ERQ
Q. Evaluate research on localisation of function with regard to brain & behaviour.
Brain localization is the theory that different parts of the brain are responsible for specific
behaviours or certain functions. Strict localisation suggests that if one sustains damage to a
specific part of the brain, the effects will be seen in the corresponding psychological function.
For instance, localisation of language functions in Broca's area for speech production and
Wernicke's area for language comprehension. Relative localisation suggests one brain area can
be responsible for one cognitive function but not exclusively. It captures the dynamic &
interconnected nature of brain function. Localization can be studied through brain imaging
techniques such as MRI in Maguire (2000). Studying localization of function helps understand
how specific brain areas are responsible for different behaviours or cognitive processes,
essential for neuroscience and medical interventions. One must study the bias, ethical
considerations, generalizability and credibility of research with reference to localization to
evaluate its efficiency in providing the best evidence for the understanding of localization of
function. In this response, one will study Maguire’s research on the role of the hippocampi in
spatial navigation, HM Milner’s research on the role of hippocampi on memory and Tierney et al
as an alternative perspective representing relative localisation. We shall place special emphasis
on the strengths and limitations of each study.
The hippocampus is an integral part of the limbic system in the brain. It plays an important role
the consolidation of information from short-term memory to LTM & spatial navigation. One study
that displays localisation of function is the longitudinal study of HM: Milner 1966. The aim was to
investigate memory loss in a brain-damaged patient known as HM and to investigate the areas
of the brain implicated in his amnesia. The patient known as ‘HM, had been run over by a
bicycle at the age of nine which resulted in him experiencing epileptic fits. These became so
severe that at the age of 27 he underwent a bilateral medial temporal lobe re-section which
involved the removal of about two-thirds of his hippocampus. HM’s epilepsy improved but he
began to suffer extreme anterograde amnesia and partial retrograde amnesia - he completely
lost the ability to form new memories while long-term memories from the past remained fairly
intact.
In order to carry out her research, Milner used multiple strategies & test. She utilised
psychometric testing, the results being above average and direct observation of his behaviour.
She also conducted interviews with both HM and family members. Lastly, cognitive testing was
employed which were memory recall tests as well as learning tasks- such as reverse mirror
drawing. Hence method triangulation was employed. It was a longitudinal study. HM could not
acquire new episodic knowledge (memory of experiences, and events) and he could not acquire
new semantic knowledge (a more structured record of facts, meanings, concepts and
knowledge about the external world that we have acquired). This suggests that the brain
structures that were removed from his brain are important for the transfer of information from
short-term to long-term memory. However, HM had other memory stores intact. For instance, he
was able to remember his house form a cognitive map of the spatial layout of his house. This
may mean that this type of memory is not encoded in the same way as semantic or episodic
memories. Moreover, HM had a capacity for working memory (the part of short-term memory
which is concerned with immediate conscious perceptual and linguistic processing), since he
was able to carry out a normal conversation. This requires a minimal level of retention of what
has just been heard and said. On being asked to recall a number, HM was able to do so even
15 minutes later, apparently using constant rehearsal. Memories in the form of motor skills, i.e.
procedural memories were well maintained for example, he knew how to mow a lawn. He also
showed improvements in the performance of new skills such as reverse mirror drawing in which
he had to acquire new eye-hand coordination (Milner, 1966).
Milner’s research significantly contributed to an understanding of brain functions and helped to
develop an understanding of the localization of a function of the brain, as well as its
compartmentalization. The hippocampus was found to be responsible for the transfer of
short-term memory to long-term memory. Without it, HM was unable to create new ones.
Furthermore, the medial temporal lobe, as well as the hippocampus, are responsible for the
recall and organization of already created long-term memories, which explains HM’s reversible
retrograde amnesia. Implicit memory contains several stores - for example, procedural memory,
emotional memory and skills and habits. Each of these areas is related to different brain areas.
HM Milner was a longitudinal case study. This means that change could be observed over time.
This meant that the researchers were able to get a more accurate look into HM's condition
leading to a more credible study. The case study use method triangulation - interviews,
psychological tests & observations providing rich quantitative & qualitative data to provide
evidence enhancing the validity and credibility of the study. The study has high ecological
validity, as no variables were manipulated and HM was observed in his natural environment.
Another strength is Milner's research met high ethical standards of consent, confidentiality and
protection from harm. However, the uniqueness of the case makes generalizability to the wider
population & replicability limited. However, there are several other case studies of patients like
HM - for example, Clive Wearing - which confirms the findings. Another weakness is that some
of the study was retrospective in nature & highly time consuming. This means that we do not
have a lot of data on HM's actual cognitive abilities before the accident. Lastly, the medication
taken to treat epilepsy may have resulted in some of the damage, but this is not highly relevant
as it is the damage to specific parts of the brain that is important.
Maguire et al is a study that observed the relationship between rehearsal and formation of
neural networks by exploring the concept of localization. London taxi drivers are known for their
ability to navigate the busy streets of London without the use of any maps (they remember all
the routes). As this activity involved significant use of the posterior hippocampus (part of the
brain associated with spatial navigation use multiple complexes based on multiple senses
cognitive processes) the researchers wanted to see how years of doing so repeatedly impacts
their posterior hippocampus.
This study aimed to determine whether the brains of London taxi drivers would be different as
compared to normal drivers due to their increased spatial navigation skills. In this correlational
study, there was a sample of 16 right-handed, male London taxi drivers with an experience of
1.5-4 years and a controlled sample of 50 right-handed, male drivers. Everyone had their MRI
scan taken. The researcher was not told which scan is of which person (single-blind). Three
participants were placed in an MRI scanner and their brains were scanned. The MRI measured
the volume of grey matter in the hippocampus of each participant, and this was then compared
to pre-existing scans of 50 healthy, right-handed males (the control group). The data from the
MRI was measured using two different techniques: voxel-based morphometry (VBM) and pixel
counting. Voxel-based morphology (VBM) was used in this study to measure the density of grey
matter in different regions of the brain and automatic procedures normalised scans (so brain
size wasn't a variable). Pixel counting consists of counting the pixels in the images provided by
the MRI scans to calculate the area of the hippocampus.
The findings suggested that London taxi drivers did have a larger posterior hippocampus which
accounts for spatial navigation, however, they had a smaller anterior hippocampus (gives us
the ability to learn new things) than normal drivers. This depicts how their brain developed in a
way that assisted the conditions of the taxi drivers, showing neuroplasticity and its correlation
with localisation– as it was able to be seen that the posterior hippocampus was indeed
associated with the behaviour of spatial navigation and visualisation. Thus, the study lacks
external validity. One strength of the study was that researcher bias was avoided by employing
a single-blind control; the researcher did not know whether they were looking at the scan of a
taxi driver or a control participant and, therefore, could not influence the results to portray a
certain favourable outcome. Another strength of the study is its high ecological validity.
However, something that was not considered in the study was the size of the posterior
hippocampus being bigger for the London taxi driver before their occupation, in which case the
study would not have achieved its aim - bi-directionality. One of the the possible limitations of
the study is its sampling bias: only men were used in this experiment, and, even though most of
London’s taxi drivers are male, the sole use of male participants makes it difficult for the study's
findings to be generalized and applied to women. The study also appears to show how different
aspects of memory - that is, storage and retrieval - may be distributed to different parts of the
brain. The results can be used to develop a deeper understanding of the brain's structure and
the formation of memories, as well as creating new forms of treatment for brain damage
Patient MA was a normal person– he was able to communicate normally prior to his accident
however, he also knew sign language and performed the same regularly to communicate with
his parents who were deaf. Post his accident his Broca’s area was damaged, however, he was
still able to speak. Tierney et al aim to understand how patient MA was able to verbally
communicate despite his damaged Broca's area (the area responsible for speech production).
Through this experiment, the researcher was able to identify the effects of cortical remapping.
In this experiment the researcher considered the method used to communicate the independent
variable, so the use of sign language or verbal communication. The dependent variable here
was checking which area was active while using each method to communicate. The researchers
took the help of 12 participants who were fluent with verbal communication and could make
fluent use of sign language. They were just like MA but they did not have a damaged Broca’s
area– this was done to have control. In the experiment, the participants were asked to just
communicate, through verbal methods and hand signals. It was found through the PET scan
that the controlled participants’ broca’s area was functioning while verbally communicating and
the motor skills area while using hand signals; however, for MA motor skills area was functioning
while communicating verbally as well as while using hand signs. (This shows cortical
remapping: the function of Broca’s area was transferred onto the motor skills area as it was also
closely related to communication) However, this came at the cost of MA's ability to communicate
with hand signs, as it became weaker over time.
Tierney et al was an experiment with high internal validity, this was possible due to the use of
PET scan to establish a clear correlation between brain localization and language production.
There was also considerably high external validity as this experiment was able to generalise the
localisation of Broca’s area with language production. The researcher also contributed to the
understanding of the concept of cortical remapping for people who suffer from various problems
like having epilepsy or a tumour– where a part of their brain needs to be removed, how their
brain might be able to get trained to require a function they lost due to the surgery. Furthermore,
the study met ethical standards of confidentiality, consent and debriefing.
On the contrary, the strict adherence to brain localization might oversimplify the intricacies of
brain function. While classic cases like HM and the London taxi drivers suggest clear areas
responsible for specific functions, the brain's adaptability and redundancy raise questions about
the absolute nature of localization. Neuroplasticity, is the brain's ability to reorganize itself by
forming new neural connections throughout life, challenges the idea of strict localization. These
studies demonstrate both the strengths and limitations of localisation theories. While HM's case
showcases the clear impairment linked to hippocampal damage, Maguire's study highlights
neuroplasticity and the brain's ability to adapt to demands. Tierney et al's work on cortical
remapping in patient MA further adds to this understanding, showing how functions can shift
between brain regions. Despite some limitations such as sample biases and issues of
generalizability, these studies collectively deepen our comprehension of brain localisation and
its impact on behaviour, allwing more targeted medical interventions and a richer understanding
of human cognition.
