Xe, thle coupling screw. mat interface DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF CNC SYSTEMS ‘The stiffness of the ballscrew guidewoy drive varies as a function of table position as shown in Figure 6.14. The static stiffness is determined primarily by the equivalent axial stiffness of the ball serew-nut con- tact as outlined in [DIN 69051- \ 6]. The ballscrew drive system, ballserew with bearings and the interme- diate transmission or clutch, has NM: a finite stiffhess that assists in determining the static displace- ment of the table under load Batcren! model during the high-speed position- k ing of the table. Tho ballscrow is m, WW) om, ] supported by thrust bearings at ra two ends. Bearings provide radial Linear drive model guidance to the screw and absorbs Figure 6.18: Torsional-axial vibrations of the positioning accuracy atthe table 3) allscrew affect the feed forces in the axial direc- Zaxajbearngs J oil sttiness Kg tp 1 xp bearing o 025 0507s 40 Sle postion xi. ‘thrust bearings (DIN 69051-61 tre 6.14: Axial stiffness of the ballscrew with single- and double-sided16 ACTIVE DAMPING OF FEED DRIVES. Af the bearings at both ends are fixed, the equivalent axial stiffness of the ballscrew system is given by the following: ae n= liom ttl where the stiffness terms contributed by the left (f,) and right (ky ) bearings are defined as follows: a4" ia” Ia ‘The axial stiffness is reduced when the right bearing is preload free . As the table position changes, the axial stiffness of the drive varies, which leads to the time-varying dynamics of ballserew drives, Tt must be noted that the largest flexibility is contributed by the screw, coupling, and nut in the system. For example, the torsional stiffness of the screw can be estimated as follows: dé “32 hy = = where G [N/m*] is the module of rigidity, which has a value of G = 75 x 10° (Nim?] for the steel. L and d, are the length and the pitch diameter of the ‘The connection can be considered at the motor-screw coupling or screw: nut coupling junetions for simplicity, By neglecting the viscous friction, the structural dynamies of the ballserew system ean be expressed by Fon lt _ ah In Ge tO + Bs Om = 01) = Tn 6, din TG GE SP) hem = 8) = Th (6.88) If the equation of motion is transformed to the Laplace domain, then [ taste —(es+h) Hirh={"e} Masth) dstrasth La pat ey which leads to transfer function matrix after the inversion of the transfor matrix as follows: [ust sosth — asth: ] asthe Inst test | (7, = {7 (6.90) [sIiIn + 80: Ti + Im) +h i +m] { mI -[er SHR] 287288 DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF CNC SYSTEMS igure 6.15: Active damping of a torsional-axial modo (ay) of ballserow drive With an acceleration feedback (say) ina cascaded control system. ‘The equation of the motion has the identical form if the linear mass, and translational motions are considered with the following transformations: Imp = 12, Sy = Fm hear bhe, c= m=. top get Tn = ek T= where transmission ratio ry =hp/2n for a leadscrew with a pitch length of hp. The transfer function of the system with linear masses (i.e., linear drives) becomes ony Lea let) fe}-x [rnin + 80a Gra ¥ in) +a + mote } een ‘The feed drive structure has a natural frequency as follows: ky VTTnT AT) rcrin] le Mm) oo rad ‘which needs to be damped by the controller. Although several advanced control algorithms exist for active damping of modes, the application with a cascaded control architecture is illustrated here, because it is most commonly used in industrial CNCs, The cascaded control structure is shown in Figure 6.15. The controller has a current loop inside, surrounded by velocity and position control oops (21). The current loop usually has about 1,000 Hz bandwidth with a PWM converter having more than 10 KHz modulator; henco, itis approximated by a gain Ky [A/V] here. The motor torque constant is K; [Nm/A]. The cascaded con- troller uses a proportional gain (K,) on position error (e), and a proportional and integral controller on the velocity error (x; ~ %»),"The integral action is used to ‘minimize the steady-state error caused by the disturbance (Ti) and lag caused by the transfer function ofthe system. The velocity at the motor shaft is usually indirectly measured from the rotary encoder mounted on the motor shaft. The encoder signals are digitally differentiated to obtain the velocity of the motor shaft (s0,,). The angular velocity is scaled by the leadscrew transmission gain16 ACTIVE DAMPING OF FEED DRIVES. (7) to obtain a linear velocity compatible with the velocity command gener- ated by the CNC. The inertia and viscous damping forces are compensated by the feedforward and feedback terms, respectively, but they are not shown hore for simplicity. Gq, represents the transfer function between the angular velocity (@,,) and torque at the motor shaft, whereas G, represents the transfer fanction between the angular velocity of the ballserew at the nut (i.e. table velocity) and the motor shaft’s velocity. If the structural dynamies of the drive are neglected, Gm represents only the rigid body dynamies (Gy, = 1/(d-s + B) and G; = 1. The typical bandwidth of the velocity loop is about 100 Hz, and the position loop is approximately 30 Hz for linear drives with rigid body dynamies [87]. Ball screw drives have less bandwidth. The vibrations are damped by using acceleration feedback (s/o) sealed at the resonance frequency ‘oo. The acceleration can be measured either directly by a Ferraris sensor ‘mounted between the stationary guide and leadscrew [88], or by taking a double derivative of position measurements obtained from the table-mounted linear ‘encoder. ‘The transfer funetion between the motor torque and motor velocity ean be expressed from Eq. (6.90) as follows: Sm _ seis) ts? bes he jz [s7Fpm + 8¢¢ Si + Im) + he Ci + Im) Gn (6.92) ‘The transfer function between the velocities at the table (x, = x) and motor shaft is given as follows: sr e6t!Tm _ 8Gme oes thy Jn Onl Tm Gam Ti? Fes oR (6.98) Gus) ‘The closed velocity loop response is expressed as follows: sy (SE) RKC re Gu) = 22 = we 1+ SE) RKOn te Kk (Ky + Ki) (ds? +08 + he) ~ FPP IIa 86 TFT) Be (I Te)) = Beery Bos = RI) eS G8 eH) 94) Velocity controller gains (K,,, Ki) are tuned to keep the system stable with a desired transient response. Although the indirect velocity feedback damps the system to a certain degree, it is not sufficient to damp the mode at frequency a». ‘The active damping is accomplished by adding the acceleration (s/oy) measured from the table to the velocity loop. The loop transfer function of the direct290 DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF CNC SYSTEMS velocity loop with the acceleration feedback is Galt) = G01 (0) KBr gt +B) (ds? +00 +) (eeth) © TT Fae OT) +h tol] Raker gt PRD Tee) Tee ree Rw Kore Kgt + Ki (ee +8) ‘eo TTI Bt Sol RGR URS RY PS » FFI, A Bode diagram of the direct velocity loop with and without the acceleration feedback can be used to assess the strength of active damping. The final closed- loop transfer function of the direct velocity loop becomes Geiss 2 DGma@E . KaKirg Kt +i) (et +) o > SFT Fae Tea) Fe Ir | + RaKrg Ros +R) Us? ho YF on KaRirg (Resa Ri os hs Finally, the Bode diagram of position loop indicates the achievable gain K, without making the system unstable, Gpl6) = ¥ = K,Gu(s) 6.98) ‘The closed-loop transfer function of the complete position loop becomes Grol) __KiGiel8) Sel8) = EG) KGa) (6.99) ‘The performance of the active damping system can be illustrated with the following experimental setup created in the author's laboratory Example, ‘The ballscrew setup shown in Figure 6.9 is used to demonstrate the active damping algorithm. The parameters of the drive are given as follows: dh lkgm!] 2.6274 x 10-+ higlel 0.020 Im tkgm!] 5.0853 x 10~* ptm 0.020 4 (Nmradl 418.15 rg hp/2n 0.0032 (Nmrad/s} 0.0121 Lisa) 0.82 K, [AV 0.887 GIGPal 75 KNm/Al 072 Tin| = x (0.8dp)*/32_— 1.8708 x 10% K, 700 ‘hy (Nmvrad)=GUL 1437 K 500 ies (Naval 6000 K ? Aus (Nm/rad) 1300 heap [Nmrad 650016 ACTIVE DAMPING OF FEED DRIVES. By serially connecting the bearing (ky), leadscrew (hy), coupling (Reap), and nut (t:) stiffness, the equivalent torsional stiffness of the drive can be esti- mated as i-[2+24 2.21 Un a But” Reoop whereas the measured torsional stiffness was ky = 418.15 ral frequency of the drive structure is, = 568 [Nova] fe TY Tal Te Tm) 9 1,558 [rad/s] = 247 (Ha) ‘The evaluated transfer functions related to the structure are 0.0002627s? + 0.01215 + 418.2 Ow) = S386 x 10-TaE + 9.38 x 10-85 + 0.5BD5) __ 1966.3 (s + 28.08 + £1261.5) (s + 23.03 — i1261.5) § (6+ 34.918 + 11553.3) (6 + 94.918 — (1553.3) Gus) = tthe 0.01218 + 418.15 (9 ~ Te pee th OXAR1-e? + 00s + AT 46.0531(5 + 34558) (+ 23.03 + 112615) (s+ 23.03 — 112615) ‘The motor side has a natural frequency of 1,553 [rad/s] with 2.25% damping, whereas the table has 1,261 [rad/s] natural frequency with 1.8% damping. ‘The closed-loop transfer function of the velocity loop with an indirect feed- back from the motor shaft is found as follows: 0.0003739s? + 0.017488? + 595s + 425 1336 x 10-7s! + 0.00038328" + 0.845" + 595s + 425 _ 2798.2521 (9 + 0.7143)(s + 23.018 + 11261.8)( + 23.018 — i1261.3) © (GF 256A) + 0.7146) 5 + 156.55 +11310.9)(s + 156.55 + 113109)" Gus) = which is dominated by a damped natural frequency of 1310.9 [rad/s] with about 12 percent damping. The indirect velocity loop increased the damping from 2.25 percent to 12 pereent. By cascading the table dynamics and adding the damping feedback (s/oo), the loop transfer function of the velocity loop is found as follows: Gutel8) = GulVGI) 82.9339s(8 + 3.456 x 104) ~ (8+ 2554) (6 + 156.55 + 11310.9) (s+ 156.55 —11310.9) ‘The frequency responses of indirectly closed velocity loop cascaded with the table dynamics G,(s)G.(s) and with the added damping term Gyiy = G,(8)G;(s)s/on are shown in Figure 6.16a, The damping term attenuates the loop transfer function at the lower frequency but does not change the magni- tude at the resonance, but the phase is shifted upward by 90 deg. 291292 DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF CNC SYSTEMS 8 Mogntuds 8) Pave (de) Bo sh b 8 Frequaney (acises) (@) Bode plot of 6 6,and 6.6.5, 2» aaa oa nae DS Z ~ Close oop wih sete damping ays 0 Magnitude (8) 46 90 135 160 228 z 2m Frequency (asec) (©) Bose plo of losesoop sytem with and wihout active damping of ee apie 02 Time sec) (c) Step response of he loseoop system wih and waht sctve damping Figure 6.1 tive damping of velocity loop for ballscrew drive system.6.7 DESIGN OF AN ELECTROHYDRAULIC CNC PRESS BRAKE ‘The closed-loop transfer function of the velocity loop with the acceleration feedback is evaluated as follows: Gn) == Gy(s)Ge(s) 128851.252(6 + 3.456 x 104) we TFG OGE GF IS2G + 1878s + 8.24 x 10%) . 128851.252(6 + 8.486 x 104) (6.100) GF 1ST2)G +189 + 11619) (6 + 789 — 11619) which has a damped natural frequency of 1,619 {rad/s} and 43.8 percent damp- ing ratio. The mode at 1,553 [rad/s] is now highly damped which can be seen from the frequency response function of the closed velocity loop with indirect, velocity and direct acceleration feedback. Frequency responses of the closed velocity loop with indirect velocity feed- back (G,(s)G;(s)) and additional acceleration feedback (G,.) are shown in Fig- ure 6.16b. The magnitude at the resonance frequency zone is attenuated by 11.5, 4B, and the mode is completely damped. The step response of the undamped and damped velocity loop clearly indicates the effect of damping as shown in Fig. 6.16. The bandwidth of the velocity loop is therefore increased up to this frequency, which allows the designer to inerease the position loop gain K, to much higher values. High position gain means higher bandwidth with ower tracking and contouring errors in circular interpolation and contour machining, Furthermore, because the loop gain becomes higher, the distur- bance stiffness of the controller against cutting and friction loads becomes higher. 6.7 DESIGN OF AN ELECTROHYDRAULIC CNC PRESS BRAKE Sheet metal-forming machine tools, press brakes, are widely used in fabrication shops. A typical press brake consists ofa moving ram, which holds a punch, and a die located on a bed frame (see Fig. 6.17). The motion of the ram is delivered by a pair of hydraulic actuators. Conventional presses are manually operated, and the end positions of the ram are manually set via limit switches or dead stops. Manual control leads to frequent tuning and adjustment of the machine and requires a number of trial bends until a satisfactory positioning and bend- ing accuracy are achieved. In contrast, the CNC press provides flexibility in adapting the machine to different bending operations quickly, while delivering an accurate positioning. A simplified design of a computer control system for a press brake is presented in this section. 6.7.1 Hydra Press Brake System Mechanical System ‘The press ram, which holds the punch at its free end, is held by two paral- Jel hydraulic actuators (Fig. 6.17). The ram slides on lubricated guides, which 293294 DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF CNC SYSTEMS actuate ,- | seamne ‘Sheet metal bending operation accumulator serve [Lae check fine mast fi, variable ‘pump _ tank Hydraulic circuit of the press brake Figure 6.17: Hydraulie press brake system, are modified to have cylindrical pads. The pads allow 3° tilt to the ram-punch assembly for press bending of sheet metals with a variable penetration depth at either side, The aim of the CNC system is to bring the punch rapidly toward the sheet metal laid on the V-shaped die and to form it at high pressure but with a slow penetration velocity to a desired depth. Depending on the off- set between the two ends of the bend, the positions and velocities of the two6.7 DESIGN OF AN ELECTROHYDRAULIC CNC PRESS BRAKE hydraulic actuators that are holding the punch must be controlled by the CNC system. ‘The actual position of each side of the ram is monitored by linear encoders. To consider the relative static deformations between the press bed and ram, a sliding tie rod is designed as shown in Figure 6.17. The tie-rod posts are placed at the axes of the ram/actuator connections, High-precision ball joints are used to connect each tie rod to its respective post and slider. A linear encoder with 0.005 mm resolution was selected. The stationary encoder body was mounted on the press bed close to the die, and the moving read head was attached to the linear slider housed in a cylindrical guide with an adjustable stiffness. In place of the encoder, precision linear displacement transducers (LDTs), which use a tubular waveguide and a magnet, can be used as an integral part of the actuator rods. Hydraulic System ‘The schematic diagram of the hydraulic system design is shown in Fig- ure 6.17, A variable displacement pump with pressure feedback was chosen to deliver the hydraulic power. An accumulator, which keeps the system pressure within 10 percent of a set level and damps the pressure oscillations caused by the reciprocating pump pistons, was used. A check valve was placed between the accumulator and the pump to eliminate the possibility of the accumulator pressure driving the pump in reverse in the event of power outage. A counter- balance valve was used to lock the system whenever the system pressure was lost. A fine pressure filter was used in the supply line to keep any debris from reaching the sensitive pilot stage of the servovalves. A coarse low-pressure filter was added to the return line. The existing hydraulic actuators were modified to include servovalves and pressure transducers as shown in Figure 6.18, which would have been an integral part of the actuators on a production machine. ‘The flow into and out of the actuator cylinder is controlled by a two-stage servo- valve. Itis rated as having a 20 gallons/min flow capacity with 85 Hz bandwidth by the manufacturer. The primary stage consists of an electronic torque motor driving the primary flapper valve, which provides a differential pressure across the ends of the secondary closed center spool valve with a zero overlap. The displacement of the secondary spool is fed back to the torque motor by way of a cantilever spring. This spool controls the flow into the cylinder. The hydraulic cylinder has two fluid chambers separated by a piston, which is connected to the ram from one side with a rigid rod. The inertia loads of the rod and ram assembly, Coulomb, and viscous friction loads in the ram guideways and piston cylinder interface, and the bending loads must be overcome by the pressurized fluid injected into the cylinder chamber. CNC System ‘The hydraulic press was controlled by the in-house developed Open Archi- tecture CNC System [11, 14] 295296 DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF CNC SYSTEMS Upper Transducer Fring Orginal Cyngor Valve Manols —_ Presoure Por ——— Pragoure Transducer Servovane ~ Lower Transducer Fitting ‘Actuator - servo valve assembly Primary Stage _- Flow Control Valve Ap {Pgs Va) ‘ M, bb Fext {Py sVb) Hydraulic cylinder Figure 6.18: Electrohydraulic actuator assembly. Load 6.7.2 Dynamic Model of Hydraulic Actuator Module ‘An accurate dynamic model of the overall hydraulie system is rather difficult to obtain, because of the leakage in seals and connections, losses within flexible hoses, the compressibility of the fluid and changes in its viscosity, and the wear in the orifices and ports. In addition the flow-pressure expressions are nonlinear for a practical control algorithm design in a CNC system, However, even with some practical assumptions, a mathematical model of the hydraulic system is essential for the optimal design of the hydraulic circuit and for selecting components. Such an analysis has been made in designing the hydraulic circuit for the press (14]. Only a simplified model of the hydraulic system is presented