SAQs Sociocultural approach

Explain/Describe/Outline social identity theory with reference to one relevant study.

Social identity theory was proposed by Tajfel (1979) and argues that one person has
not just one “personal self”, but rather several selves that correspond to group
membership. He identified four mechanisms in the creation of social identity. These
are social categorisation, social identification, social comparison and positive
distinctiveness. Social categorisation is the process of classifying people into groups
based on similar characteristics, and gives rise to in-groups and out-groups. Social
identification is how people gain a significant part of their self-identity from reference
to the group we belong to. This gives rise to in-group favouritism - favouring
members of one’s in-group over out-group members. Social comparison refers to the
process by which an individual favourably compares their in-groups with out-groups.
People use group membership as a source of self esteem. This leads to positive
distinctiveness - an individual’s motivation to show that an in-group is preferable to
an out-group.
SIT aims to explain how prejudice and discrimination arises as a result of in-group
favouritism and out-group discrimination.

Tajfel’s (1970) study aimed to investigate the minimal conditions in which prejudice
and discrimination can occur. In his study, 48 British boys aged 14-15 were asked to
rate 12 paintings by the artists Paul Klee and 6 by Wassily Kandinsky. The boys
were then allocated to one of two groups and told they had preferred either Klee or
Kandinsky, based on their preferred paintings. With knowledge of what group they
belonged to, the boys were told to work individually to give points to members of
their in-group and out-group, through two methods of point allocation system. The
first system is that the point scores for each boy were linked so that the sum of the
two scores was 15. This means that as the score of one participant increases, the
score for the other boy decreases. The second system had three different forms of
giving points: 1) give the out-group more points if they awarded the in-group with
high points, 2) giving the in-group mid ranged values would give the same score to
the out-group, 3) choosing a low score for the in-group would award fewer points to
the other group. The results showed that in the first system of point allocation, the
boys generally awarded more points to the members of their in-group showing
in-group favouritism. In the second system of point awarding, the boys chose the
third option more frequently.

The results demonstrate that the boys were willing to give their own team fewer
points with the goal of maximising the difference between the in-group and the
out-group. This is an example of positive distinctiveness and supports the notion of
social identity, where people seek a positive social identity by making their scores
higher so that they have a sense of superiority to the other group. Tajfel concluded
that a “minimal group” is all that is necessary to exhibit discrimination against
out-groups.
Explain/Describe/Outline social cognitive theory with reference to one relevant study.
Social cognitive theory argues that humans learn behaviour through observational
learning. Learning refers to a relatively permanent change in an organism’s
behaviour due to experience. It was proposed by Bandura in 1961. SCT suggests
that a learner can watch a model carry out a behaviour and learn to either imitate or
avoid it depending on whether the model is rewarded or punished through vicarious
learning (observational learning). According to Bandura, SCT involves the four
cognitive factors: attention, retention, motivation and potential. First, the observer
must allocate attention to the model. Second, the observer must be able to
remember the behaviour through retention. Thirdly, the observer must have the
motivation to want to reproduce by expecting a certain positive outcome from the
behaviour. Lastly, the observer must believe themselves to be able to be capable of
carrying out the behaviour with a certain level of self-efficacy. Social cognitive theory
has been used to explain many phenomenons, particularly the role of violence on
aggression in children.

Bandura carried out an experiment to determine whether social behaviour can be

acquired by observation and imitation. 76 children ages 3 to 6 were allocated, based
on a matched pair design, to one of three conditions. Participants in the first
condition watched the model using physical and verbal aggression towards the Bobo
doll. In the second condition, subjects observed a non-aggressive adult play with
toys. The third group served as a control and did not watch any model. In the first
and second group, some children observed a same-sex model, while others
observed an opposite-sex model. After the observation session, all children were
sent into a different room with toys and were told they could not play with them to
cause a baseline level of frustration as a control. After that the children were placed
into a room with toys and a Bobo doll. The children were covertly observed so that
their level of aggression could be rated. Bandura found that children in the
aggressive condition were significantly more aggressive, both physically and
verbally. Children that were shown no model were the second-most aggressive, and
children who had observed the non-aggressive model were the least aggressive.

The children in the experiment showed clear signs of observational learning, and all
its components. Hence, the findings of the study support Bandura’s SCT, arguing
that most behaviour is learned through the environment.

Explain how and/or why stereotypes are formed.

Stereotypes are an oversimplified and generally fixed perception about a group of
people. They are widely held, and while they are not always negative they may lead
to prejudice and discrimination against a social group. Stereotypes are cognitively
efficient; once a set of characteristics is used to describe a group of people, those
characteristics are often attributed to all members of the group, thus affecting the
behaviour of the people or individual who hold the stereotype, and those who are
labelled by a stereotype. Gender, race, political stance, and personality contribute to
the stereotypes we place in others.

Stereotype formation is almost inevitable as it starts in early life, as individuals

categorise themselves and others. There are several theories on the development of
stereotypes, including social categorisation, grain of truth hypothesis, and illusory
correlation.

Hamilton and Gifford (1976) argue that stereotypes are the result of an illusory
correlation - that is, people see a relationship between two variables even when
there is none. An example of this is when people form false associations between
membership of a social group and specific behaviours. The illusory correlation
phenomenon causes people to overestimate a link between the two variables.
Illusory correlation is an example of cognitive bias - a person’s tendency to make
errors in judgement based on cognitive factors. After illusory correlations are formed,
people actively seek out information that supports this relationship, this process is
known as confirmation bias.

In their experiment they presented people with brief statements describing the
behaviour of individuals from one of two groups: Group A and Group B. Group A had
twice as many members as group B, but the proportion of desirable and undesirable
behaviours represented in the statements given was the same within each group.
However, participants significantly overestimated the frequency of undesirable
minority behaviours, judging group B more negatively, demonstrating illusory
correlation.
Hamilton and Gifford argued that this was because the minority group was by nature
smaller in number, their negative behaviours appeared to be more distinct, as well as
representative of the group. So, if one minority male is caught stealing then it
appears to be related to the fact that he is a minority. Therefore, it can be said that
illusory correlations contribute to racial stereotypes. Since we notice the negative
behaviours by anyone who is a member of a minority group, we build the view of that
group from the negative behaviours. With people from the majority their behaviours
don't reflect on the group as a whole.

Describe one effect of stereotypes on behaviour with reference to one relevant study.
One way in which stereotypes may influence behaviour is stereotype threat - the
idea that people feel at risk of conforming to stereotypes about themselves.
Stereotypes are an oversimplified and generally fixed perception about a group of
people. They are widely held, and while they are not always negative they may lead
to prejudice and discrimination against a social group. Stereotypes are cognitively
efficient; once a set of characteristics is used to describe a group of people, those
characteristics are often attributed to all members of the group, thus affecting the
behaviour of the people or individual who hold the stereotype, and those who are
labelled by a stereotype. Gender, race, political stance, and personality contribute to
the stereotypes we place in others.

Steele and Aronson (1995) carried out a study to investigate how stereotype threat
affects test performance in African Americans. The sample was made up of 114 male
and female, black and white undergraduate students from Stanford. Participants
were instructed to complete a standardised test of verbal ability. In the experimental
condition, where stereotype threat was posed, participants were told that the test
was “a test to diagnose your intellectual ability”, whereas in the control group,
participants were told that the test was “a test of your problem-solving skills”. The
researchers found that African African did poorly when they believed that the test
was a test of their ability, but did just as well as the white Americans when they
believed that it was a test of their problem-solving skills.

Steele and Aronson concluded that you don’t need to believe in a stereotype for it to
affect your behaviour. They argue stereotype threat turns on spotlight anxiety, which
causes emotional distress and pressure that may undermine performance. Students
under the stereotype threat often underperform and this can naturally limit their
educational prospects.

Explain how belonging to cultural groups may influence behaviour and/or cognition.
Outline one way cultural norms may influence human behaviour.
Describe one study investigating cultural norms.
Explain the role of one cultural dimension in human behaviour.
Explain one cultural dimension with brief reference to one relevant study.
Culture refers to a set of ideas, behaviours, attitudes and traditions that exist within
groups of people. These behaviours and traditions tend to be resistant to change
and are transmitted from one generation to the next.
Cultures are made up of cultural norms, which are behavioural patterns that are
typical to a specific group and are passed down through generations by
gatekeepers, such as parents, teachers, elders and the media. Cultural norms
influence almost every element of life, as they address acceptable and unacceptable
ways of thinking and behaving. According to Rothman (2014), culture inducts people
into a group, often with no effort on their part at all. Cultural groups are collectives
which are characterised by different norms and conventions, or a set of rules that
regulate the behaviour of individuals and are based on cultural shared beliefs on how
one should behave within that culture.
Hofstede (2002) argues that cultures and their members share mental concepts that
guide their thinking and behaviour. He came up with 6 cultural dimensions: power
distance, individualism vs collectivism, long-term vs short-term orientation,
masculinity vs femininity, uncertainty avoidance index and indulgence vs restraint. It
appears that the cultural dimension of individualism vs collectivism influences the
behaviour of conformity to group norms.
Berry (1967) aimed to investigate whether rates of conformity were higher in
individualistic cultures or collectivist cultures. He carried out an experiment on two
societies with subsistence-level economies based on daily needs for food and
shelter. Those were the Temne (Sierra Leone) - based on rice farming - and the Inuit
(Canada) - based on hunting and fishing. He then applied the Asch paradigm to both
groups. Berry found that people from collectivist culture (Temne) conformed more
readily than people from individualistic culture (Inuit). He theorised that this
happened because an agricultural economy, such as the Temne, requires a higher
degree of interdependence and cooperation, thus shaping a collectivistic society.
Therefore, these findings support Hofstede’s theory that the degree of collectivism of
a culture would affect group member behaviour, in this case conformity.

Explain one effect of enculturation on human behaviour.

Describe one study investigating enculturation.
Enculturation refers to the process of learning the behaviours, characteristics and
norms of the culture that individuals belong to. The process starts from birth, as
individuals learn the cultural norms and skills that enable them to function within a
given cultural context. Parents are the most influential enculturation agents. One of
the ways in which we are enculturated is through our parents.
According to social cognitive theory, we learn both from observing their behaviour
and by receiving feedback from our parents in the form of rewards (praise) and
punishment (criticism).

Fagot (1978) carried out an overt naturalistic observation and found that parents may
communicate information to their children about gender role behaviours without
being aware of what they are doing. The researchers observed twenty-four families
with one child between 20 and 24 months. They used an observation checklist with
46 child behaviours and 19 reactions by parents. After the observation, each parent
was asked to rate all the 46 behaviours as more appropriate for girls, boys or neutral.
Results showed that parents reacted significantly more favourably when their
children engaged in a gender-appropriate behaviour and were more likely to give
negative responses to “gender inappropriate” behaviours. Fagot followed up with
interviewing the parents and found that the parents’ perception of their interaction
with their children did not correlate with what was observed by the researchers,
indicating that direct tuition of enculturation is not a concious behaviour.

This study supports the idea that enculturation is a natural process that happens
through observation from the very early stages of life, without parents even noticing.
Describe one effect of acculturation on human behaviour.
Describe one study investigating acculturation.
Acculturation is the changing of a person’s behaviour and characteristics as a result
of contact between different cultures.
Berry (1974) proposed four different acculturation strategies used by individuals
when acculturating: assimilation, integration, separation and marginalisation.
Assimilation is when an individual abandons their own culture and adopts the cultural
behaviours and norms of the new culture. Integration is when there is an interest in
adopting the behaviours and values of the new culture, while still maintaining the
original culture. Separation is when individuals maintain their own culture and
minimise contact with the new culture. And lastly, marginalisation is when individuals
do not maintain their own culture, but neither do they seek contact with the new
culture.

The personal struggle between enculturation and acculturation is referred to as

acculturative stress or culture shock, that is the psychological impact of adaptation to
a new culture.

Miranda and Matheny (2000) aimed to investigate what factors would decrease the
level of acculturative stress in Latino immigrants to the USA. A questionnaire was
submitted to 197 random immigrants from two distinct social services agents,
together with standardised tests to assess family cohesion, level of acculturation,
acculturative stress and coping strategies for stress. Researchers found that
immigrants with effective coping strategies, good English proficiency and a strong
family structure were less likely to to suffer from acculturative stress. In addition,
immigrants who spent longer time in the US were less likely to demonstrate
acculturative stress and showed higher levels of acculturation.

The results of the study support Berry’s view of multiple factors influencing
acculturative stress. The study also suggests that there are many protective factors -
those factors that decrease acculturative stress - that may influence the extent to
which an individual acculturates and the effect that this will have on mental health.

Explain the use of one research method used in the sociocultural approach to
understanding human behaviour.
One research method used in the socio-cultural level of analysis is an experiment.
An experiment is made up of an independent variable (IV) and a dependent variable
(DV). The independent variable is manipulated so that its effect on the dependent
variable can be measured. Often experiments have a control group which is either
not shown or told what the other groups are told, to see their natural reaction without
the manipulation of the IV. Or they are given a placebo – a non-active treatment such
as a sugar pill – to see whether the fact that they are given something also yields the
same result as if the IV were manipulated. The use of a control group enables us to
establish a cause and effect relationship between the variables where it is clear that
the changes in the DV were due to the manipulation of the IV and not due to a
confounding variable. One experiment in the SCLOA was Bandura’s Bashing Bobo
study which focused on social learning theory. The study had two aims. The first was
to see whether a child would imitate a model and the second was to see whether
same-sex models were more likely to be imitated. The participants were children
aged between 3 and 6 years. The first group was exposed to an aggressive model.
The second group was exposed to a passive model and the third group was the
control – that is, not exposed to a model. The first two groups, after being exposed to
their respective models, were placed in a room filled with toys and left there for a few
minutes before being told that the toys were meant for other children. They were
then placed in a room with a Bobo doll. It was found that children exposed to an
aggressive model were more likely to imitate it and bash the Bobo doll as well. It was
also found that girls used more verbal aggression, while the boys used more
physical aggression. When exposed to an aggressive female model, some boys
said, “Ladies should not do that.” Hence, it was also found that same sex models
were more likely to be imitated. The study was matched for aggression based on
parental and teacher evaluation of the children. Depending on how aggressive a
child was, they were evenly distributed among the groups. Unlike other experiments,
this study had three independent variables that were manipulated. They were the
sex of the model, the sex of the child, and the level of aggression modelled. The use
of a control group allows us to establish a cause and effect relationship between the
IV and the DV.

● Cultural origin of behaviour: Berry - quasi experiment.

Ethics
● Sociocultural approach: Bandura - protection from undue stress or harm.
● Cultural origins of behaviour: Berry - deception and informed consent.

Really good stuff Eleonora, you have the structure, knowledge and research to
support your answers. Good job!!