BSP methodology is based. The methodology
it is possible to provide the information needs for itself should be considered flexible in nature. That is,
various business processes. Each I/S then normally certain steps and techniques could be altered in order
becomes associated with one or more business process- to adapt to specific situations without detriment to the
es and one or more data classes (see Figure 5). The
final outcome. However, these basic concepts them-
implementation strategy should obviously be in tune
selves should be considered inviolate. They, in effect,
with the business needs. An identified I/S is responsi-
are BSP.
ble for the collection and maintenance of its data bases
for the entire business. Other, or later implemented,
8
Product Planning
Distribution Manufacturing
,, Management Control
/
/
/
Marketing
/
Administration
9
Chapter 2. Overview of the BSP Study Approach
The keys to success in planning, developing, and undertaken and implemented over time. In addition to
implementing an information architecture that effec- information systems projects, there is also a continuing
tively supports the business goals are: set of projects covering information architecture and
• Top-down planning with bottom-up implementation information systems management (ISM). Identification
• Managing data as a corporate resource of overall business requirements is not reiterative
• Orientation around business processes unless a major change occurs within the business unit
• Use of a proven, comprehensive methodology that would change the basic business processes.
Chapter I examined the first three at some length. BSP is a methodology for identifying the business
This chapter gives an overview of a proven methodolo- requirements. If an entire business were not included
gy for the BSP study which will be delineated in more in the BSP study, but only a component such as one
detail in the following chapters. profit center, additional BSP studies would be appropri-
ate for other business components.
Perspective In the past, and in many businesses today, projects
Since BSP is part of an overall cycle for providing the are defined to address a functional area of the business
business with required information, it should be put without regard to the total requirements of the business
into perspective. As Figure 6 shows, there is a major unit. BSP can provide overall direction for the total
juncture between identification of overall business business before projects are undertaken and therefore
requirements and the six project phases for implement- avoid the fractionalization of data and inconsistencies
ing an IjS. Requirements are identified for a total of systems.
business unit and then separated into projects that are
I I I I I
II III IV V VI
Project 2
II III IIV V VI
Project 3
Overall Business
II III IV V VI
Requirements
(SSP)
Project 4
III IV V VI
Project n
II III I IV V VI
--------------------------------------------time--------------~ljl~------------------------~~
Project Phases (Optional)
I. Requirements definition "I. I nternal design V. System test
II. External design IV. Program development VI. Installation and maintenance
10
The top-down, bottom-up aspects of the BSP study ~aining the I.
are reflected in the following: ~mmitment-.J
Business
objectives
Business
objectives I
r
Preparing
for the
I
LstUdY ~
Business Business
Conducting
processes processes
the kickoff
meeting
Organi-
Defining
zation business
processes
Data
processing Information
support systems
Data
Determining
the executive
perspective'
The study progresses from the very broad world in
which the business exists down to the data required to
run the business. The data is categorized into data Assessing business
classes that lead to the definition of information problems and
benefits
systems to support the business processes and business
objectives. The study starts with a collection of facts
about the business that are usually available in docu-
mented form throughout the organization. These facts
are organized, abstracted, and analyzed by the study
team and enhanced by the top executive, who explains
the business and adds those points usually not docu-
mented. The study progresses to an identification of
the major activities and decision processes in the
business and then each of the executives is asked to
validate and enlarge upon the facts that have been
gathered and analyzed. The analysis ends with the
consolidation and comparison of the facts from all
Developing recom-
sources. From this understanding the study follows the mendations and
normal path of findings and conclusions, recommenda- action plan
tions, action plan, and executive presentation for
concurrence and support.
Major Activities
As Figure 7 indicates, there are two major activities
that precede a BSP study and eleven in the study itself. Figure 7. Flow of the BSP study
11
While these activities may be carried out in varying charted, and ready for the kickoff period. This activity
degrees, none can be I omitted. Figure 7 shows these should end with a review by the BSP study sponsor.
activities and their most logical arrangement. When
one becomes fairly familiar with the BSP approach, Conducting the Kickoff Meeting
however, he can, as appropriate, do part of a given The BSP study itself and the full-time participation of
activity and delay the balance. The remainder of this the team members starts with the kickoff meeting,
chapter is a brief commentary on these major activities. which consists of three presentations. First, the
executive sponsor reiterates the objectives, expected
Gaining Commitment outputs, and perspective of the study with relation to
A BSP study should not be started unless a top execu- other company activities and objectives.
tive sponsor and some other executives are committed The next presentation is concerned with the main
to being involved in it. The study must reflect their purpose of the kickoff, which is to provide that each
view of the business, and the success of the study team member is conversant with the information that
depends upon their providing the business understand- has been gathered and to discuss those facts that are
ing and information requirements to the team. Most of not part of the information supplied. To accomplish
the input will come ,directly or indirectly from these this the team leader "walks through" the business facts
executives. that have been gathered and makes subjective com-
Since approval of study recommendations commits ments and additions on facts that cannot be readily
th~ company for several years to a certain direction in documented - politics and sensitive issues, and changes
the use of its data processing resources, it is important planned and in process~ He should also cover the
at the outset to get agreement on the scope and objec- decision process, how the organization functions, key
tives of the study and on its expected deliverables, so as people, major problems, the user's view of DP support,
to minimize future misunderstandings. and the image of the DP department.
The most important action following commitment The third presentation is made by the information
regards selection of the team leader, an executive who systems director or one of his managers, who gives the
will work full time in the study and direct team activi- team a view of data processing analogous to what was
ties. He sees that contact with other executives is on presented for the business. He should also cover
the proper level and that input from them is interpreted project status and project control, history of major data
correctly. A letter from the sponsor to a,ll participating processing projects started in the last two years, major
executives sets the tone and signifies commitment. current activities, planned changes, and major
problems.
Preparing for the Study These three presentations, added to the facts that
Considerable saving of time, avoidance of frustation, have been gathered and made readily available to the
and higher quality of output can be gained by proper team, should give the team an overall understanding of
study preparation. All executive participants and the the business and the present and planned data process-
team need to know what will be done, why, and what is ing support.
expected of them. Proper education and orientation
will provide the best input from the executives and the Defining Business Processes
best use of it by the team. No other activity during the study can be quite as
Interviewees are selected as soon as possible so as to overwhelming or as important as the identifying of the
allow for their orientation, scheduling of interviews, business processes. Since these processes form the
and the providing of information to the study team. basis for executive interviews, the information architec-
F or maximum efficiency on the part of the team in ture, problem analysis, data class identification, and
working together full time during the study, informa- various follow-on activities, everyone on the team must
tion on the company and on data processing support is acquire an understa~ding of all the processes, and they
gathered before the study kickoff. can do so by assisting full time in their identification
A control room is established so that the team may and in the. writing of their descriptions. The major
work together, display relevant material on the walls, output from this step will be a list of all the processes, a
and conduct interviews. description of each, and the identification of those that
The major output should be a study control book are key to the success of the business.
containing: a study work plan; a schedule of interviews
and a schedule of checkpoint reviews with the sponsor; Defining Data Classes
an outline of the final report from the BSP study; and The defining of data classes is the grouping of data into
business and information systems data, analyzed and logically related categories. This classification, and its
12
mbsequent modification during the follow-on projects, show clearly that better information will help to solve
helps the business develop data bases over time with a the problems.
minimum of redundancy and in a manner that allows One of the last activities in assessing the business
systems to be added without a major revision to the problems is to divide them into those which are
data bases. Since data must be recognized as a corpo- information systems support problems and those which
rate resource, it deserves the attention recommended are non liS problems. The non liS problems will be
here. delineated and given to the executive sponsor to follow
When the data classes have been identified, they are up on while the information systems support problems
related to the business processes in orqer to define the continue to be addressed in the 8SP study and by the
information architecture, and they are related to follow-on activities.
present files to assist in the development of a migration
plan. Defining Information Architecture-
This activity represents a major movement from an
Analyzing Business/Systems Relationships examination of the present to a synthesis of the future.
The main purpose of this activity is to show how data It is here that we sketch future information systems and
processing currently supports the business in order to their accompanying data.
develop recommendations for future action. The Systems may be viewed as the automated portions of
currently existing organizations, business processes, processes. Data bases are the computerized part of the
information systems (applications), and data files are total inventory of data in the business. Information
analyzed to identify voids and redundafiCies, help architecture brings order and structure to the systems
clarify responsibilities, and further the understanding and the data they create and use. Once it is structured,
of the business processes. it allows for step-by-step development to migrate from
The main analysis tool is the matrix, and various the applications of today to the information systems of
matrices are developed using combinations of the four the future.
elements. The key matrix for the executive interviews Because this task involves drawing a blueprint for
is the organization/process matrix, and its intercepts the future, it deserves the attention of the whole team.
denote the decision makers, major and millor organiza-
tional responsibility for a process, and current data Determining Architectural Priorities
processing support. Since a total information architecture cannot be
This activity will not only prepare the team for developed and implemented at one time, the team must
discussion with executives but will also help them establish priorities for the development of the systems
determine requirements for information support. and data bases. By deciding which of the data bases
should be designed and implemented first, the team
Determining the Executive Perspective establishes which subsystems will be defined during the
This activity is an integral part of the top-down follow-on project. This allows an early·implementation
approach. Its purpose is to validate the work done by for a "pay-as-you-go" foundation and helps establish
the team, determine the objectives, problems, and credibility for the balance of the output from the BSP
information needs (}.nd their value, and gain executive study.
rapport and involvement. The executive interviews Prioritization is accomplished by developing a list of
provide the business understanding necessary for projects from the subsystems of the information
information systems planning. architecture, then establishing a set of criteria and
The major output consists of notes from the inter- rating the prospective projects against them. The
views, an update of the control room charts, and a new analysis of the business problems is a major contributor
or improv~d rapport between the executive and the 8SP to this process.
study team.
Reviewing Information Systems Management
Assessing Business Problems (ISM)
Some of the business problems were supplied as input The purpose of ISM is to eventually establish a con-
,during the fact-gathering step. These were expanded trolled environment in which the information architec-
upon and complemented by the knowledge of the team ture can be developed, implemented, and operated
and finally validated, explained, and added to in the efficiently and effectively. The information systems
executive interview. The problems must now be functions are examined during the BSP study to identify
analyzed and related to the business processes so as to ( I) any changes that could be made immediately to
give guidance to the setting of project priorities and to enhance success in the follow-on projects, (2) changes
13
that are necessary to properly manage and implement and sized before start dates can be put on the follow-on
the high-priority information architecture projects, and projects, so that management can give the direction
(3) major activities that will become projects in the necessary to move immediately into those preparatory
follow-on to the BSP study. Fulfillment of this step is activities.
vital to the successful support of the business by the
data processing function. Reporting Results
The major inputs are the information systems The purpose of the final report and executive presenta-
support problems from the executive interviews, the tion is to obtain executive management commitment
ISM problems as identified by the liS director, and the and involvement for implementing recommendations
technologies and skill requirements of the first system from the BSP study. The format of the report was
or systems. Additions and/or changes to the present agreed upon before the study was started, but may
information systems functions that are required for have to be modified slightly now, on the basis of the
planning, developing, and implementing are then study results. Various parts of the report should be
identified and put in priority sequence. This forms the written during the BSP study and finalized at this time.
basis for the development of an action plan for ISM The report should be prepared as follows:
which feeds into the action plan and report from the I. It should include an executive summary.
BSP study. 2. The supporting detail, such as descriptions of the
business processes, should be contained in
Developing Recommendations and Action Plan appendices.
The purpose of the action plan is to assist management 3. It should be possible to extract highly confidential or
in its decisions regarding the recommended follow-on sensitive material easily and still have the balance of
projects. The follow-on projects will come from the the report usable by all people participating in the
architectural priorities and from the information follow-on activities.
systems management recommendations. Each of the The report provides the basis for the executive
projects will have been defined as a result of the presentation and the distribution of the final results to
activities in those two areas. The action plan brings those people designated by the sponsor. After the
these together to identify specific resources, schedules, executive presentation, which is normally given by the
and interactions of the projects. team leader, all other relevant material that is not a
Another major part of the action plan should be the part of the report should be indexed and filed for ready
identification of the steps preparatory to starting each availability in follow-on projects.
of the follow-on activities. These must be examined
14
Chapter 3. Gaining the Commitment
The success of a Business Systems Planning study • Invite the executive to an executive information
depends heavily upon the commitment of the business session conducted at an IBM Customer Executive
to complete all the relevant activities and heed the Education center
recommendations of the study team. The steps de- The IBM representative can help set up any of these
scribed in this chapter should be completed and an activities.
assessment made of the commitment of all participants,
before the final decision is made to move into the Establishing the Study Scope
resource dependent activities. Certain situations and Normally the executive sponsoring the study (called
environments will be considered unsuitable for a BSP the executive sponsor) will select the scope of the
study at this stage. If such is the case, the team should organization to be studied. This business unit must be
be prepared to postpone BSP until the situation be- defined so that all participants can recognize the
comes more suitable. boundaries within which their activities will be
In some organizations there may be a problem in concentrated.
obtaining access to executive management to explain In general, the selected segment sliould extend to the
the objectives and expected results of a BSP study. If upper levels of the organization, include more than one
so, the following actions should be considered: major function, and be of significant importance to the
• Arrange an executive visit to another business that organization in that it contributes a major portion of
has successfully completed a BSP study the revenues, profits and/or services.
• Invite a senior IBM executive to discuss information Businesses whose activities are participated in by
systems planning with the appropriate executive in multiple functional units tend to gain more from a BSP
your organization study than those that are more simply structured.
• Conduct an executive briefing session specifically Most companies performing a BSP study choose a
for yo~r executives major operating division, a group of divisions, or the
• Conduct an executive planning session - a service entire organization (see Figure 8, options 1-3 respec-
offered by IBM tively). In each case it should be possible to define
I- Chief
executive
officer
-- -----,
I
I I
I r---I------
General
management
I ------ _ _ _ _ ---1I
I Product/
service
group
11I
I
r _I I I
I Product/ I
I
service
division II
II I
I I I I I
Functional
management
{II Product/
service
function
I
I Option·' Major operating division
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ JI
II
IL Option ~r~ ~n_s_
I OPti~Entire organization __ __ _-.J
Figure 8. BSP organizational business unit options
15
boundaries for the study scope, including the measure- Current participants should present this report to an
ments for assessing effectiveness. executiv~ of the organization and gain agreement on all
issues. Assuming that the report recommends proceed-
Setting Study Objectives ing with BSP, the meeting should result in a commit-
Study objectives should now be defined. Good objec- ment to:
tives will'be capable of being stated clearly and con- • Appoint a study team leader
cisely. They will have criteria that can be applied to • Resource the study team as appropriate
measure the degree to which they have been met. In • Have open communication of future plans and
addition, they will be applicabl~ to the specific require- current data among all team members
ments of the organization to be studied. Finally, they • W rite a study announcement letter to executives of
will be capable of being satisfied by the BSP study team the organization of the form shown in Appendix A.
working within the defined study scope.
Specifically, a study team's objectives may be to: Resoufcing the Study Team
• Provide a formal, objective method for management
to establish information systems priorities without Characteristics
regard for provincial interests Since the study team is responsible for determining the
• Provide for the development of information systems information needs of the entire business and recom-
that have a long life, protecting the systems mending the nature of its data processing operations
investment for years to come, the selection of team members is
• Provide that the data processing resources are very important.
managed for the most efficient and effective support The people chosen should:
of the business goals • Have several years' experience within the organiza-
• Increase executive confidence that high-return tion, a sound knowledge of their own area, and an
information systems will be produced appreciation of the rest of the business
• Improve relationship between the information • Be able to understand and deal analytically with
systems department and the users by providing problems
systems responsive to the users' requirements and • Be willing to commit to conclusions and recommen-
priorities dations that will have a far-reaching effect on the
• Identify data as a corporate resource that should be organization
planned, managed, and controlled, in order to be • Be perceived by other management within the
used effectively by everyone organization as competent and responsible business-
men whose opinions will carry considerable weight
Developing Business Reasons fOf the In short, the best people for the study team are those
Study who are already in high demand and difficult to make
There are several factors that may make a given ayailable.
business more difficult to do a BSP study for than
others: Organization and Responsibilities
• Major reorganization or transformation of control A possible organization structure for the study team is
taking place depicted by Figure 9. While minor variations are
• Geographical diversity, necessitating significant possible, the following fundamental responsibilities
travel time need to be assigned:
• Well over 20 executives who must be interviewed • Executive Sponsor
• Multiple independent sub-organizations with - Visibly endorse and support the study effort.
autonomous decision making processes and with - Review progress and findings during the study.
unique lines of products/services serving diverse - Receive the final report and make the approval
markets decision.
These factors should be reflected in a brief report • TeamLeader
(two or three pages) containing: - See that the study is successfully completed.
• Statement of the study scope - Provide overall direction, make key business
• Study objectives judgments, and act as liaison with other execu-
• Positive contributions of a BSP study tives of the organization.
• Obstacles to successful completion - Direct the study effort on a day-to-day basis and
• Recommendation either to proceed with BSP or organize a~l necessary administration for the
postpone it team.
16
• Team Members Manpower Requirements
- Participate in at least some, if not all, interviews. If the intent and methodology of BSP are reasonably
- Analyze the data collected and executive perspec- followed, and the study team is full time, the resources
tives expressed during the study. required should fall within the following limits:
- Draw conclusions and perform report writing • Number of team members 4-7
tasks. • Number of weeks 6-8
• Team Secretary These wide variations can be explained by signifi-
- Do typing, filing and general secretarial services. cant variations in organizational types and sizes, as
well as study objectives.
17
Chapter 4. Preparing for the Study
18
Educating the Team Gantt chart similar to that shown in Figure 11. This
To enable a smooth, coordinated entry to the BSP plan is developed under the control of the team leader,
study, the team members should understand the and agreed upon by the team members.
principles of the BSP methodology. Some understand-
ing of the method of implementation, plus a review of
the nature of the output that can be expected, will also ~aining the I
be of advantage to the team members. ~mmitment---l
The team leader, working with IBM personnel,
should establish an education plan for the team.
Formal IBM education is c:fvailable and the local IBM
r
, - - Preparing I
for the
office can supply details. LstU?y -.J
It is recommended that all team members should
attend1he same education session.
Conducting
the kickoff
Developing the Study Work Plan meeting
Intensive study activity requires appropriate planning
and assignment of tasks. A work plan will document
Defining
all the known tasks and indicate major resource I
business
allocation required to complete the study. The team, processes
working under the guidance of the team leader, should
develop a study work plan in keeping with the scope
and objectives previously established.
There are some study control points that should be
scheduled in the work plan (e.g., see Figure 10). The
team should consider whether additional control points
Analyzing
should be established in each particular study. business/
When the activity and project control checkpoints system
relationships
have been establishe~,.they should be combined into a
single action plan. This plan can be represented on a o
Determining
Control the executive
Point Participants Activities perspective
19
Preparing for Docu-
Study Execution
the BSP Study* men-
(based on full time)
Task tation
Determine scope,
select team and
leader, and edu-
catf! ---- ~
Hold executive
orientation .
Prepare for study
Conduct kickoff
meeting I-
Define processes
-
Define data classes
-~
Analyze business
system relationships
--.
Conduct interviews* *
~--- to-
Review ISM
Develop recommendations
-- r--.
and action plan
-~
Report results
--- -- ~--- - ----
'Preparation time is variable and not full dme.
**Time varies from 6 to 12 days for 10 to 20 interviews
I Legend:
•
---
Control point;
Variable time; ___ Task;
_ _ _ Parallel activity
20
Establishing a BSP Study Control File production planning, director of marketing operations.
The control file should be established to contain all The tentative executive list and schedule should be
material pertaining to the study. Because of the nature prepared by the team leader. Some other names may
and number of the documents involved, they should be be added to the list during the study as the team gains
stored in a lockable filing cabinet. Suggested contents knowledge of the company's processes. When creating
include: the schedule, the team leader should consider all
• Key correspondence factors that may inhibit the full participation of the
• Statements of objectives and scope executives - vacation, important business meetings, '
• Project plan public holidays, etc.
• Schedules The list of proposed executive participants should be
• Data gathered during preparation reviewed and approved by the executive sponsor.
• Documentation of completed analyses Additions or deletions should be made and the support
• Executive interview notes of the executive sponsor reemphasized.
• Executive interview summaries To enable the executives to prepare for the inter-
• Project control review meeting notes view, an invitation letter should be sent at least one
• Recommendations week before the interview. The letter should also
• Report and presentation confirm the time and place for the interview. Refer-
ence to the study announcement letter previously
signed by the chief executive officer should emphasize
DefiniJ!g the Structure of the Final the importance of executive participation in the study
Study Report and Ancillary Output· (see Appendix B). Either within the body of the
The outline (and table of contents) should be estab-
invitation letter or as an attachment, a list of topics for
lished as early as possible. Team members should be
discussion during the interview should be included.
assigned specific responsibility for sections of the
Both the executive and the team members should use
report. During the study period, it is the assigned
this topical outline to make the discussions more
member's duty to coordinate and deliver their section.
fruitful. Possible topics include:
A typical Study Report will contain the following
• Responsibilities
topics:
• Objectives and plans to achieve required results
• Executive summary
• Business problems and value of solving them
• Purpose, scope and objectives
• Opportunities for improvement
• Method of study • Major measurements and controls
• Business perspective
• Identification of the key business areas
• liS perspective
• Anticipated changes (products, organization, etc.)
• Findings and conclusions
• Evaluation of current l/S support
• Recommendations
• Requirements for future l/S support
• Action plan for follow-on projects
• Value of the required l/S support
• Appendices as required
Because of the nature of a BSP study, documentation
created during the study may prove valuable to func-
Briefing Interviewees
The selected executives should attend a briefing session
tions within the business. While the data and analyses
prior to the commencement of the executive perspec-
are current, the team should endeavor to publish these
tive segment of the BSP study. During this preparation
documents as ancillary output to the formal report.
phase, the executive briefing session should be pre-
pared, presenters selected and exhibits prepared, so
Creating Executive Interview List and that the session may be delivered at the appropriate
Schedufe time during the study activities.
A preliminary list of executives to be interviewed Major topics which should be included in the
should be prepared as early as possible. The executives briefing are:
selected will normally be within the top three levels of • Executive level overview of BSP
the company and be responsible for the major func- • Study scope
tions included within the study scope statement. • Objectives of the study
Executives with cross-company responsibilities should • Business reasons for conducting the study
also be considered. Since the need is for a perspective • Review of the expected output
rather than specific detailed information, the ideal • Executive involvement - why, and what is expected
candidate is the senior executive with discrete function- of the executive
al responsibility, e.g., director of finance, manager of • Schedule for executive interviews
21
Obtaining and Equipping Control Arranging for Administrative Support
Room Typing and general· administrative support will be
Effectiveness of the BSP study depends on having a required by the study team. This support should be
workroom assigned for its duration. This room is used estimated and organized before the major study
both as the work location for the team and for execu- activities are undertaken. Administrative activities will
tive discussion session away from the executive's office. be concentrated toward the latter part of the study and
This approach has proved very effective in,allowing will include executive discussion summaries, work
executives to review charts and diagrams on display plans, status reports, results of analyses, charts, final
and to concentrate on discussions without interruption. report, confirmation of interviews, and general secre-
The study room should be: tarial support.
• Located away from traffic and noise
• Large enough to accommodate the study team plus Reviewing with Executive Sponsor
one or two other people Completion of the study preparation is indicated by a
• Equipped with a large table, blackboard, flipchart successful review meeting with the executive sponsor.
stand, and lockable storage or filing cabinet Any issues that may have arisen during the preparation
• Able to accommodate the posting of charts on the should have been resolved by this time.
walls Items to be reviewed with executive sponsor are:
• Securable to protect sensitive information • General results of the preparation
• Equipped with a telephone only if the telephone can • Study work plan
be disconnected during executive interviews • Definition of the study output
• Approval process
• Executive selection and discussion schedule
• Letter of invitation to be sent to selected executives
Everything is now prepared for the start of the BSP
study. Experience has shown that if all the items
discussed in Chapters 3 and 4 have been completed, the
study results should be of high qu·ality.
22
Chapter 5. Conducting the Kickoff Meeting
Conducting the kickoff meeting is the first major the business - ca~h, people, facilities, materials, and
activity in the formal execution of a BSP study. This, products/ services.
and the next five major activities (see Chapters 6-10) Some of the material presented will be continually
are all aimed at understanding the business require- focused upon throughout the study. This selected
ments and data processing support as it exists today as information should be posted in the control room. The
well as business requirements for the future. Since this team leader may also elect to distribute hard-copy
understanding is vital to the success of the study, all handouts to each team member for their own personal
these activities must be carried out conscientiously. review and/or research. In any case, all presentation
material, including detail backup, should remain in the
Sponsor's Opening control room for continued reference. Much of it will
The kickoff meeting should be attended by all study be placed in the Study Control File.
team members. The executive sponsor opens the
meeting, emphasizes the business reasons for initiating Information Systems Review
the study, and explains the significance of this high- The director of liS, or the team member representing
priority program to the company. The sponsor may liS, should present, in summary form, the material
also reiterate the objectives and scope of the study and gathered during study preparation. This will enable
expected output, and offer personal commitment and the study team to understand how liS is currently
support in the interest of seeing a successful completion supporting the business and planning to support it in
to the study. the future.
The major projects installed or being developed
Review of Study Work Plan should be discussed with the study team. The discus-
The study team leader reviews the work plan and the sion should include whether these projects have met or
Gantt chart or calendar developed during the study will meet their objectives.
preparation phase. The work plan is used as a point of Another area that should be discussed is how data
departure for discussing and finalizing: processing interfaces with its users, the responsibility it
• Major events, major outputs, and schedules has in the development and justification of applica-
• Individual assignments tions, and·who has responsibility for data within the
• Project control company.
This review can also serve as an opportunity to A Copy of the presentation should be made available
discuss administrative details, such as secretarial to the study team members, as it will help them later in
support, handling of phone messages, working hours, the study - especially during the interviewing and
office security, expense charge numbers, etc. when the team members are developing their conclu-
sions and recommendations.
Business Review The following is an outline for presentation of the
The team leader should be prepared to present, in liS function:
summary form, the business related information • Mission and objectives
gathered during the study preparation phase. This • History and background of data processing
information may be new to most team members and • Organizations
should serve to broaden the business perspective of the • Overview of major application systems installed and
team as a whole. planned
Presentation emphasis should be given to business • Relationship with users
goals, objectives and strategies; business problems; • Project approval process
organizations; geography; environment; and to infor- • Key problems and challenges
mation relative to understanding the major resources of
23
Chapter 6. Defining Business Processes
A four-stage life cycle of the product/service and of
each of the supporting resources is used to logically
For purposes of the BSP study, business processes are- identify and group the processes. The life cycle
defined as groups of logically related decisions and normally used is:
activities required to manage the resources of the • Stage 1 - Requirements, planning, measurement
business. They are studied and identified without and control
regard to the organization responsible for them. The • Stage 2 - Acquisition or implementation
reason for defining the processes is that doing so will • Stage 3 - Stewardship
provide or lead to: • Stage 4 - Retirement or disposition
• Information systems with a large degree of inde- The following paragraphs refer to these stages as
pendence from organization changes requirements, acquisition, stewardship, and retirement.
• A comprehensive understanding of how the business A description of each of the life cycle stages follows:
accomplishes its overall missions and objectives I. Requirements - activities that dete:t;mine how much
• A basis for separating the strategic planning and of the product or resource is required, the plan for
management control processes from operational getting it, and measurement and control against the
control pro~esses plan.
• A basis for defining required informatipn architec- 2. Acquisition - activities performed to develop a
ture, de!ermining its scope, defining it so as to make product or service or to get the resources that are
it modular, and setting priorities for its development going to be used in its development. In manufactur-
• A basis for defining key data requirements ing this would include procurement and fabrication;
Lists of processes, along with some sample descrip- in personnel, the hiring or transfer of people; in
tions from both the public andprivate sectors,may be education, the development of a curriculum and the
found in the appendices. enrollment of students.
3. Stewardship - activities to form, refine, modify or
Prerequisites to Defining Processes maintain the supporting resources and to store or
The following points ar~ particularly relevant to track the product/service. In the insurance industry
success: this could be policy maintenance, premium notices
• All members must be present and participate and dividend statements; in the distribution industry
throughout the exercise and there should be general it could include inventory control and warehousing.
agreement on the expected outputs before the 4. Retirement - those activities and decisions that
exercise begil}s. terminate the responsibility of an organization for a
• Note-takers should be designated right from the product or service or signal the end use of a re-
beginning so that decisions and definitions of source. This might include the selling of space on an
processes will not be forgotten or misunderstood airline, the discharge or retiring of an employee, the
later. scrapping or selling of a capital asset, or the removal
• Information gathered before the start of the BSP of a service by a government agency.
must describe and size the products and resources, The life cycle serves as a vehicle for structured,
and clearly state or provide a flow diagram of the logical, comprehensive identification of the processes
strategic planning and management control proce- by the team.
dures and schedules.
• The team must understand the concept of resources Basic Steps in Defining Processes
and their life cycle. An overview of process identification is provided by
Figure 12, which shows the three main sources for the
The Product and Resource Life Cycle identification of the business processes: planning and
The manager's job is to manage the resources within control; product/service; and supporting resources.
his realm of responsibilities to most efficiently and Taking the latter two through their life cycle provides a
effectively support the goals of the total business. By definition of their respective business processes.
identifying the decision processes that he goes through Because strategic planning and some of management
and the activities that he performs in managing the control are not.solely product or resource oriented,
resources, it is possible to gain a comprehensive they must be considered as a separate source to provide
understanding of all the business processes involved. that all processes of the business are identified.
The products/services may be defined as key resources
and occupy a major role in defining the business
processes.
24
Planning Productl Supporting After the product and each of the supporting
and Service Resources
Control Processes Processes
resources have been taken through their respective life
Processes
cycles and the processes identified and subsequently
Review strategic
Identify
grouped, it is no longer necessary to retain the
planning and Describe
productl supporting process/stage relationship for process defining, but it
management
service resources will be helpful later in identifying data classes. Since
•
control procedures
the life cycle is an artificial means for directing the
~ .~ team's thinking, very little time should be spent in
Identify deciding in which stage a given activity appears. The
planning Identify Identify recording of the activity is more important than its
and control processes processes position.
processes
The measurement and control processes identified
~ under the requirements stage will contain both man-
agement control and operational control activities. If
Flow the processes associated with strategic planning and
diagram
processes
management control are identified first, it will sharpen
the distinction between management control and
operational control and reduce some of the redundancy
l in the management control processes. The following
Write descriptions of steps correspond to the flow presented
description
of each in Figure 12.
process
Planning and Control Processes
~
..
r-
Group the
processes
~
....
Define the Processes of Strategic Planning and
Management Control
With the preparatory work that was done in collecting
the information on planning and possible samples of
~ the organization~s plans, it should not be difficult to
identify the processes involved. They will normally be
Chart process
groups and grouped into strategic planning and management
complete control. Strategic planning may be referred to as the
descriptions
long-range plan, the seven-year plan, or the develop-
~ ment plan. Management control may be referred to as
the operating plan, the management plan, the resource
Relate
processes plan, and sometimes the contract plan. In some
to companies the budget may serve as a major tool for
organization management planning and control. Examples of
:1 Economic forecasting
Organization planning
Market/product forecasting
Working capital planning
Confirm, add, Policy development Staff level planning
delete in Divestiture/acquisition Operational planning
interviews
Analysis
Assumptions management Budgeting
Goals development Measurement and review
Figure 12. Definition of business processes
Product line modeling
25
F or a detailed discussion of the theory of strategic process, logic, theory, or other diversions.
planning and management control the reader may wish The following example might result from perform-
to refer to Robert N. Anthony's book entitled ing this analysis with a manufacturer of electrical and
"Planning and Control Systems: A Framework for electronic components.
Analysis."
Requirements Acquisition Stewardship Retirement
Materials
Management
Scheduling
Information Material
Production control requ i rements
Capacity tomer
planning
Engineering
Business
Management
plan
-------------------------------------------------------time----------------------------------------------------------------------~~
28
Consolidation and Analysis Chart the Process Groups and Complete Descriptions
Each process group and its processes should be listed
Group the Processes on a chart and displayed for the whole team to view.
The processes have been identified from the three The team should agree on the placement of each
sources: strategic planning and management control; process under the process group, as well as the name of
major product/service; and supporting resources. The each, and should have a good understanding of all of
grouping should take place along the following lines: them. The list should be divided among the team
• Reduce inconsistencies in level. In the above members and the writing of the descriptions should be
examples of the processes, the process of manufac- completed in line with the regrouping. It is a good idea
turing and the process of accounts payable appear at to have the descriptions typed so that each team may
the same level. This should be corrected. have them for quick reference during subsequent
• Combine the processes where commonalities occur. activities such as executive interviewing. It is also
As an example, purchasing may have been identi- advisable to save the charts for subsequent activities.
fied as a process in the acquisition stage, not only for
the product but also for materials and for facilities. Relate the Business Processes to the Organization
Assuming the processes are similar, these should be Once the business processes are agreed upon and
combined into one process. As the processes were described, they can be related to the organizational
grouped during the requirements stage, there may structure of the business to help the study team identify
have appeared processes entitled manpower loading, any additional people that should be interviewed and
develop workflow plan, and schedule supply materi- to further clarify their understanding of the business
als. These three might be grouped with the manage- processes. Some teams may wish to complete this
ment control process of operational planning. matrix before completing the process descriptions.
A workable maximum is 60 processes. There will Relating the organization to the processes also helps
normally be 4-12 process groups. Some will be associ- the team determine the information needed from the
ated with the resources from which they were derived. interviews, such as verification of executive involve-
ment in the processes.
To relate the business processes to the organization-
Marketing Facilities Management
al structure of the business, the team develops an
Planning Workflow layout
Research Maintenance organization/process matrix. Essentially, this is a
Forecasting Equipment performance graphic representation of one aspect of the manage-
Sales Operations Administration
ment system of the organization because it illustrates
Territory management General accounting who makes the decision in each of the processes.
Selling Cost planning The organization/process matrix is one of several
Administration Budget accounting
Order servicing matrices developed as part of the BSP methodology.
Matrices are used because they provide a convenient
Engineering Finance
method to analyze relationships. They also provide a
Design and development Financial planning
Product specification maintenance Capital acquisition concise way to cQnvey findings to management.
Information control Funds management To prepare the organization/process matrix, the
Production Human Resources study team uses the business processes already identi-
Scheduling Personnel planning fied. Using their knowledge and perspective of the
Capacity planning Recru iti ng/development business and the organization charts from the study
Material requirements Compensation
Operations preparation phase, the team members identify the
organizational entities involved in the processes.
Materials Management Management
Since the BSP study is intended to provide a broad
Purchasing Business planning
Receiving Organization analysis overview of the business, not every organizational
I nventory control Review and control
Shipping Risk management
entity is identified. Furthermore, common similar
organizations can sometimes be represented as one
organizational unit. For example, 100 sales offices may
Figure 14. Sample list of processes by process group
be listed as a single unit. Where feasible, plants and
laboratories should also be groupt:d into units. One-
The product/service may result in two or more groups,
and planning will account fo( one or two groups.
Figure 14 is an example of grouping. Other examples
are shown in Appendix C.
29
unit representation is also generally appropriate when Outputs and Their Uses
organizations of different scopes are doing the same The output to be expected from defining the business
job. For example, a financial planning organization processes consists of:
may have three departments, each focusing on separate 1. A list of process groups and their processes
divisions. The mission of all three is still financial 2. A typed description of each of the processes
planning, and they can be represented by one organiza- 3. A list of the processes key to the success of the
tional unit Figure 15 illustrates the organization/ business or designated as such on the charts of
process matrix. process groups and processes
Once the processes and organizational entities are 4. Product/services flowchart
arranged on the matrix, the study team completes the 5. Team understanding of how the whole business
matrix by indicating the degree to which each organi- operates and is managed and controlled
zational entity is involved in the processes. The As mentioned earlier, business processes serve as the
following symbols are used in Figure 15 to indicate the base for most of the activities that follow. The ultimate
degree of involvement: use ipf the business processes is to identify opportunities
~ Major responsibility and decision maker and requirements for the use of information systems to
~ Major involvement in the process support the business. That is also one of the basic goals
IZI Some involvement in the process of the BSP study.
When making this notation on the matrix, leave The team members should at all times keep in mind
room for the posting of systems numbers, as explained that they probably will not all be working on the
in Chapter 8. follow-on projects after the BSP study. The study
Such indicators do not describe the actual responsi- should be regarded as an independent operation and
bilities of each of the organizational units but serve the processes defined in such a way that any experi-
only as a guide to assigned responsibility for and enced person can read the output and understand the
involvement in a process. Some businesses have found work that was done in the study. The follow-on
this matrix to be valuable after the study as an index to projects will start with the output from the study and
a management system manual, in which they develop further define the processes, the problems associated
responsibility and activity statements for each of the with each of them, and the information requirements.
organization/process intersects.
The organization/process matrix helps the study Expansions and Variations in Approach
team validate the list of individuals to be interviewed Although following the above procedure should result
and determine the questions to be asked of the individ- in well-defined processes and supporting material,
uals responsible for the processes. To authenticate the other considerations and variations are worth mention-
matrix, each person interviewed by the team should be '. ing. The more salient of these are covered in the
asked to confirm or correct the portion of the matrix remainder of this chapter.
showing his responsibility or involvement.
The organization/process matrix sometimes will Diversity in Business, Product, or Service
show overlapping responsibility and decision-making If the various divisions or parts of the company or the
authority for a process or a lack of decision-making product/services are too diversified to have common
responsibility for a process where it normally would be processes, a grouping will be necessary before process
appropriate. Such potential problem areas are clarified identification is begun. When all the processes are
later during the executive interviews. identified, it is still highly advantageous to look for
processes that might have common information
Identify Processes Key to Business. Success requirements.
This step will later aid in selecting the area of the
business to be studied in more detail (architecture Outside Assistance
priority), sizing the importance of the problems Even though the team members were selected with the
identified, and identifying items to be stressed in the aim of having their combined knowledge cover the
executive interviews. The strategic planning and entire business unit, there may be voids in that cover-
management control processes will be some of the age. If so, the team should get outside help where
outstanding processes. One method of doing this necessary for a thorough understanding of the process-
identification is to rank the objectives in order of their es. Care should be taken, however, to limit the time of
importance and then determine which of the processes any outsider invited in and to keep that person\ at the
are most critical in reaching each objective. The level at which the team has been· working on other
process/organization matrix will also contribute to this processes.
selection.
30
Sales Materials Facilities Admini- Human
PROCESS Marketing Engineering Production Finance Management
Operations Management Management stration Resources
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~_~Adminis- ~_......
tration
32
Chapter 7. Defining Data Classes
I
major rework to support later systems projects. Once
the processes that support the business have been , I /
/
defined, the next step is to identify the data created,
controlled, and used by those processes. As an aid to
analysis, the data supporting the processes is grouped
data "
Transaction ,
,
Stewardship
/
/Transaction
data
33
BUSINESS
,
ENTITIES
DATA
CLASS
TYPES
Product Customer Facilities Material Vendor
'( Cash Personnel
Plansl
Models
Product
plans
Sales
territory
Market
plans
Facility
plans
Capacity
plans
Material
requirements
Production
schedule
) Budget Personnel
plans
Statistica II
(
Product Sales Work in Open Vendor
Summary demand history process requirements performance
Equipment
utilization
Parts
master
Routings Bills of
material
1/
~
Transaction Order Shipment Purchase Material
order receipt
34
Business Process Approach Marketing
~
The second approach to identifying data classes uses Customer
Sales
Product . Planning
the previously dermed business processes - specifically, • analysis
Sales territory
what data is created and/or used by each process. This
approach involves constructing a series of input-
process-output diagrams, one for each of the 20 to 60 Facilities
Management
processes identified in the business process definition
~
(see Figure 19). Facilities
Workflow ~ Workflow
Product
layout analysis
Routings
Cross-Referencing and Regrouping
By cross-analyzing Figures 18.and 19 and regrouping
on the basis of commonalities or inconsistencies in Finance
~
level, it is possible to compile a manageable list of 30 to Financial
~ Profitability
60 data classes. Customer Analysis
analysis
Product
Engineering
Product Product Routings
Engineering changes specification
Bills of
Parts master maintenance
material
Materials
Management
Raw material
inventory ..
~
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.. Purchase
... order
Vendor
~
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Sales
Operations
Product
Custome r
Jo.
::
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servicing
... Order
Custome r request ...
Production
Product
Open requirements Scheduling Production
Bills of material schedule
Facilities
Human
Resources
Employee
...... Personnel
Planning
.. Government
... reports
35
Data Class to Process Analysis
The data classes should then be placed on a matrix
opposite the business processes, and the letters C and U
should be entered to indicate which processes Create
the data and which Use it. Figure 20 shows this plot,
with the processes arranged in the life cycle sequence
of the key resource. As this matrix shows how data is
shared by the processes, it will be used later to develop
the information architecture.
~
DATA CLASS S
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Budget accounting U U U U U
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Compensation U U
Figure 20. Data class by process,· showing data creation and usage
36
Chapter 8. Analyzing Business/Systems Relationships
Up to now, the team has been developing a new during the executive interviews. Used in combination,
perspective of the business - learning to look at the these matrices are very helpful in providing the team
business in terms of business processes and the data with a broad overview of current systems and data
classes necessary to perform them. Now the team must usage.
develop a firm understanding of how data processing
currently supports the business, in order to develop Understanding I/S Support of
recommendations for future action. This section Processes
describes the use of data gathered and presented as In order to obtain a business-wide picture of existing
part of the liS review as well as the organization, and planned data ,processing support, the study team
process, and data class information to develop perspec- may opt to annotate the organization/process matrix
tives on: with current systems support (Figure 21). The nota-
• liS support of processes. The organization/process 1
tions on this matl;-ix identify which organizations
matrix developed in Chapter 6 is annotated to involved in the p~ocesses are receiving application
indicate which current systems support the business support. This enables the study team,to identify:
processes. • Processes receiving no current systems support
• Usage of current data. A system/data file matrix is • Processes receiving systems support in some organi-
developed to identify the data files currently in use zational units, but not all
or planned for use by existing systems. • Possible redundant systems
(A system here is an application or grouping of To create the notations, the team assigns a number
several applications.) to each of the current systems, then posts this number
Each of these matrices is described in more detail in to the appropriate intersections on the organization/
the following pages. Although the matrices provide an process matrix. This may be facilitated by first creat-
overview of the current and planned data processing ing a system/organization matrix (Figure 22) or a
support of the business, they cannot indicate the extent system/process matrix (Figure 23).
of support needed or the value of this support to each
of the processes. Such information is obtained later
37
\
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Sales Operations Production
PROCESS
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ORGANIZATION
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\
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\
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~
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Director
\
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ning Director
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Manager
1
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Manager
\
l
Division
Lawyer
\
f
Planning
Director
x x
\
\
Major responsibility
and decision maker
Major involvement
in the process
/ Some involvement
in the process
38
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39
Sales Materials Facilities Admini. Human
Marketing "'Engineering Productio,", Finance Management
Operatlo'ns Management Management tration Resources
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Routings C C C
Shop Floor Control C C C C
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. General Ledger P p
Expense C C
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Operating Statements C C C C
Accounts Receivable C C
Accounts Payable o. r c C
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Marketing Analysis C C C C
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X X [X [>(
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ex rx rx: ~ rx: [)(
rx-
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lX [X [X [X ex [X D< t><
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lX lX lX ex:: ex
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D<
Figure 24. System/data file matrix
41
Chapter·9. Determining the Executive Perspective
Interviewing and interview analysis consume more Sometimes it is difficult to assign final responsibility
time during the study than any other activity because for a process to one specific organizational entity.
the executive interviews are the primary source of Several organizations may reach a decision together.
information for determining the business problem and In some cases it is necessary to interview certain
management's need for support in overcoming their managers for political reasons; if they don't have an
problem and/or supporting new opportunities. opportunity to participate in the study, they may
The interviews are not intended to gather data on oppose any recommendations that result from it. It
the specific details and exact form of the information may also be advisable to interview a particular execu-
required by the interviewees. tive simply because other executives of the same level
Specifically, the purpose of the interviews is to: will be interviewed. This decision normally is made by
• Validate the data gathered, analyzed, and docu- the executive sponsor.
mented in matrices and charts
• . Determine the information needed by individual Reviewing the Interview Schedule
executives as well as their problems and priorities When the list of executives to be interviewed has been
• Gain executive rapport and involvement updated and confirmed, the study team confirms the
• Determine management values and quantify interview schedule. Interview preparation time should
benefits to be derived by modifying or adding always be allowed. Experience indicates that an
applications. effective interview requires two tofour hours, exclud-
The tasks that have to be accomplished in order to ing preparation. Therefore, only two interviews should
conduct the interviews are: be scheduled for a given day. Normally, 10 to 20
• Confirm the list of executives to be interviewed that interviews are conducted during the study, although
was developed during study preparation this number varies greatly with the size and require-
• Review the interview schedule to be certain it is ments of the business.
practical, and confirm it with the interviewees It is recommended that higher executives be inter-
• Organize wall charts in control room viewed last. For one thing, interviewers' techniques
• Review the questions that apply to all interviewees, and procedures improve with practice, and the team
and develop individualized questions for certain should be working at its best before interviewing top
executives, as appropriate managers. Second, any suspicions or doubts the team
• Determine the role of study team members for each may have about information obtained from the first
interview and the characteristics of individual executives interviewed can be resolved by formulating
interviewees specific questions for top management.
• Conduct the interview itself
• Prepare a summary of each interview to be ap- Preparing Questions for Interviews
proved by the interviewee Before the interviews are conducted, the study team
This chapter is devoted to a discussion of these prepares a list of general questions that apply to all
tasks. interviewees. The team also may prepare specific
questions for certain executives, as needed. The
Confirming the List of Executives To following general questions, while furnished only as a
Be Interviewed . guide, usually apply to all interviewees:
During BSP study preparation the team identified the 1. Briefly, what is your area of responsibility?
executives that should be interviewed. The team most 2. What are its basic objectives?
likely selected managers no more than two levels below 3. What are the three greatest problems you have
the president. Now, aided by the organization/process met in achieving these objectives within the last
matrix, the team can confirm its earlier list of inter- year?
viewees and identify any other executives that should 4. What has prevented your solving them?
be included. 5. .What is needed to solve them?
Two questions can be answered using this approach: 6. What value (in man-hours saved, dollars saved, or
• What organizations are involved in each of the programs enhanced) would better information
processes? have in these areas?
• Within those organizations, who must be inter- 7. In what other ar~as of your responsibility could
viewed to determine the problems, objectives, and the greatest improvements be realized, given the
requirements? needed information support?
42
'8. What would be the value of these improvements in • Question 15. The questions on anticipated changes
man-hours saved, dollars saved, or programs are important because major information systems
enhanced? development cycles can take from two to five years
9. How would you rate your, information support to complete. Recommendations for information
with respect to adequacy; validity, timeliness, systems development could be impacted by plans to
consistency, cost, and volume? centralize, decentralize, change the organization,
10. What is the most useful information you receive? introduce new products, etc.
11. How are you measured? • Question 16. The questions regarding expectations
12. How do you measure your subordinates? for the BSP study may help the study team ascertain
13. What other kinds of measurement are you expect- how likely management is to accept and implement
ed to make? the study recommendations.
14. What kinds of decisions are you expected to • Question 17. Additional thoughts and comments
make? make an appropriate way to terminate the interview.
15. What major changes are anticipated in your area
in the next year? Three years? Determining Team MemberTnterview
16. What do you expect to result from this study? Roles and Interviewee Characteristics
What does it mean to you and to the business? One of the tasks that must be performed when prepar-
17. Do you have any additional thoughts or com- ing for interviewing is to assign roles for team members
ments? to play during the interviews. The.re are several factors
The interviewer must understand the purpose of the to consider when making these assignments.
general questions in order to be sure that the needed The interview team is drawn solely from study team
information is elicited. If an interviewee's response members and may include IBM representatives. Re-
does not provide the information desired, it may mean gardless of the number of people on the study team,
that the question should be worded differently. Let's there are usually no more than four active team
examine the purposes of the general questions and members present at any particular interview.
kinds of responses needed: A given team member need not play the same role
• Questions 1-2. The interviewer asks the executives in each interview. Furthermore, some members ate-----
what their responsibilities are because conclusions usually assigned to more than one role in an interview.
drawn from the organization chart may not be The following roles should be filled:
correct. Also, the objectives that executives set for • An individual to present the study objectives and
themselves in performing their functions may have a approach to the interview~e. This person may have
large bearing on their information needs. another role in the interview as well.
• Questions 3-6. When asking about problems, the • An interviewer.
team should be sure that the executives do not • A backup interviewer to listen carefully to the
indicate only their last problems. Sometimes people proceedings to make sure that all questions are
overlook more serious problems that occurred asked' and that all answers are understood. The
months before. backup interviewer asks any additional questions
• Questions 7-9. The information satisfaction and necessary.
needs questions should focus on the additional costs • Someone to take notes during the interview and
that may be incurred from inaccurate and untimely have them organized, typed, and presented to the
information. The value of any additional informa- interviewee afterwards for approval.
tiondesired should also be determined. • A supplementary note-taker if the situation requires.
• Question 10. The team must determine where the Sometimes the interviewee is a member of a depart-
current information support is adequate so that ment in which a team member serves. Because of the
these benefits are retained. possible sensitivity of some of the information, it may
• Questions 11-13. The questions concerning meas- not be advisable for that team member to be an
urement are intended to disclose how the effective- interviewer during that session. Perhaps the individual
ness of resource allocation and use is measured. A should not even be present. Similarly, if there are any
major factor in business success is efficient use of personality clashes between an interviewee and a
resources. particular team member, that team member should
• Question 14. The question on what decisions are probably not be presented at the session.
made is intended to disclose whether executives In determining who will serve in what roles, consid-
receive adequate information on which to base eration should be given to individual abilities. Some
them. people are better speakers than others; some are fast
43
and accurate note-takers. The interviewer for any • Have the interviewee express a potential benefit as a
session should be chosen for knowledge of the area of percentage.
the business to be investigated and for ability to • Have the interviewee express a potential benefit in
achieve rapport with the interviewee. terms of a range - for ,example, a saving of $200,000
Before each interview session, the study team should to $400,000. .
meet to discuss various matters that are specific to that • If the interviewee\gives an exceptionally high value
interview. The responsibility of individual team that might not be acceptable to other managers,
members during the interview has already been suggest using 50 percent of that figure. ...., --' ...
covered. The study team should also review: • In a particular operational area, cite-a weii~known
• Background of the interviewee industry average.
• Responsibilities of the interviewee • Determine the company's present position in the
• Process in which the interviewee is involved industry and ask what it would be worth to be in a
• Data processing support provided to the stronger position.
interviewee's area of responsibility • Employ in-depth logical questioning. If the value of
• Specific questions to ask the interviewee, which may a particular benefit cannot be quantified by the
be based on prior interviews with other executives interviewee, try to break down the various costs of
not having the benefit.
Conducting Interviews • Determine the objectives against which the execu-
The best location for interviews is the study control tive is measured and what it would be worth to
room, where interruptions are least likely and where achieve those objectives.
the matrices and charts can be displayed on the walls • Determine what the company is currently spending,
for reference. If the control room is close to executive what the forecasts are, and how these spending
offices, it should be convenient for the interviewees. levels would be affected if a certain capability were
The following sequence of activities will normally available.
transpire after the interviewee arrives and has been The interviewer must be sensitive to the responses of
ibtroduced to the interview team: the executive in order to probe more deeply into any
• The interviewee should be walked through the wall subject area when appropriate. Team members should
charts by the interviewer and he should be asked to be attentive to the executive's tone of voice and facial
validate the data on the charts. There should be expressions, which are often a key to underlying
agreement between the interviewee and the study feelings.
team on the business process definitions and their
relation to the organizational entities, particularly Preparing Interview Summaries
within the interviewees area of the business. Make The study team should keep current with the documen-
changes to the wall charts if necessary. (See Appen- tation of the interviews. Immediately after the inter-
dix G.) view has been concluded, the two study team members
• The interviewee is seated so that he can see the wall who were taking notes during the interview should pull
charts during the interview. This should make the the notes together and have them summarized and
interviewee more comfortable and thus enhance typed.
support. Summaries should be formatted so that problem
• All the general questions and any specific questions statements and key points appear in separate para-
previously formulated are asked. Many questions graphs. Each problem statement and key point can
are likely to arise in the course of the interview and then be easily extracted for later analytical work. The
these are also asked. summaries are reviewed by the team leader, then
As indicated before, the interviewer often needs to presented to the interviewee for approval. The inter-
ask more questions than were prepared. It is impossi- viewees should approve and return them to the study
ble to predict all the possible responses that an execu- team within two days after the interview so that all
tive might offer. From statements made during the team members can keep informed. Copies should be
interview, new questions are bound to arise. Further- given to all the team members and one copy filed as the
more, questions often must be formulated or restated official study team document.
during the interview to elicit the exact information In addition, any changes resulting from the inter-
needed. This is particularly true when trying to secure view should be posted to the wall charts to keep them
value statements that can be quantified, especially as accurate as possible.
when discussing intangibles. As the interview summaries' are returned, the study
Following are some techniques that can be used to team members can begin to assess the business prob-
prompt an interviewee to express values quantifiably: lems and/or opportunities (see Chapter 10).
44
Chapter 10. Assessing Business Problems and
Benefits
The reduction and use of data obtained during the BSP ed by each end-effect may then be quantified as far as
interview process is extremely important. This chapter possible, and the relative contributions of root causes to
presenls a structured and proven procedure to organize that loss may be assessed.
interview data and provide a useful format for later use Figure 26 illustrates the worksheet to be used in this
in determining information architecture and priorities. step. The team, as a unit, then considers the individual
Figure 25 presents a logical flowchart of the data analyses and drafts a composite list of problems,
reduction procedure and is keyed to the te~t by step solutions and values. The team must take care to select
number. only stated problems and not implied problems. If the
team decides that an implied problem is of a magni-
tude and importance that it should be further clarified,
communication with the interviewee on a formal or
informal basis should be undertaken in order to
establish the specifics and/or magnitude of the
"implied problem." If the communication establishes
additional significant data not in the original notes, it l'
Problems,
Solutions must be added as an addendum to the validated
. Step 1
& Values original notes with reference to the follow-on commu-
nications. A copy of the addendum must be forwarded
to the interviewee for his validation.
Step 2 The entire composite list should now be typed with
1/5 I/S
Problems, Needs & values Non·I/S
double spacing between entries. Each entry must be
Solutions & values Where no system Problems To code-connected to the original interviewee. Assigning
For existing system Exists executive
sponsor a number or letter or combination of same to each
interviewee allows his identity code to be attached to
each entry, while maintaining confidentiality.
Step 3
Major Problem Problem Solution Value Statement Information Process/G roup Process/G roup
System Needs Impacted Causing
Increasing account- Better information I ncrease value from Cost system Finance Finance
ability of board of outside directors
directors; demand
for financial and
manageme,nt
auditing
Lack of "what if" Mechanized online Improve profit; better Co~t system Finance Administration
capability on cost cost sheet capa- customer relations
sheets bility
Inability to look at Financial modeling Raise profit; curtail Planning simula- Finance/management Management
enough alternatives ("what if" capa- losses; improve growth tion
in business planning bility)
Lack of ability to Better information Retain good people; Skills inventory Human Resources Human Resources
identify and pro- on p~rsonnel re- improve morale system
mote qualified sources
people
Loss of ability to Description of work Manage people prop- Order status Human Resources Sales Operations
effectively transfer to be done in each erly; improve quality
people; low produc- area of work; increase pro-
tivity. Long training ductivity
Poor customer re- Better sales analysis I mprove customer Order status Marketing Sales Operations
lations; loss of and productive relations
profit; excessive planning; better
inventory buyer reports
Poor customer re- Better sales analysis I mprove customer Production Marketing Production
lations; loss of and productive plan- relations planning
profit; excessive ning; better buyer
inventory reports
Poor customer Better sales analysis I mprove customer Sales analysis Marketing Marketing
relations; loss of and productive plan- relations
profit; excessive in- ning; better buyer
ventory reports
Smaller, more Order trend Control cost better Territory analysis Sales Operations Sales Operations
frequent orders; lead analysis/costs
times too critical;
higher cost of
handling orders
46
Step 3: Relate Data to Processes
All of those interview entries which were grouped as liS
problems/solutions or liS needs and values should now
be cut from the worksheet. Example:
K-2
Lack of effective Mechanized pro- Improve profit; Production Production Production
production planning duction planning improve customer planning
impairs profit- relations; improve
ability service of supply
N ext a ~ipchart page should be created for each validated interview notes or even the original hand-
business process group and its processes. These should written notes to firmly establish the topic area and
be arranged around the control room at a level handy background that triggered the interview comment
to "post" to. Team members then take each of the (entry). The need for mobility of the item entries
prepared interview entries and stick them onto the quickly becomes obvious during this fine-tuning step.
flipchart for the business process that causes the
problem. If possible, the entry should be placed within Summary
the process most appropriate. It is possible to group the interview data entries in
Don't worry about being too precise on the first several ways. They may be related to the causing
"posting." Additional teamwork is required to finalize processes or the impacted processes using matrices as
the procedures. illustrated in Figure 27 or in other summary formats as
When all entries have been "posted," the team appropriate. This data will provide valuable perspec-
concentrates on one business process at a time to tive as the team develops recommendations on infor-
ensure that all entries have been posted to the right mation architecture and systems priorities. "
process. It is normal to have to go back to the original
47
PROCESS GROUP
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PROBLEM :E en w .t :E LL « u:: l: :E
Market/Customer Selectivity 2 2 2
Quality of Forecasting .3 4
Order Entry Log :3 /
Product Line Profitability I I
Market Share Deterioration :3 2
Product Development Support 4- I /
External Reporting Requirements I I
Control of Orders 4 :3 6 2
Facility Planning I J 2
I nventory Level Consistency 5 5
Purchasing Control b 2
Control of Production Costs 2 5
Labor and Machine Utilization 5 t
Plan':ferformance Measurements 5
Shop Manpower Utilization 2
Asset Performance /
Variance Analysis 2 I
Working Capital Management 2
Manpower,. Development I
Jqb Des~ri~tions 3
Total 9 9 8 32 7 2 II 7 4 9
Figure 27" Problem/proce~s matrix, showing the number of times
the problems were stated
48
Chapter 11.; Defining Information Architecture
~
looking at the process groups and the data created by
them, then boxing in these groupings as in Figure 30.
Where a process group creates no data, the box is
In order to identify the information systems and arbitrary. The boxes represent logical subsystem
su bsystems areas to be developed, an information groupings with responsibility for creating and main-
architecture is defined, using a diagram that shows the taining specific related classes of data.
relationship of data to systems and the processes
supported by each. The architecture diagram, then, is
the blueprint that outlines for each system area (1) the
data created, controlled and used, (2) the relationship
of system to system, and (3) the systems that support a
given process. The architecture diagram allows us to
take into consideration the data requirements of later
subsystems at the time of developing earlier subsystems
in order to maximize sharing of data.
First, the architecture is developed by evolving
through several iterations of a process/data class
matrix. pata flow is then added to the architecture,
followed by subsystem identification and analysis of
subsystems for prerequisites.
49
DATA CLASS .. .
~
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Business planning U U C
Organization analysis l>
. Review and control
U U
Financial planning U U C U
Capital acquisition C
Research U \J
Forecasting U U V \J
Design and development U C u C.
Product specification maintenance lJ U C (!
"
Purchasing C U
Receiving \J U
Inventory control Ie c. U
Workflow layout lJ lJ C
Scheduling \J V C u U
Capacity planning \) U U LJ C
Material requirements U lJ U C
Operations C U u U
Territory management C U \J
Selling U U U ~
Sales Administration U U
Order servicing U C V
Shipping U U U
General accounting U U U U
Cost plar;tning U U C
Budget accounting U U U U U
Personnel planning C. U
Recru iting/development U
Compensation U U
Figure 28. Data class by process, showing data creation and usage
50
DATA CLASS
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Business planning C U U
Organization analysis U
Review and control U U
Financial planning C U U U
Capital acquisition C
Research V \)
Forecasting U U U U
Design and development C C U U
Product specification maintenance U C C U
Purchasing C U
Receiving U U
Inventory control C C U
Workflow layout U C U
Scheduling U U U C V
Capacity planning U U C u \J
Material requirements U U u C
Operations U lJ U C
Territory management U C. U
Selling U \) UC
Sales administration U U
Order servicing U U C
Shipping U U U
General accounting U U U U
Cost planning U U C
Budget accounting U U U U U
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Recruiting/development U
Compensation LJ U
51
DATA CLASS ..
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Review and control U U
Financial planning C U u U
Capital acquisition C
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Forecasti ng U U U U
Design and development C C U U
Product specification maintenance U C C U
Purchasing C U
Receiving U U
l'1ventory control C C U
Workflow layout
U C U
Scheduling U U \) C. LJ
Capacity planning U \) C. u U
Material requ i rements U U U C
Operations U U U C
Territory management U C U
Selling V U C. U
Sales administration U U
Order servicing U U C
Shipping \J \) U
General accounting U U U U
Cost planning U \J C
Budget accounting U U U \J U
Personnel planning U (\
Recruiting/development \)
Compensation U
-
\)
52
Data Flow flow from the second to the third system. The second
'Where the U falls outside a system box, a means to system uses "Customer" data created by the fourth
represent data flow from one system area to another is system, so an arrow indkates this data flow. Figure 32
desirable. This flow is represented by arrows in Figure shows all data flow from'system to system represented
31. The third system down uses "Product" data by one-way arrows. This figure will be used later for
created by the second system. The arrow shows data su bsystem identification.
>-
DATA CLASS ...0c >-
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Product specification maintenance U C C c:.J
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<
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r' c U
Scheduling U U U C. lJ
Capacity planning U \) e. u U
Material requirements \) U U C
Operations U U U C
Territory management U C U
Selling U U C. U
Sales administration U U
Order servicing U U C
Shipping l> V U
General accounting U U IV U
Cost planning U U C
Budget accounting U U \J u U
Personnel planning U ('
Recruiting/development \J
Compensation U
'n. -
\)
53
~
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V
Design and development I": ....
C C U .... I U
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.... C C. U
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--.,. \
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54
With data creation and use indicated by the boxes
and arrows, the Cs and Us may be eliminated and
names applied to the major systems areas (Figure 33).
While Figure 33 represents the completed information
architecture, a final rearrangement of axes and use of
two-way arrows allows preparation of a simplified
graphic of the architecture. Figure 34 shows such a
graphic with the same systems. Such illustrations have
proved useful in management communications regard-
ing the information architecture.
DATA CLASS .. ..
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....
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Shipping
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55
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57
Chapter 12. Determining Architecture Priorities
58
Because of resource limitations, the defmition of Expansions and Variations
more than the very highest priority systems may be Another method that may be used for priority selection
impossible initially. However, the same method can be is to focus primarily on financial justification. Using
used in making later selections. After the implementa- this technique, the team attempts to focus on tangible
tion of the first system has been completed, the priori- benefits as provided in the value statements during the
ties of the remaining system should be reassessed. For executive interviews. This technique, called risk-
example, after the first four systems have been imple- benefit analysis, is described in Appendix H.
mented, the system initially listed fifth may no longer
be at the top of the list because the requirements and ~
problems of the business have changed.
The development and implementation of the informa- • From determining b~~iness requirements:
tion architecture cannot be accomplished without Description of business objectives
adequate planning, measurement, and control in the I/S support problems (from executive interviews)
information systems functions. This chapter deals with Major ISM problems/requirements from DP
those activities required to adequately review the ,. director's liS review)
Information Systems Management (ISM) function so as • From determining architectural priorities:
to recommend immediate changes and to specify ISM New technologies and skills required to support the
activities that are part of the follow-on projects. development of the first subsystem(s)
The BSP study will not encompass all the ISM
functions. The ISM analysis should be at the level of Flow of Activities in the ISM Module
the I/S director's view and should include only the Figure 37 gives an overview of the activities involved in
planning and control aspects of the major I/S processes. the ISM module. The activities in italics are not part of
To put the ISM activities into perspective, this chapter this exercise but are included to help the reader see
starts with a definition of ISM and then goes ,on to the where ISM fits with the other activities. As noted in the
objectives of the ISM module in the BSP study. figure, the required ISM changes.are developed through
three channels:
Purpose of ISM in the BSP Study 1. I/S objectives
The purpose of Information Systems Management is to 2. Information architecture
manage the I/S resources for the most efficient and 3. Problem analysis,
effective support of the business. The management liS problems
, system helps provide the continuous planning, control, ISM problems
measurement, and operation of the information The changes required by each of these are then
systems function. An example of the total spectrum of consolidated into a list,for developing ISM priorities,
ISM processes is represented by Appendix I. which serves as input to the ISM portion of the action
plan resulting from the BSP study.
ISM as Part of the BSP Study
The objectives of the ISM module are to: Compiling the 1/S Objectives
• Study the facts relating to ISM produced in other The liS objectives are required to provide the frame-
modules of the BSP study work to provide consistency in the development and
• Understand the findings and conclusions on liS employment of I/S resources in support of the business.
support of the business in relation to ISM liS objectives must be consistent with the objectives
• Further specify liS objectives and management systems of the business so as to serve
• Ensure that the first subsystems selected will be as a guide for the development of liS plans and strate-
supported by the current or planned ISM functions gies in the BSP follow-on activities.
• Identify those ISM projects that have high priority The current liS objectives were documented in the
and should be follow-on ISM projects BSP study preparation phase and discussed in the liS
director's presentation.
ISM Inputs In determining the present liS objectives to be
There are actions in other study modules prerequisite modified and additional objectives that should be
to performing the ISM activities in the BSP study: defined, the following list can be used as a guide. The
• From study preparation: ' objectives can be specified by defining the long-term
I/S mission and objectives view of each of these categories in information systems.
liS plans and strategies 1. liS Personnel
I/S measurements Organization
liS organization Skill mix
liS budgets Development and training
liS trends (resources, expenses)
I/S inventory and locations (equipment, software,
systems, personnel)
60
* Assess Identify * Define
business
problems I current 1/5
objectives I information
architecture
I I I
I ,
*
Non-lIS
\
lIS support
I Identify I Establish
) I changes and
J
problems
j J
problems
J I additions to
objectives I architectural
priorities
I I
Rearrange 1/5
support prob- I Define
required
I Show technologies
and management
practices requiring
lems by type
Conduct
1/5 review I ISM changes
I support
I I I Define ISM
changes required
Extract ISM
problems I I for architectural
priorities
1 I I
I
Define
I I
required
ISM changes I I
L_ -- -- -I- -- -- -- ....., I- -- -- -- -- ~ - -...- -~
Establish ISM
recommendations
and action plan
* Develop report
and make ex-
ecutive presen-
tation
-- -- ...,t- -- --
* SSP study
follow-on
projects
Rearrange liS Support Problems by Type Consolidating and Prioritizing ISM Changes
The third channel for identifying ISM changes is Consolidate all of the implied ISM changes from the
problem analysis. The problems that have been three sources. Develop criteria to be used to rank the
identified in the BSP study are separated into I/S ISM changes, such as impact, potential benefits, resour-
62
cesinvolved, and probability of successful implementa- ISM Outputs of a BSP Study
tion. Apply weights for each factor and determine the The following list summarizes the outputs that should
total weight and priority associated with each of the result from the ISM portion of the ..BSP study:
ISM changes. This selection process should parallel 1. Findings and conclusions
that used in establishing the architectural priorities. Major ISM problem analysis
ISM problems deduced from the liS support prob-
Developing Recommendations and Action Plan lems
Although the above activity will give priorities, do not 2. liS objectives
establish schedules until this list is combined with 3. Definition of high-priority ISM projects
actions required for other follow-on activities. The First systems support requirements
developing of recommendations and an action plan is Projects addressing major ISM problems
covered in the next chapter. Immediate actions recommended
4. Action plan for follow-on projects
63
Chapter 14. Developing Recommendations and Action Plan
Specific BSP study recommendations may center on the Potential benefits. Describe anticipated benefits or
areas of: reasons for doing the project.
1. Information architecture People and skills. Describe manning of project in
a. Detailing the subsystems of the information terms of management as well as staffing.
network Tools and techniques. Describe any required prac-
b. Interim improvements to current systems' tices or methods as specifically as possible.
2. Information systems management, including: Training. Describe specific orientation, education,
a. Data management to control the data resource of and study necessary for successful execution of the
the organization project.
b. Information systems planning process to ensure Communications. Identify coordination, liaison,
that the information architecture remains respon- interface points, or functions as well as documenta-
sive to changing conditions tion requirements.
c. Measurement and control to provide a system of Logistics. Define materiel and facility support
procedures, controls and structure for future necessary and indicate when it is needed.
implementations ' Control. Define project control methods and respon-
3. Architecture priorities - development of the first sibilitiesas well as review/approval requirements.
system to be implemented The amount of emphasis placed on the recommend-
For each recommendation, there may be an associ- ed follow-on projects varies greatly from one organiza-
ated project, and for every project an action plan tion to another. Normally, multiple follow-on projects
should be developed identifying the key decisions and will run concurrently. The number of simultaneous
activities required to help management provide proper system projects varies with the needs of the organiza-
direction. The action pl~n should give the project tion, the resources and time available to perform each
manager a firm basis for a smooth tr(;l,nsition from the project, and other factors.
stu9Y work product tp the particular project. The plan The completion of the activities above enables the
should describe the costs, potential benefits, and BSP study team to proceed to its final activities: prepa-
schedules for each project in enough detail that an ration of the study report and presentation of the study
informed executive decision can be made to approve or results to executive management. Thorough prepara-
reject the project. tion of the action plans, potential benefits, and costs
Each action plan should include the following: enables the executive sponsor to evaluate the recom-
Scope ofproject. Describe subject of project, includ- mendations. The study team can then ask for and
ing size and purpose. expect a prompt approval of the recommendations and
Deliverables. List and define each output or result a prompt commitment by management to implement
expected of the project. them.
Schedule. Identify expected start and concluding
dates as specifically as possible.
64
Chapter 15. Reporting Results
Having defined the information architecture, identified The conclusions, recommendations, and an action
the architecture priorities, reviewed and assessed liS plan should be reviewed with the executive sponsor
management, and developed recommendations and the before the team drafts the final report. Controversial
action plan, the BSP study team is ready to complete its areas or areas of high impact on the business may be
mission by preparing the study report and preparing reviewed with the executive involved, to determine
and delivering an executive presentation. The purpose how best to present the recommendations.
of the report and presentation is to obtain further
executive management commitment and involvement Presentation Medium
for implementing recommendations from the BSP The principal factors to consider in determining how
study. the report should be presented are the type and size of
The following activities are performed in preparing the audience and the accepted ways of making such a
the study report and executive presentation: presentation in the particular business environment.
• Report outline is prepared Consultation with the executive sponsor early in the
• Report is written study to obtain his advice on this subject can be most
• Executive presentation medium is determined helpful in establishing the proper direction.
• Executive presentation is prepared and delivered If the presentation is made to a small group, easel
flipcharts are adequate and popular. If the audience
Report Outline numbers more than a dozen, viewgraphs or slides
During the initial steps of preparing for the study and should be considered. If slides are to be used, adequate
developing a work plan for conducting the study, the time should be allotted to have them prepared, whether
team prepared a preliminary report outline. Since the in-house or by an outside vendor.
report now materializing from that outline is to be a
consensus of the entire team, each of its sections should ~xecutive Presentation
be reviewed by each of the members so that the final The executive presentation can be developed complete-
document reflects all their comments. ly from material contained in the final draft of the
The report may be structured in many ways, de- report. The principal aims of this presentation are to
pending upon precedent and methods of presentation inform management of the study'S findings, make
within the business conducting the study. However, to recommendations, and secure approval of the action
assist the team in its consideration of pertinent areas, plan.
an extensive list of topics is presented in Appendix J. The presentation should be consise - preferably no
,_ The most significant findings, conclusions, and longer than an hour. It should be logical and factual
recommendations should be summarized in the first and should end with recommendations for the follow-
few pages of the report for the use of top management. on activities. For example, it may take the following
Supporting details should be included later and in the form:
appendices for other members of the organization and 1. Introduction
for team members who will participate in future Background and overview
follow-on activities. Objectives
Scope
Report Preparation Study team
The primary writing responsibility for each of the 2. Study approach
sections of the report was assigned during study Business and I/S review
preparation. As the study progresses, changes, addi- Business processes
tions, and deletions can be made to the preliminary Business/information systems relationships
outline. By the time the executive interviews have· been "- 3. Major problem identified
completed, agreement should have been reached on the 4. Conclusions and recommendations
final table of contents, and the individual study team Information architecture and priorities
members should have available to them most of the liS management requirements
information needed to complete their assigned sections. 5. Action plan for follow-on project activities
The study team leader usually assumes the responsibil- Description(s)
ity for writing the background and overview because Deliverables
much of this material comes directly from the orienta- Resource requirements
tion information presented to the team at the kickoff Schedules
meeting.
65
Chapter 16. Overview of Follow-On Activities
The BSP study ended with the development of an action activities and the emphasis placed on each of them will
plan for the follow-on activities and a presentation for vary from one BSP study to another. For purposes of
management approval to proceed in the execution of this discussion, the following assumptions are made:
that plan. This final chapter of the BSP Planning Guide 1. ISM functions must be changed or added to provide
gives an overview of the follow-on activities and serves a controlled environment for the development and
three purposes: implementation of the information architecture
I. To relate the follow-on activities to the BSP study identified in the BSP study. A detailed information
2. To show how to capitalize on the results of the BSP systems plan will be developed that will reflect these
study planned changes.
3. To further explain the major follow-on projects 2. The information architecture must be further
The following section helps in putting the follow-on defined and data bases identified.
activities in perspective and in emphasizing their 3. A first system has been chosen for development and
importance. It also explains how to get the maximum implementation.
use of the output from the BSP study. The latter part of
this chapter attempts to give enough of an understand- Orientation of Teams
ing of the follow-on projects to allow for scheduling Before the beginning of each of the follow-on projects,
them in the action plan and to help preparing for them. the liS director should provide orientation for project
team members. Since many of the team members will
Perspective on Follow-on Activities not be familiar with BSP, its principles and objectives
should be summarized. It is very important that
Relation of BSP Study to Follow-on Activities everyone on the project teams understand exactly how
The follow-on activities are a continuation and expan- the BSP study was conducted and become familiar with
sion of the major activities in the BSP study. The major the outputs so as to be able to build upon them.
thrust of the study was one of understanding, develop- A review of the BSP study report for the areas to be
ing findings and conclusions, and making recommen- studied in the follow-on projects will help to determine
dations. While the thrust in follow-on projects is still whether team members need special education. A
to understand, greater emphasis is put on detailed specification of tools and techniques may also reveal
definitions and planning. the need for special education. If required, appropriate
There is a great need for communications among the classes can be scheduled on an individual basis. If the
project teams if project implementation is to be suc- l/S director was not a member of the BSP study team, it
cessful. Therefore, the information systems director might be advisable for him to attend the IBM Informa-
should take overall responsibility for the projects, since tion Systems Planning course.
the functions performed during the follow-on activities The following is a sample list of topics for project
are a part of the ISM responsibilities. Because the team orientation:
follow-on activities build upon the results of and the Introduction by the sponsor
information gathered in the BSP study, there is a need Objectives of the orientation
for continuity of team members. At least one person Information systems concepts and perspectives
on the BSP study team should have been chosen from Data base concepts
the data processing function, with the idea that he Overview of the BSP study methodology
would remain for the follow-on activities. Detailed discussion of the BSP study
The functions performed by the executive sponsor Business environment
for the BSPstudyshould be performed by a steering Objectives
committee for the follow-on projects, unless there is a Major processes identified
management committee that will perform them. Major problems
Business processes continue to be the vehicle for Current l/S support for the business
understanding detailed business requirements and for Interviews
further defining the information architecture with Information architecture
special emphasis on the definition of the first system. Major findings andiconclusions
Recommendations
Preparation for Follow-on Activities Introduction to the follow-on activities
Because of the variations in the findings and conclu- Relation to the BSP study
sions that may result from BSP studies, the follow-on Relation to the BSP study deliverables
66
Discussion of deliverables from the follow-on Perhaps the most important action to be taken after
activities the BSP study is to decide what person or group of
Explanation of follow-on projects persons is responsible for continuing the liS planning
Introduction of tools and techniques using the BSP study as a base. While the BSP study
Introduction of preparation activities culminated in an approved action plan, the overall
Activities already performed objective of an ISM project will be to develop a long-
Activities to be performed by team members range liS plan that will direct the design, development,
Interviewing strategies and selection of interviewees and implementation of an information architecture. It
Use of matrices should include sufficient detail on projects, resources,
Pilots of forms, tools, techniques and interviews and schedules to guide all levels of management on
Introduction to HIPO and its use in the follow-on what is to be done, when, and by whom in the organi-
projects zation. Since the long-range liS plan is an integral part
Assignment of responsibilities of the business plan and is prepared with full m.anage-
Development of task descriptions by team members ment involvement, it should help to provide that the liS
Explanation of project control systems resources of the business will be used to effectively
support the business.
Information Systems Management Also, since data, management is a complex area
ISM is the keystone of effective support of the business requiring long lead times, the data administrator
by information systems. It can be defined as the should be decided upon as early as possible so that this
management of the information systems resources for function can be properly coordinated.
the most efficient and effective support of the business. The importance of I/S planning and data adminis-
The importance of continual emphasis on ISM is tration cannot be overemphasized, and they will nearly
summarized by the following statements: always be a part of the follow-on activity. The activi-
• Development of the information architecture will ties will not be explained further here since they are
take place over a period of years. covered thoroughly in IBM, GUIDE. SHARE, and trade
• Changes to business strategies and plans as well as publications.
liS technology will be continual during the develop- Some of the close-in projects should be done
ment of the information architecture. immediately after the BSP study recommendations are
• The processes of managing I/S will have to be approved and before most of the follow-on activities
refined and changed continually to properly plan, are started. The establishment of a steering committee
measure, and control required I/S resourCes. and a project control system are excellent examples
• The BSP study is a one-time effort that should be' since a steering committee should be available to direct
followed by continuall/s planning to fully capitalize the follow-on activities and a project control system
on the results. should be in place to help the liS director adequately
control and coordinate the activities.
ISM in Perspective The major ISM follow-on project will probably be a
As covered in Chapter 13, the ISM follow-on projects long-range activity such as I/S planning or data admin-
will emanate from (1) requirements to support I/S istration or a combination of both.
objectives, (2) changes resulting from the development Becau~e of the size of these projects and their
and implementation of the first system, and (3) recom- interactions with all the· liS processes, it is important to
mended changes to solve liS support problems and ISM fully understand all the functions of ISM before under-
problems. taking any recommended change to any part of ISM,
From this it is safe to assume that th~ recommenda- just as it was important to fully understand the busi-
tions included: ness before starting to fulfill the information require-
I. Emphasis on information systems planning and ments. Some mechanism should exist to get the broad
control and on data administration. view of ISM, and BSP can be used as that mechanism.
2. Some close-in projects, such as the establishment of You may treat I/S as a business-within-a-business and
a steering committee and refinements to project apply to it the same BSP techniques that you have
contr6l. Capacity planning is also a natural follow- applied to the business in which it is located.
on to a BSP study since it examines the data process-
ing capacity and determines whether changes are Information Systems as a Business
required to accommodate the architectural priorities Many of the activities for performing a BSP study in the
or to solve some of the liS support problems. liSfunction have already been accomplished:
3. A major project(s) in ISM, e.g., establishing an action • Facts relating to information systems were gathered
plan to'move to distributed data processing. as part of the study preparation phase.
67
• ISM responsibilities, activities, and problems were selling tool if some executives are skeptical of the
identified by the liS director during the kickoff~ methodology. It must be recognized that a major
.• Many of the findings and conclusions have already deficiency exists in the understanding of part of the liS
. been put together as a result of examining the liS environment, which in this case is the rest of the
facts and the problems. business.
• A first ISM project has been identified and an action BSP is so demanding of a team's time that running
plan established. . the two studies concurrently will require two teams,
While some of these activities will have to be closely coordinated. The added emphasis on ISM may
expanded, they make a significant start in understand- detract from the major goal of understanding the
ing the whole I/S function. The following identifies business and may give the entire study a much greater
other steps that should be performed: flavor of an I/S project than is desired. The major
1. Defining ISM processes. Appendix I suggests the advantage is the ability to relate· liS problems directly
. processes that take place in ISM. This may be used to ISM problems and make sound recommendations on
as a checklist to identify the ISM processes. Other- ISM in the action plan and report of the business BSP
wise, you may wish to identify the information study.
systems resources and the activities and decisions Ideally, the I/S study should be done immediately
found in their management cycle. The following is a after the business study, since (1) the required inputs
list of resources to be considered: are readily available, (2) the momentum will carry over
Programs and systems from the business study, and (3) the best environment
Functional modules will exist for conducting all the follow-on activities.
Data bases
Hardware/software/communications facilities Information Architecture
User facilities (terminals, languages, data bases, etc.) The amount of follow-on effort required in the archi-
Physical facilities tecture area depends on the level of detail in the BSP
Finance study. If the information architecture was not com-
People pletely defined as outlined in Chapter 11, the basic
2. Analyzing relationships of organization, processes, architecture definition should be completed as the
information systems, and data. This is an exact beginning of a follow-on project.
parallel to the development of the matrices to show The architecture refinement to be accomplished in a
relationships in the business BSP study, except that follow-on project should include a confirmation of the
the information systems are those that support the major I/S groupings, the subsystem breakout of each
liS functions, such as equipment utilization systems system, subsystem interrelation, and data flow among
and chargeout systems. The data is that needed to subsystems.
support these and other systems used to manage the Several other activities should be included in the
liS function. information architecture project:
3. Interviewing. The interviewing in ISM will normally • Examination of current data processing systems to
be with the upper two levels of information systems determine how they can evolve (provided they can
managers, selective interactive users, the executive at all) into the new systems architecture
to whom the liS director reports, and selected • Establishment of a continuing link between the
functional users. architecture and the business plan to ensure that the
The remaining steps are the same as the BSP metho- liS plan will be based upon a viable information
dology for the business and should be conducted by a architecture
small team led by the individual responsible for I/S • Documentation of alternative architectures that
planning or another person with a broad responsibility were tried or investigated and rejected, with the
in liS. reasons for rejection
The BSP study of, the I/S function may be done as • Evaluation of the technical implications of the
part of the ISM follow-on project, as suggested. It information architecture, including control systems,
should also be considered as an effort that can be made" DB/DC requirements, and potential distribution of
either concurrently with the business BSP study, before both information and systems
it, or immediately after it and before the start of any
follow-on projects. Architecture Refinement
As an activity before the business study, the liS U sing the information architecture defined in the BSP
study provides experience in the methodology, offers study, a description of each subsystem should be
an excellent view of I/S as input to the business study, prepared. Each description should include the purpose
allows an early start on ISM projects, and can serve as a of the subsystem, business problems addressed, data
68
created and used, dependencies on other subsystems, system can support subsystem needs independently and
general requirements for implementation, and priority currently.
of the subsystem with respect to all other subsystems. A comparison of the data base environment with the
traditional approach to systems development and
Current Systems Examination maintenance reveals the advantages of the data base
F or data processing systems currently in use or under concept. In the traditional approach, a system is
development, a careful examination should be con- usually designed, programmed, tested, and then
ducted to determine how each one relates to the implemented as a total entity. Its advantages cannot be
subsystems described in the information architecture. realized by the end user until the entire syste~ is
Possible modifications to current systems should be completed. The amount of time involved can cause
documented with respect to interfacing them to the frustration, since business requirements cannot be kept
future architecture. Where modified systems could be frozen long enough to avoid changes, delays, and false
used in lieu of new subsystems, a description should b,e starts. Also, when data or logic changes are required,
included in the architecture documentation. For considerable testing may be necessary to determine
systems already under development, an evaluation how the change affects other programs or systems
should be made of possible modifications to make the functions.
developing system compatible with the new informa- By contrast, the data base approach allows a gradual
tion architecture. Analysis should be made of the transition from existing systems to online, transaction-
impact on current development schedules versus the driven systems. The data base is created gradually"
avoidance of modifying the system after implementa- with just a few transactions implemented at a time.
tion, keeping in mind present commitments and future Current data base techniques facilitate this type of data
priorities. base and system implementation. With gradual
implementation of transactions, user department
Data Base signoff can be obtained more easily and the user can
Integral to information architecture definition in the enjoy the benefits earlier. This approach also helps
BSP study were the data classes supporting the business overcome the problem of not being able to freeze
processes. A logical grouping of related data classes business requirements and technological advances
will yield the set of data bases that will support the during the development cycle. Changes that must be
architecture implementation. made along the way impact individual transactions or
A data base can be defined as a nonredundant become new transaction.s themselves. Changing data
collection of interrelated data items processable by one needs can be accommodated without affecting pro-
or more applications. Some of the terms in the defini- grams that do not use that specific area or segment of
tion itself may need explaining: the data base. Thus, the data base environment can be
• N onredundant means that individual data items a better way to accommodate change, deliver benefits
appear only once (or at least less frequently than in to the user, and control development costs.
normal file organizations) in the data base.
• Interrelated means that the files are constructed with Distributed Information Systems
an ordered and planned relationship that allows The general purpose of distributed, information systems
data elements to be tied together, even though they is to provide the user with a level of computing re-
may not necessarily be in the same physical record. source best suited to his operational requirements. The
• Processable by one or more applications means elements that can be considered for distribution
simply that data is shared and used by several include hardware, program execution, program
different subsystems. development, and data. Degree of distribution can
Development of a data base has some obvious vary from totally centralized to totally decentralized.
benefits. By consolidating files, the user can obtain The information architecture defined in the BSP study
better control of data and reduce storage space and c~n provide a good foundation for the additional
processing time. Equally important are the resultant planning necessary to address liS distrybution require-
data synchronization and timeliness. Use of a single ments.
information source makes processing more accurate If the information architecture follow-on project is
because all subsystems refer to the same data. to add distributed I/S parameters to the architecture,
A data base system can help overcome some of the the project team must:
complexities of data management. It can provide • Thoroughly understand the degree of distribution of
additional data relationships while minimizing storage each element
redundancy. Figure 38 illustrates how a data base • Understand the arguments for and against distr:ibu-
69
User File inquiry File change Report request
Device
I
Operating system I
I
I I
,..- L-l ( -...... ,,-1-
I Logical I I Logical
I I Logical
'1
I
Subsystem
data I ~e I I file
B I I file
C
I I I I I I
l...~ ..........
\
l........ /
'" .-/
System
data
Integrated
data
base
70
tion of the various elements as data security, data integrity, data communications,
• Be able to put into perspective all the factors that rapid availability of large amounts of data, and backup
affect distribution and sharing of data processing, and recovery requirements complicate the tasks that
resources must be performed on a project. They also add to
• Appreciate the need for a long-range lIS plan and requirements for skilled personnel to perform such
for development of a facilities plan to support the lIS tasks.
plan I In many areas technical risks may be reduced by
Several of the matrices developed in the BSP study incorporating appropriate hardware/software products,
can be very useful in developing the architecture productivity techniques, and procedures. An invest-
extensions with respect to distribution. The process ment of time in evaluating existing products and
and data flow analysis should be extended to include applying them to the recommended system will reap
physical locations for systems and data requirements. ample rewards in a better system implementation.
Location/ organization, location/process and
location/ data matrices should be prepared. A Effective Communication
process/data matrix for each location (or group of Effective communication is indispensable to successful
similar locations) should be prepared wi~h additional system development, which entails the communication
parameters on the axes to include data use, security, and translation of management and user business
a:uditability, data occurrence (all or parti3.1), activity requirements into achievable data processing solutions.
volumes, response required, and criticality\ Figure 39 Only users can determine the business requirements
shows this type of matrix for a manufacturing plant of the system to be developed. Their involvement and
site. continued participation are, therefore, essential.
These additions to the architectural description of Developers sometimes try to second-guess the needs
the information systems can then be input to the of users and to create systems they believe will do the
individual subsystem requirement studies to determine job. More often than not, this approach is unsatisfacto-
detail distributed systems requirements. They will also ry. While the technical aspects of such a system may be
give an overall feel for the applicability of distributed sound, the real business needs of the organization may
systems to the information architecture. not be addressed or met.
Users and developers need a mutual understanding
Developing the First System of what is to be done and a commitment to their
The sSP team has recommended that a particular respective responsibilities. The development process
high-priority system be developed and implemented itself must ensure communication and commitment
first. As development of that system begins, care between the two groups.
should be taken that this system is not developed "by Communications may be greatly facilitated by the
itself." The BSP study has set a certain direction for use of standardized documentation techniques such as
implementation of systems. This first development and HIPO, structured walk-throughs, and the like. These
implementation must support the business processes not only reduce misunderstandings but contribute to
and must: increased productivity, which in turn should speed up
I. Fit properly into and interface with the other implementation of the system or application. Where
(future) systems of the overall architecture described appropriate, such aids should be evaluated, adopted,
in the BSP study and incorporated in the development project.
2. Provide for proper implementation of the appropri-
ate data base(s) Priorities and Conflicts
As described in the ISM section of this chapter, these The need to set priorities for conflicting objectives is
concurrent projects must be carefully managed (ISM) to crucial. Conflicts can make even simple situations
ensure that they lead toward an integrated whole rather complex and can cause many serious project difficul-
than perpetuate "separatist" or "standalone" applica- ties.
tions development. Even before a project is under way, the new system
System development is a complex process. It must compete with the demands of trained personnel to
requires technical expertise, effective communications, maintain old systems. Application development
and skillful handling of conflicting objectives of users, resources are in short supply, and experienced develop-
management, and data processing. ment skills may be hard to find because everybody has
a backlog of applications waiting to be developed.
Technical Factors The project manager, therefore, must be qualified
There is no doubt that developing information systems both in project management techniques and in the
is more complex today than in the past. Factors ;uch business area to be supported by the first system.
71
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Design and Develop. A A A L L
Product Spec. Maint. A A A C L M
Information Control A C C L M
Planning
Research
Forecasting
Financial Planning A A A A L L
Capital Acquisition
Funds Management A A A A A M M
Workflow ~yout A A C C M H
Maintenance A A L L
Equip. Performance A A M M
Personnel Planning C A C C M L
Recruiting/Development A L M
Compensation A A A L L
Purchasing A A H H
Receiving A A M H
I nventory Control C C A C M H
Shipping A A A H M
Scheduling A A A C A A C M H
Capacity Planning A A A C A A A M H
Material Reqmts, A A C ...! C M H.
Operations A A A A L H
Territory Mgmt.
Selling
Sales Administration
Order Servicing A A A H H
General Accounting A A A C C H L
Cost Planning A A A L L
Budget Accounting A A A A A M L
Business Planning A A L L
Organization Analysis A L L
Review and Control A A L L
Risk Management A L L
Use A A A C A C C A C C C C C A A C A
Security Ii. A A A C A A A C
Auditability A A
Data Occurrence T T T T T T P P T T T T T P P P T
Currency I I S S L L L 0 I I I S 0 0 S L 0
72
Ample education, documentation, and products are The project manager and appropriate team mem-
available for both. A thorough analysis of support bers should be thoroughly prepared in these areas
should be made and a technical support plan should be before the start of the project. This should result in
put together to utilize the education, documentation, effective project management, which in turn will
and products wherever possible. You should work reduce risks and optimize the business value of the first
with your IBM marketing representative to develop implementation.
such a plan.
73
Appendix A. Sample Executive Announcement Letter
Sincerely,
Edward J. Bissel
President
EJB/rth
/
74
Appendix B. Sample Interview Confirmation Letter
If you have any questions before our meeting on April 9, please call
me. Thank you for your cooperation.
Sincerely,
75
Appendix C. Examples of Process Groups and·Processes by Industry
76
Operations Advertising/promotion
Communications Pricing
Data processing Selling/contracting
Transaction servicing Order entry
Inquiry servicing Customer service
Corrections Sales analysis
Mail Manufacturing
Finance Production forecasting
Budget planning and control Scheduling
Financial analysis Inventory
Asset management Plant operations
Liability management Packaging
Capital management Warehousing
Financial reporting Shipping
Personnel Maintenance
Planning Quality control
Recruiting and hiring Product cost control
Training Distribution
Wage and salary administration Carrier and rate negotiations
Employee relations Supply /demand planning
Benefits management Order processing
Career development Rating and routing
Retirement or separation Terminal operations
Government compliance Warehouse planning/operations
Legal Fleet planning
Litigation Fleet operations
Tax consequence advising Inventory control
Contracts review Financial
Legislation impact analysis Financial planning
Legal compliance review Financial analysis
Administration Capital transaction and control
Accounting Budgeting
Audit General accounting
Facilities Cost accounting
Regulatory compliance Taxes
Taxes Government report
Payroll Payroll
Security Administration
Personnel development
Process (Chemical) Salary and benefits administration
Planning Labor and personnel relations
Strategic planning External affairs
Market research Legal
Technical feasibility Insurance
Economic analysis Information services
Forecasting Facilities services
Resource requirements
Product Development Process (Paper)
Exploration Product Development
Engineering development Product design
Licensing Raw material requirements
Engineering design Facility planning
Construction Market forecast
Marketing Financial requirements
Sales forecasting Market planning
77
Marketing Drafting and records
Sales planning Product perfOl:mance
Product plan Produc( Planning
Sales analysis Determination of business case
Order entry Evaluation of business case
Customer services Marketing
Pricing Marketing planning
Production Market research, market development
Requirement planning Pricing
Production scheduling Publications, advertising, promotions
Raw material planning Sales analysis and forecasting
Receiving Warranty policy and other software
Production reporting Market operations
Quality control Distribution network
Inventory Field sales and service
Shipping OEM sales and service
Maintenance Order entry
Engineering Support Financial Management
Project engineering Funds management
Environment Cash
Energy requirements Short-term financing
Standards Long-term financing
Material handling Financial control
Financial Budget!expense
Cash management Managerial accounting
Budgeting General accounting
Capital expenditures Bookkeeping
Cost analysis Internal control
Financial reporting Administration
Payroll Legal
Customer billing Public relations
Accounts receivable and payable Security
Audit Governmental reporting
Administration Office management
Purchasing Planning, Control and Measurement
Personnel services Fiscal year business plan
Traffic Annual operating plan
Salary administration Quarterly operating plan
Information services Reporting and control
Legal Personnel Management
Stockholder relations Planning
Public affairs Acquiring
Industry Relations Development and administration
Labor relations Reporting
Personnel development Termination
Safety Operations Control
Master production plan
Manufacturing Transportation planning
Product pevelopment and Application Performance reporting
'\
Technology development Inventory control
Product application Capacity Management
New product Determination of optimum capacity
Old product Capacity allocation
Application engineering Acquisition of capacity
Specifications
78
Material Acquisition Financial negotiation
Vendor evaluation New business
Order control Administration
Receiving and inspection Accounts payable
Plant Operations Accounts receivable
Planning, schedule and control Payroll
Performance reporting Statistical and financial reporting
Expediting Audit
Planning of material, manpower Merchandise processing
Order processing - plant order boards Personnel/training
Product and process specifications
Execution Government
Order release Judicial
Dispatching Prosecution
Storage/warehousing Defense
Quality Court procedures
Preventive maintenance Control
Material transfer - to/from supplier/customer Civil
Public Facilities
Definition
Distribution Construction
Buying Maintenance
Vendor selection Property management
Requirements Public Protection Process
When to buy Enforcement
Allocation Confinement
Sales planning Rehabilitation
Inventory control Prevention
Pricing Inspection
Markdowns Finance
Selling Taxing
Presentation Licensing
Display Accounting
Manpower planning Collections
New item introduction Funds management
Advertising Payroll
Customer service Purchasing
General Operations Personnel
Purchasing Recruiting/hiring/ terminating
Facilities maintenance Career development
Security Job classification
Public relations Labor relations
Audit, Compensation and benefits
Inventory control Employee/position management
Physical inventory control Management
Internal communications Conflict
Facilities development Measurement and control
Management and Financial Control Policy determination
Budgets Budgeting
Cash management Security/privacy
Profit planning External relations
Measurement and control Recordkeeping
Capital expenditure planning
Credit granting
_ 79
Community Service Financial Management
Library Income acquisition
PubJic records Stewardship of funds
Election administration Receipting and disbursement of funds
Cultural and recreational support Cash management
Environmental control Protection against financial liabilities
Public Aid Process Financial services
Eligibility determination Financial recordkeeping
Financial assistance Personnel
Manpower Recruiting
Social services Hiring/termination
Residential care Career development and evaluation
Health ~ervices Salary and benefit administration
Admissions Employee relations
Inpatient care Assignment of responsibilities
Outpatient care Job classification
Education and research Recordkeeping
Emergency care Institutional Planning and Management
Community health services Goals development
Strategic planning (long-term)
Education - University Tactical planning (short-term)
Student Allocation of resources
Promotion/ recruiting Monitor and control
Evaluation and admissions Internal communications
Class registration Physical Plant Management
Academic and career advising Program statement
Financial aid Design
Student activities/life Construction and procurement
Student services Maintenance/ operation
Student status/archives Disposition
Protection
Credit Instruction
Rental property management
Curriculum development
Goods and Services
Scheduling instructional resources
Assessment of needs
Teaching and learning
Acquisition
Evaluation and measurement
Inventory of expendables
Research and Artistic Creativity
Inventory of non-expendables
Project identification and definition
Distribution
Procurement of resources
Alumni Affairs
Project execution
Tracking
Evaluation
Programs and services
Dissemination of results
Institutional evaluation
Public Services and Extension
External Communication and Relations
Activity development
Publicity
Administrative and logistical services for clientele
Negotiation
Resource procurement and organization
Public service
Activity delivery'
Extra-university affiliation
Activity evaluation
80
Appendix D. Examples of Planning and Control Processes
Cyclical Planning and Control from the test cell through the field use; inCludes
measuring warranty exposure and cost along with
Five-Year Business Planning failure rates. .
Establishment of a long-range business plan, taking
into consideration such things as product, product Capacity Planning
demand, capacity, manpower, financial strategies, and The determination of production and test capacity
information systems to achieve company goals. required to meet the planned production volume,
allocation of this within the company and supplier
Annual Operation Planning facilities, and acquisition of any additional capacity.
Development of a medium-range operating directive to
control the business activities in achieving the five-year Determination of Optimum Capacity
business plan. Required productive and test capacity is determined on
the basis of the planned production volume.
Quarterly Operation Planning
Quarterly restatement of annual operating plan, Capacity Allocation
reflecting a 'firm' operating plan for three months and The assignment of productive and test capacity among
a 'forecasted' operating plan for the following three the company and supplier plants. Make-vs-buy
months. analyses are made to determine internal and external
(supplier) requirements.
Reporting and Control
Review of the performance of operating units to ensure Market Planning and Strategies
the success of the plans. Change directions of operat-
ing units and/or plans when necessary to meet the Market Research, Market Development
objectives of the company. Identify markets, lay plans, and set strategies for
penetrating those markets.
Product Planning and Development
Pricing
Technology Development Establish as part of market penetration and product
Includes applied research on new engines, combustion , planning strategies.
systems, material, etc., and basic research on new
power systems. Publications, Advertising, Promotion
Support and augment strategies and tactics of market
Product Application development.
Application of research results to existing product line
and new products. Sales Analysis and Forecasting
New Product -.Development, testing and release of Provide necessary information to plan and measure
new products (components, engines or "software"). strategies and tactics.
Old Product - Application of improvements to
existing products. Warranty, Policy and Other "Software"
Application Engineering - Applying the basic engine Establish as integral with strategies and tactics of
to different customer applications (requirements). market penetration.
Specifications - The process of developing and
recording standard company specifications for Personnel Planning
products, material, inspection, process, supplier
certification, etc. Policies
Drafting and Records - Production of drawings that The establishment and implementation of policies and
describe the product, its characteristics, and its practices concerning employment, development,
applications. compensation and evaluation of employees.
Product Performance
Tracking and measuring the performance of an engine
81
Requirements Performance Reporting
Determination of manpower requirements in line with The process of feeding back information on actual
business objectives. production against the master production plan on a
periodic basis, and provision of input for any required
Financial Control modification of plans and schedules.
Establish, coordinate, and administer, as an integral
part of management, an adequate plan for the control Inventory Control
of operations. Determination and control of the levels of inventory
required to meet a predetermined level of production
Budget/Expense and service, with the objective of minimizing the
Provide expense budgets and cost standards together overall cost.
with the necessary procedures to effectuate the plan.
Plant Operations
Managerial Accounting The process of producing products or parts according
Compare the results of operations with plans and to a given schedule and specifications in the most
standards; interpret them for all management levels. efficient manner.
82
Appendix E. Sample Descriptions of Processes
83
Stock Replenishment - The acquisition and distribu- ductive, satisfied work force; to commit to employ-
tion of finished products in relation to units of stock ees only what has been approved and then to follow
sold. up on any commitments made.
Point of Sale - The collection and analysis of Communications - Developing and administering
statistics concerning actual unit sales. policies, procedures and programs to keep employ-
ees well informed on things they need to know to
Personnel Process perform their work, and to promote positive atti-
Development and administration of policies and tudes and job satisfaction.
programs to attract, develop and hold qualified em- Separation/ Retirement - Development and adminis-
ployees and ensure their equitable treatment and tration of policies, proc~dures and programs pertain-
advancement to their highest level of competence. ing to the separation and retirement of employees.
84
Budgets - Preparing period plans with the assistance Accounts Payable - Recording, verifying and
of marketing and production. satisfying obligations of the company.
Cash Management - Controlling borrowing and cash Fixed Asset Accounting - Maintaining records for
flow within established guidelines. security, production and tax needs.
Payroll - Maintaining records and paying employees
Financial Reporting and Analysis of the company according to established procedures.
Compiling and analyzing financial data, determining Credit and Billing - Authorizing credit, billing at
trends, and recommending actions to be taken. established prices, recording payments, and effecting
collections.
Risk Management Inventory Valuation - Physical counting of assets of
Determining areas of risk and obtaining coverage the company, determining values, and recording
where needed. differences.
Overhead Allocation - Spreading fixed or common
General Accounting expenses by various methods appropriate to the
The process of doing the day-by-day accounting work particular item or location.
of the company. Cost Accounting - Maintaining standard cost records
General Ledger - Maintaining records of original of all products, recognizing variances, and recording
entry for all financial transactions of the company. them within established procedures.
85
98
...... x ® Management Planning
i..
Prepare & Admin. Budget
II II II Document Financial Trans. X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X )c X X)( X X X X ~ xTx
(f) Control Revenue & Expenses X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X )(~ X X XX X X X X 18 XI8 X.• 818
o ~ ~ Audit 88 .181
3 ~ O· II AI
III .,.,
Disburse
Collect Cash 18 X 161 X 8 18 1.18 A 11111 III X X X
~~i
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Maintain Equipment
181" 18 8
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...... ...... ...... ......1.18......
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......
III 3 iT Rent ...... ...... ......111.................. X ...... ...... ...... I...... ...... . . . . . .1 ......
::I g =: Dispatch 18 ...... 8 ...... ...... ...... ...... 18 ......" . . . . . . . . . . . . e I
:. ~. :( Purchase Over $1,000 X X X ...... X X X X X X X X ...... X X X X
::I ::I PaY-abies
Ql X ...... X X
g. g.
CD CD Q.
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Contract
Administration X X X X X X X X X X X X
8X. . . .
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1818 I.....
ilC X X X X X X X • X X X X X
XI8 ac
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g ,g;;; Clean 18 ...... II!P...... e Ie
~ ,III 0" Maintain Facilities X X ...... 18 ............ IA t--......
1/1:::::1 Generate 8
3 Maintain D a t a e
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Use Materials & Supplies
X......
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Licenses & Permits I1I1111 rlllllll:!II!1 Clalllll: 11:111:11: re
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FTi11T I ti I ! IIIIIXIIIIII:IIIIIIIII~
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Insurance & Claims Employee ...... ~ e X/X X X~/X
Training & Safety Services 'X
I......I....../...... Ixi ...... ~ ......
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Design I. . . . . . I I......
Construct Streets
Maintain Maps & Reds. ...... ......1...... 1...... 1 I...... ....../ I 18 ...... ......
Review Land Dev. Plans Engineering
Assessment Districts
Leased Housing
&
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Sa~!Jl8"1 d!qsOO!l8Iall SmalSAS/SSaO!SDg JO saldm8X3: .~. X!poaddV
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Vehicle Vehicle Vehicle
Disposal Rent & Lease Acqu isition Marketing Finance Management
Systems
c c c Accounts Payable
c c c Annual Volume Rebate
ccccccc c Air Care
c Credit Cards
cc Centrex Phones
c Data Entry Stats
c Deposits
c Documentation· Library
c p Daily Reporting
cc c Floating Fleet
General File Support
c c p p p C CCCCCP General Ledger - Car Leasing
p p cc c c CCCCCP General Ledger
p c Input Processing (Car RIA's)
p c Truck Entry (Truck RIA's)
c c Leasing Commission
c c Licensee Lease
c c Licensee Receivables
p c Market Penetration
c Reservations
c National Discount Bulletin
P C C Pool Control
c P CC C C C C P P Open Receivables
C P C C C C C C P Car Leasing - Receivables
C C C Payroll
C RIA Control
C Rental Properties
C C System Fees
C Systems and Programming
C Tabs
C Taxes
c C C Ppee c c c c c c c c c c c c C C C Car Lease - Vehicles
c cc c c c c c c c p Vehicle Master .- Corporate
cc c c c c c c c c Vehicle Purchase Order
C Current p Planned
87
/
/Student
SYSTEMS
Admissions o.!tho o o
Registration o~o o 0 o
Financial Aid 0 0 0 0 0 •.!.1)0 o o o 0 o
Evaluation o 0 o 000 o 0 0 0
Status Reporting 0000000 o o 0 0
Student Flow 0000000 o o 0 0 0
Facilities & Cap. Equip.
library Ordering & Circ.
Order Control %"1 000
Project Control o 0 0
Space Management o o 0 0 o 0 000
Capital Equip. Mgmt. o 0 0 o 0 o 0
Supplies Management 000 o
Food Services o
Alumni/Development
Grant/Donation Status o~
Alumni/Donor Contact o o0 o
Alumni Profile o
Gift & Grant Tracking o~
Financial
Receivables o o !Yhl~
~bles
Payroll
Portfolio Mgmt.
Accounting
Planning & Control
Records Maintenance I I I I I
Models o 0 0 0 0 o 0 0 0 0 o 0 0 o 0 0 o 0 0 0 000 o 0 0 0
Budget Prep.lTracking o 0 0 0 0 000 o 0 0 o 0
Manpower
Salary & Benefits Admin. o
Personnel Eval./Tracking o o 0 I~I~I~I~I~ o 0
Manpower Track.lForecast o 000 000
Curriculum/Instruction
Course Offering/Reqmnts. o 0 0 o 000 o o 000 0
Degree Programs o o 000
Trends/Statistics Anal. o 0 0 0 o o o o o o 0 0 0
t--- Course/Section Sche'-d-u-Ie-s-----+-+---~~+-+- o IJ.6 0
Input o Output
88
Appendix G. Sample List of Wall Charts for Control Room
89
Appendix H. Risk - Potential Benefit Analysis
This technique attempts to quantify each perceived required as a result of the new system. An exam-
potential benefit. The textbook solution is to have the ple might be displacement of keypunch operators
executive make a "ballpark" estimate of potential through remote data entry.
savings or gains. However, it is often difficult, though b. Increased productivity (reducing widely varying
not impossible, to assign dollar savings to such areas as workload, applying information to all areas of
faster response time, tighter management control, and business. etc.). Another benefit accrues because
improved product performance. the new system should allow existing or future
Assess potential values conservatively. Remember facilities or people to do more work. This catego-
that estimates are useless unless the executive believes ry may be viewed, therefore, as one of increased
they are possible and really apply to his situation. productivity and accuracy on the part of a clerical
When asking questions that will help the executive to staff through online data entry. Future personnel
make estimates: requirements can potentially be held to a mini-
• Use a conservative guess, with a range of potential mum.
return of savings. c. Increased income or revenue (automatic decision
• When at all doubtful, use figures the executive sees making, more data to aid decision, exception,
as absolute minimums. reporting, etc.). This final category addresses the
• When you refer to similar situations, be sure that use ofadvanced computer applications to in-
they really are similar and that the executive can crease income. For example, freedom from
verify them. routine decision making may enable management
• Look for previous or currently existing data and to spend more time on the really important
statistics that indicate the range of potential return decisions. Attainment of this benefit depends on
or savings. business policy and the ability to effectively use
The team should focus on broad benefits to the the computer resource.
point that they can be operationally defined. In the example of production planning, the benefits
Probability prediction is a valuable tool, because it estimated during the interviews with the vice president
lends credibility to the estimates upon which justifica- of production, the director of production planning and
tion is based. Use of the benefits matrix arrangement the manager of electronic sales might be:
shown here may be particularly valuable in helping to $1,000,000 - materials reduction
assign approximate dollar values to benefits. 300,000 - labor reductions
600,000 - increased production
High Medium Low 500,000 - sales increase
Probability Probability Probability
2. Using the estimated maximum potential savings, the
team then estimates a dollar amount of that total
Displaced
Costs
possible return for which there is:
m 131 161 a. High probability of realization
b. Medium probability of realization
Increased
Productivity
c. Low probability of realization
~ 51 81 F or instance, as shown in the following illustration,
an automated production planning system might result
Increased
Income
in a toal materials saving of $1,000,000 annually but
41 71 91 that total may not be immediate or certain. However,
it is estimated that:
a. There is a high. probability that raw materials
The potential benefits matrix is used in the follow- may be reduced by $500,000.
ingmanner: b. There is a moderate probability of an additional
I. The potential benefits from each subsystem are saving of $200,000 in finished goods inventory.
totaled by the following categories: c. While it isn't certain that the entire $1,000,000
a. Displaced costs (increasing speed, reducing could be saved, it is possible. In this case, a
redundancy, etc.). Data processing has tradition- further saving would result for an additional
ally been evaluated in terms of cost displacement. $300,000.
This condition exists when a task, machine,
supplies, or other expenses should no longer be
90
High Medium Low Notice that a number has been assigned to each cell
Probability Probability Probability
of the matrix for illustration purposes orily. These
500,000 200,000 300,000 Materials
Displaced reduction numbers show the likelihood that the potential benefit
Costs 100,000 100,000 Labor will happen. After the data has been collected, the
reduction
team lists the dollar estimates for each system on the
Increased Increased potential benefit level - risk level table shown. Each
Productivity
100,000
production
system is listed down the side of the table and the
dollar amounts from each cell are entered in the
Increased Profit
100,000 correspondingly numbered column.
Income increase
The rows are then totaled. The completed table is a
Total 1,100,000 700,000 600,000 useful tool for summarizing in dollar terms the poten-
tial benefits of the system the team recommends. The
systems areas may now be compared (and/or ranked)
3. This procedure is repeated for each I/S potential on the basis of total (right-hand column) or any
benefit for which there is high potential saving. combination of risk levels (from left to right).
Depending upon time available, estimates should be Note: When recommending the first system for
developed for all areas that could be quantified implementation, the study team should be alert to a
during the interviews. Totals are then developed in potential problem. The most needed system may prove
each category and for each subsystem. to be impractical to implement until another system is
installed to furnish necessary input data. In such a
case, management should be informed so that the
RISK LEVEL reason for recommending a lower-priority system is
understood.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 TOTAL
SUBSYSTEM
Production Planning 600 300 300 200 200 400 200 100 100 2,400
Production Scheduling
Plant Status
Order Entry
Order Status
Sales Control
Cost
Bills of Material
Purchasing
Sales Analysis
Forecasting
Financial Modeling
Territory Analysis
Engineering Design
Skills Inventory
Compensation Administration
Financial Planning
91
Appendix~. ISM Processes
92
Depict systems flow and controls Change Management
Data security Propose and document changes
Build test cases Plan/coordinate changes
Internal Design Iinplement changes
Design internal modules Report, track and analyze changes
Develop test plan Problem Management
Design walkthroughs Report problems
Model systems performance Monitor problems
Program Development Resolve problems
Develop program specifications Analyze and prevent problems
Code and test Operations Management
Integrate Monitor/modify network, workload
Systems Test and configuration
Perform systems test Schedule workload
Test user documentation Operate/process
Test documentation for operations and maintenance Interface to users (problems
Test installation and conversion plan and job requests)
Test security Recovery Management
Installation and Maintenance Determine recovery requirements
Train users Define recovery process
Train operators I Test and update recovery process
Convert data Performance Management
Cutover Set objectives
Monitor reliability Measure and analyze performance
Post-installation audit Modify /tune performance
Requirements analysis Security/Audit Management
Change management Assess current audit and security status
Functional Modules Set requirements for authorizations,
Specify requirements documentation and reconciliations
Develop standards Identify owners, users, and
Make-or-buy decision custodians of data
Develop/purchase Control 110, error handling, and retention
Install Provide physical security
Dictionary / directory and library maintenance Monitor for compliance
Audit Executive Reporting
Identify summary data
Collect and analyze summary data
Systems Management Distribute reports/modification information
Capacity Management
Define current system and load
Forecast future workload
Evaluate configurations/designs
Track and analyze development
93
Appendix J. Potential Topics for BSP Study Report
94
Appendices Narrative descriptions - processes
Glossary of terms Narrative descriptions - current applications/
Key correspondence systems
Interviewee list and questions Supporting statistics
95
Glossary
Action plan - The group of activities, schedules, and Goal - A broad, general direction or intent.
resources recommended as a result of a BSP study (may Information architecture - The structure of information
be referred to as a general information systems plan). systems and data that will provide information to
Application - A data processing activity providing support the business.
information to one or more organizational units. Information system (liS) - A logical group ofsubsys-
Architectural priorities - The recommended sequence terns and data required to support the information
for implementation of the information architecture. needs of one or more processes.
Business - The organizational entity being studied, Information systems management - Those functions
regardless of its size or purpose, either private or public required to manage the information systems resources
sector. for the most efficient and effective support of the
Business process - A group of logically related decisions business.
and activities required to manage the resources of the Information systems plan - A plan that gives specific
business. goals, strategies, project descriptions, resources, and
Business Systems Planning - A structured approach to schedules for the design, development, and implemen-
assist a business in establishing an information systems tation of an information architecture.
plan to satisfy its near- and long-term information Objective - A specific and measurable item or element
needs. ofa goal.
Control room - A work and interview room set aside Resource - That which is used or consumed by the
for the continuous use of the team throughout the BSP business in the fulfillment of its objectives.
study. Scope - The defined boundaries of the business being
Data class - A category of logically related informa- studied - divisions, function and geographic locations
_tion. ,Examples are customer, vendor, customer orders, included and excluded.
parts inventory, and appropriations. Sponsor - The executive who gives approval for the BSP
Data base - A non-redundant collection of interrelated study and to whom the team is responsible.
data items processable by one or more applications. Strategy - A planned action for achieving an objective.
Data file - An individual group of data related to or Team leader - The person who directs the study team,
used by an existing application before implementation participates full time, and is responsible for the success
of a data base approach. of the study.
External environment - Influences that exist outside the Work plan - A plan that is developed to show activities,
business being studied and over which the business has responsibilities and schedules for the work to be
little or no control, e.g., government regulations, performed during the BSP study.
industry, competition, economy.
Follow-on projects - Activities that occur after and as a
result of the BSP study.
96
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