01 IB Psychology Topic Essays Sociocultural Approach Digital Download

IB DIPLOMA
Psychology
Topic ESSAYS
Sociocultural Approach
LAURA SWASH & Joseph Sparks

TOPIC ESSAYS
sociocultural APPROACH
Evaluate social identity theory.
To what extent can social cognitive theory explain individual behaviour?
Evaluate one theory of stereotype formation.
Contrast two theories or studies on the effect of stereotypes.
Evaluate research methods used to investigate the relationship between individuals

and groups in the sociocultural approach.
Discuss ethical considerations with sociocultural research into the relationship

between individuals and groups.
To what extent can cultural origins explain behaviour and cognition?
Discuss the explanation given by one or more cultural dimensions for behaviour
and cognition.
To what extent can enculturation explain attitudes, identity and/or behaviours?
Discuss one or more theory of acculturation
Discuss the influence of globalization on individual behaviour.
Discuss methods used to investigate the effects of globalization on individual

behaviour.
IB DIPLOMA Psychology TOPIC essays: sociocultural Approach Page 3
Evaluate social identity theory.
With ‘evaluate’ you need to discuss the strengths and limitations of the theory, and if you evaluate the
studies, make it relevant to your appraisal of the theory.
Social identity theory was developed by Tajfel and Turner (1979) in Focus on the question:
response to earlier theories, such as the realistic conflict theory the last sentence in this
associated with Sherif, that claimed competition and conflict over scarce introduction takes us
resources are necessary for intergroup rivalry to occur. Tajfel and Turner back to the question – an
argue that there is no need for conflict or competition for in-group and evaluation of SIT.
out-group identities to form. They explain that three mental processes
underpin SIT: social categorisation, social identification and social Knowledge and
comparison. Social categorisation is the tendency to divide items and understanding: the
people into groups in order to better understand them. When we do so, theory is introduced and
we exaggerate the differences between the groups and the similarities of described.
things (and people) in the same group, and this is the basis, they argue, of
stereotyping. Social identification is when we identify with our own
group. This is important to us, as our self-esteem relies on our group
membership. Finally, there is social comparison with other groups.
Because our group identity is tied up with our self-esteem, we compare
our group favourably with others, and it becomes the ‘in-group’, while
the others are the ‘out-group.’ This can lead to negative stereotyping of
the out-group, although this is not always the case, and it is this last
claim, of how favourable comparison arises, or even if it does, that has
led to criticisms of SIT.
The theory was developed from Tajfel et al.’s (1971) research into the Use of research to
minimal groups paradigm. Tajfel wanted to find the minimal level support answer: Tajfel et
necessary for some kind of group identification and subsequent al.’s minimal paradigm
prejudice and discrimination. He found that merely being put in a group study introduced.
was enough to instil loyalty to the group and some discrimination
towards those outside the group. The crucial aspect of this situation was
that it contained a totally meaningless and random categorisation of
people into an in-group and an out-group
The researchers randomly allocated 48 schoolboy participants to 3 Knowledge,

groups of 16 boys, then each group was randomly split again in the understanding and use of
following way: they were shown slides of paintings by Klee and research: the study is
Kandinsky and were told their preferences for the paintings would described, and the results
determine which of two groups they would join. This was a deception linked back to SIT.
designed to set up the idea of ‘us’ and ‘them’ in their minds. The
experimenters ensured that the boys had no idea who was also in their
own group, what the grouping meant or what they had to lose or gain.
Each was then asked to distribute virtual money to the other members of
both groups, with only the information concerning to which group the
recipient of the money belonged.
The boys favoured their own group in the distribution of the virtual
money, thus demonstrating that the mere fact of being put in a group was
enough to demonstrate loyalty to the group and discrimination against
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Page 4 IB DIPLOMA Psychology TOPIC essays: sociocultural Approach
those outside the group. The crucial aspect of this situation was that the
participants were totally randomly allocated into groups. This is the
minimal groups paradigm on which SIT was built – that the most
minimal criteria could be used to create the in-group and out-group.
This carefully controlled experiment demonstrated the strength of SIT Critical thinking and
and also the risks inherent if teachers split students into groups by evaluation: analysis of the
gender, age or even ability: in-groups and out-groups will surely develop. results.
However, one limitation of SIT is that it is not empirically shown to result
in negative stereotyping of the out-group.
Dunham et al. (2011) showed that SIT can be applied to young children. Use of research to
They used random allocation of young children to either a blue T-shirt or support answer: another
red T-shirt group and found that, in an attitude test, coin allocation and study supporting SIT.
implicit association test, preference was shown for the in-group wearing
the same T-shirt. This study demonstrated that mere membership leads
children to globally evaluate in-group members in a positive way. Critical thinking:
However, when given a prompt referring to ‘something somebody did’ strengths and imitations
followed by a short description of a positive or a negative behaviour, the of SIT as shown by this
children did not assume that out-group members did the ‘bad thing’ and study.
in-group members the ‘good thing.’ This suggests that showing
preference for one’s own group does not necessarily lead to negative
stereotyping of the out-group. Moreover, being of the same gender was
still a stronger predictor of a positive evaluation among young children.
For young children, minimal in-groups are weaker organisers of
evaluations than gender.
Both of these studies show the explanatory strength of SIT by Critical thinking: analysis
demonstrating how easily in-group preference is created under minimal of SIT.
conditions. However, other researchers have questioned the stated need
for the in-group to have preferential status over the out-group through
social categorisation. Ellemers et al. (2002) argue that the social context Use of research to
determines whether or not in-group preference will be shown. The support answer:
example they gave was that a group of psychology students would Ellemers as an
compare themselves favourably with physics students when it came to illustration of the
creativity, but unfavourably with arts students, and therefore it is the limitation of SIT in
social context, rather than the mere membership of the group that instils ignoring social context.
a sense of positive or negative social identity. This suggests that a
limitation of SIT is that it only holds true for certain circumstances, or
needs revising in order to be more generalisable.
Howarth conducted focus-group interviews with adolescents living in Use of research to

Brixton, London. This is a community that is represented negatively in support answer: Howarth
the media as violent, criminal and full of drug dealers. Her interviews as an illustration of the
showed that the in-group identity of those living in Brixton was limitation of SIT in
constructed in opposition to these negative social representations. So, ignoring how social
instead of comparing themselves unfavourably with other areas, as identity is created in
Ellemers suggested, the youngsters accepted that others had this view, response to others’ social
but their social identity with Brixton was of being part of a lively and representations.
vibrant community. Therefore, she argues, social identity is constructed
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in reaction to what others think; that it is not the membership of the

group itself which leads to a positive view, but the reaction to what
others think that causes this.
While SIT can explain the formation of in-groups and out-groups under Clarity and organization:
minimal conditions, it has limitations when it tries to demonstrate the good connections made
necessity for in-group preference in all social contexts. It is empirically back to the answer, and
supported by carefully constructed lab experiments, but seems less valid between the paragraphs,
when tested under real-life circumstances. throughout.
Words: 1023
Mark band: 16-22

Examiner-style comments.
This is a good essay that would gain the top descriptor band for each criterion. SIT is explained well,
and the studies are applied to show both the strengths and limitations.

To what extent can social cognitive theory explain individual behaviour?
‘To what extent’ requires a conclusion: what are the strengths and limitations of SCT when explaining
individual behaviour and what other theories might also explain this?
Social cognitive theory (SCT) was developed by Bandura (1986) from his
earlier theories of social learning (1961; 1977) and self-efficacy (the Focus:
expectation of personal success in a task, based on the view that one is in introduction to
control of one’s actions and abilities). SCT is a comprehensive theory of how SCT.
humans act as agents and through their thoughts, beliefs and actions affect and
are affected by their own environments and social systems. In his earlier social
learning theory, Bandura investigated the process of observational learning as
developed through attention, retention, reproduction and motivation
The original study from which SCT was developed was conducted by Bandura, Use of research
Ross and Ross in 1961 and has been modified and replicated many times since. to support the
The aim of this study was to investigate if children observing aggressive acts answer:
committed by adults in one setting would reproduce those acts in another Bandura’s
setting when the adult role model was absent. It was also to examine if children earlier social
were more likely to imitate same sex models. Participants were in a mixed learning study
gender group of 36 girls and 36 boys, aged 3 to 6 years. The children were introduced as
matched for their level of physical and verbal aggression and aggression the basis for SCT.
towards objects.
A complex independent measures design was used where children were

exposed to same-sex models and opposite sex models, both aggressive and
non-aggressive, and compared to a control group exposed to no model. The
experiment demonstrated that children learnt behaviour through observation
and imitation of an adult model, even when the model was not physically
present. In 1965, Bandura conducted a further study into the effect of vicarious
reinforcement (praise, observed by the children) of the adult’s aggression on
the imitation rate of the children, and found unsurprisingly that rewarded
behaviour was more likely to be imitated than punished behaviour. This
introduces an individual cognitive element that is important in the later SCT.
In SCT, individual cognition comes into play. Whether or not the behaviour is Knowledge and
displayed depends on the expected outcome, through a process of vicarious understanding:
reinforcement. We exhibit behaviour when we expect it to be rewarded or at description of
least not punished. It is acknowledged that humans have the capability of SCT.
anticipating the results of their actions, and this controls whether or not they
learn a behaviour and when (if ever) they choose to exhibit it. A good example
of this is the toddler who learns to speak by listening carefully and, maybe
weeks or months later, comes out with whole sentences.
Bandura (1986) identified outcome expectations, self-efficacy and intentions as Knowledge and
interrelated factors that combine to explain how people acquire and maintain understanding:
behaviours. Our perception of our own ability will affect both our motivation more details of
(intentions) and our outcome expectations; therefore, self-efficacy is a key SCT
concept in SCT. Another key concept is that of reciprocal determinism:
Bandura saw behaviour, internal personal factors (our biology and individual
cognition) and environmental influences as all interacting, through this triadic

process of reciprocal determinism, to affect one another. For example, our

preferences for doing certain sports or activities (behaviour) are based on our
thoughts and feelings about how we will perform (internal cognition, including
beliefs about our self-efficacy, which can be based on our biological suitability
for one sport over another) and the environment (access to certain sports
facilities).
At first it seems as if SCT can successfully explain all human behaviour, but it Critical thinking:
assumes a rational social cognitive model that ignores factors like, for example, an analysis of
physical addiction, or emotion. Van Zundert et al. (2009) used SCT as a SCT.
framework within which to investigate lapses (a few puffs) and relapses (one
or more cigarettes) in adolescents who were trying to give up smoking. If they Use of research
had been heavy smokers, those who felt strongly about the advantages of not to support
smoking and felt high self-efficacy had, at follow-up, a relapse rate that was as answer: a study
high as those who felt less self-efficacy at the start of the study. It was that contradicts
concluded that self-efficacy is not a stable trait and varies from day to day SCT.
during the attempt to give up smoking. More research is needed, using
nicotine patches to help overcome the withdrawal effects, and measuring
personal self-efficacy more often throughout the study.
This study suggests that social cognitive theory can only explain individual Critical thinking:
behaviour to a certain extent, and other factors, such as biology, need to be the role of
considered. Culture and social context are also important. Bandura expanded biological and
his theory to try and explain social cognition and behaviour cross-culturally by cultural factors.
arguing that it would be a mistake to view personal (individual) agency and
efficacy as more important in individualistic societies and collective agency to
be a priority in collectivistic societies: personal self-efficacy is essential for
success regardless of whether it is achieved individually, or as a member of a
group working towards group success. Similarly, collective agency and group
loyalty require each group member to show personal self-efficacy. However,
this argument lacks any supporting evidence and social learning and cognition
cannot always be directly observed, so how do we know that social cognition in
collectivist cultures can be explained individually?
In conclusion, Bandura’s SCT explains children’s learning well, but it ignores Clarity and
biological factors that can affect an individual’s behaviour and more evidence organization: a
of cross-cultural relevance is also needed. Therefore, it can only explain well-organized
individual behaviour to some extent. essay.
Words: 891
Mark band: 16-22
This is a complex essay, but it keeps its focus on the question which is not always easy. The student
showed how SCT is a comprehensive theory, but in order to be applied cross-culturally it needs
more empirical support. The study into cigarette-smoking is used well as counter-evidence.

Evaluate one theory of stereotype formation.
To ‘evaluate’ a theory you need to discuss the strengths and limitations of the theory, and if you
evaluate studies, make them relevant to your evaluation of the theory.
Stereotypes are fixed beliefs about a particular group of people that Focus, and knowledge
are also applied to any one member of that group. The use of and understanding:
stereotypes is one way in which we categorise and simplify our social definition of
world. However, they can also be negative and lead to prejudice stereotypes, and
against individuals and groups. There are several theories regarding introduction of social
the formation of stereotypes. Fiske (2004) developed the ‘cognitive categorisation as the
miser’ theory that stereotyping allows us to shortcut our thinking basis of stereotyping.
processes. This relates to Tajfel and Turner’s (1979) social identity
theory explanation of the process of social categorisation. It is the first
step they identify in the development of in-group identity, and is, they
argue, the basis of stereotyping. Social categorisation is a way of
organising information about people in order to identify them quickly.
When we do so, we exaggerate the differences between the groups,
and the similarity of people in the same group, and this can lead to
stereotyping. The theory of social categorisation being responsible for
the development of stereotypes will be evaluated in this essay.
Tajfel et al.’s minimal groups paradigm study demonstrated that even Use of research to
random assignment to groups resulted in identification with the in- support the answer:
group and discrimination of the out-group. However, it did not really Tajfel et al.’s study
demonstrate stereotyping: the schoolboys who allocated the virtual made relevant to the
money in a carefully-designed lab experiment definitely allocated question.
disproportionately more to their group, but no negative stereotyping
of the out-group nor any positive stereotyping of the in-group was
observed. This could be because, in the experiment design, all
participants were just identified individually by numbers, and the
boys did not know who was in each group, just the group that they Critical thinking:
were in and the group of the participant to whom they distributed the analysis of why
money. However, one strength of the social categorisation theory is Tajfel’s research did
that it is logical to suppose that social categorisation would be a not demonstrate
necessary precursor for stereotyping. We cannot stereotype members stereotyping.
of a particular group until we can identify them as being members of
that group. We often do this visually (as with racism), and through
language, by using language to separate and identify ‘us’ and ‘them’.
Perdue et al. (1990) argued that social categorisation through
language is responsible for the formation of stereotypes. They
maintain that it is the language we use when speaking about in-groups
and out-groups that is responsible for stereotyping. They conducted Use of research to
three experiments with the aim of testing the hypothesis that the use support the answer:
of words referring to in-group or out-group status may unconsciously study supporting
perpetuate intergroup biases. Each experiment measured how quickly social categorisation
participants responded to cues associating in-group pronouns (we, us, through language is
ours) and out-group pronouns (them, they, theirs) with positive or described.
negative adjectives. In Experiments 1 and 2, the pronouns were
presented subliminally to see if this was an automatic effect.

They found that intergroup biases seem to be more a product of in- Knowledge and
group favouritism than of out-group discrimination. Words describing understanding: details
in-groups (we, us and our) and out-groups (they, them and their) and of findings given.
their acquired evaluative values mediate judgements of others.
Experiment 1 demonstrated that mere placing of these pronouns with
neutral stimuli was sufficient to bias emotional responses to those
stimuli. Experiment 2 showed that subliminal exposure to the words
‘us’ and ‘them’ automatically eased the retrieval of positive adjectives
from semantic memory. Experiment 3 demonstrated the same with
reference to in-group pronouns, but did not show any preference for
associating out-group pronouns automatically with negative
adjectives.
Perdue et al.’s experiments demonstrated the automatic processes

behind stereotyping, in a blame-free environment, so the social
inhibitions regarding admitting prejudice were not present. The in-
group/out-group designation was not overtly manipulated and two
out of the three experiments presented the pronouns subliminally so
that demand characteristics could not affect the results. However, one
limitation is that the study, although it supports social categorisation
Critical thinking:
as a mental process that results in some stereotyping, does not
analysis of how the
demonstrate how negative stereotyping of an out-group develops,
research partly
which was also one main criticism of Tajfel’s original theory.
supports the theory.
A strength of this research is that it demonstrated how automatic
processing of in-group language could be responsible for in-group
preference and positive stereotyping of the in-group. However, it is
limited in its explanation for stereotyping, as it only demonstrated a
minimal negative stereotyping of the out-group when compared to a
control.
In conclusion, both of the experiments set up to demonstrate how Clarity and

social categorisation operates and that it is the basis for stereotyping organization: brings
were only partially successful in their aim. Both Tajfel et al. and it back to the theory
Perdue et al. showed how in-group favouritism arose, and Perdue et al. of social
showed how language could be responsible for possible in-group categorisation, and
stereotyping; but neither study was able to support the theory that shows how it is only
social categorisation leads to negative stereotyping of an outgroup. partly supported by
Therefore, the theory that social categorisation leads to the formation the empirical
of stereotypes is only partly supported in these cases. evidence.
Words: 813
Mark band: 16-22
This is a good essay that uses relevant evidence to evaluate the theory of social categorisation. The
essay shows knowledge and understanding of the theories and of the studies. It would gain marks in
the top band of each criterion.

Contrast two theories or studies on the effect of stereotypes.
‘Contrast’ means that you need to give an account of the differences between two theories/studies,
referring to both of them throughout.
A stereotype is a fixed opinion about a person or a group of people that Focus: Definition of
affects how we think about them and treat them. Steele and Aronson (1995) stereotype. Focus on
identified the phenomenon of stereotype threat as being when individuals the question.
believe that their behaviour will be judged on the basis of negative
stereotypes about their group. The consequences of stereotype threat on
African–Americans, the maths performance of women, the driving
performance of women and the intellectual performance of poor children Knowledge and
are widely documented. understanding:
Introduction of
The two studies that will be contrasted are those by Inzlicht and Kang stereotype threat
(2010) and Siy and Cheryan (2013). Inzlicht and Kang (2010) extend Steele and the two studies
and Aronson’s research to test their concept of stereotype threat spillover: to be contrasted.
that coping with negative stereotypes leaves one in a depleted state without
the will to engage in effortful tasks. However, Siy and Cheryan took a
different view, and instead investigated the negative effect of positive
stereotypes, arguing that it is the deindividuation associated with
stereotyping that leads to negative effects in an individualist society, not the
nature (positive or negative) of the stereotype.
The aim of Inzlicht and Kang’s experiment was to investigate the indirect Use of research to
effect of stereotype threat from negative stereotyping of women’s maths support the answer:
ability on the emotion of aggression and on the behaviour of eating. They Inzlicht and Kang,
called this the ‘spillover effect’. In contrast, Siy and Cheryan explored the and Siy and
direct effect of positive stereotyping regarding Asians’ maths ability on their Cheryan’s studies
emotional response to a work partner. So, one experiment looked at how contrasted by aim.
negative stereotyping in one area can indirectly affect emotions and
behaviours in other areas, while the other investigated how positive
stereotyping in the same area can lead directly to negative emotions in those
stereotyped.
Siy and Cheryan used 41 US-born Asian-American undergraduates (46% Use of research to
women) who were randomly allocated to groups and were told they would support the answer:
be completing exercises from packets for 5 minutes. Those in the description of Siy
experimental group were told by their white (confederate) partner, “I know and Cheryan’s
all Asians are good at math, how about you take the math packet, I’ll work on experiment.
this one.” Those in the control group were told, “How about you take this
packet, I’ll work on this one.” In both conditions, the confederate handed the
maths packet to the participant. The statement in the experimental
condition represented a positive stereotype.
At the end of the task, the participant completed a questionnaire evaluating

their partner. A question about depersonalisation was also asked: “To what
extent does your partner see you only for your racial group?”

Use of research to
Unlike Siy and Cheryan’s sample, Inzlicht and Kang’s 34 participants were all support the answer:
female. In the first experiment, investigating emotional spillover from poor description of
performance in maths, the participants sat in individual cubicles and were Inzlicht and Kang’s
told that the task was to investigate the relationship between mood and experiment .
academic performance, and that they would complete their own test and
then grade and provide feedback on their partner’s test. Participants then
completed a questionnaire assessing the importance they placed on their
mathematical abilities, e.g. “Doing well on maths-related tasks is important
to me”. Half of the participants (one in each pair) were given cognitive
reappraisal coping instructions designed to turn the stereotyping threat off.
After marking their partner’s test, the tests were taken away, and false
scores of 3/10 with harsh comments were given out to everyone.
Participants believed it was their partner who had given the score and made
the comment. They then put on headphones and sat at separate computers
for the competitive game. Although they believed they were playing against
their particular partner, they were actually playing against the computer.
They were told to press a button quickly when a stimulus appeared on the
screen, and were also told that whoever of the pair responded faster would
deliver a blast of white noise to the slower partner. So noise intensity and
duration levels were used as the measure of aggression.
There was, therefore, a contrast in methods, as Siy and Cheryan measured Critical thinking: the
emotion directly by immediate questioning, while Inzlicht and Kang contrast between
measured it by using noise intensity and duration data from the competitive the two
computer game. experiments.
Inzlicht and Kang found that, after controlling for the importance Knowledge and
participants placed on their own maths abilities, participants in the understanding:
stereotype threat condition (who did not receive cognitive reappraisal results of Inzlicht
instructions) were significantly more aggressive than were participants in and Kang’s research.
the cognitive reappraisal condition.
Critical thinking:
Therefore, negative stereotypes about women’s maths ability affected their conclusions drawn.
emotions and behaviour in a domain that was unrelated to the stereotyped
domain of maths testing. The existence of stereotype threat was confirmed
by the fact that participants in the stereotype threat condition actually
performed worse on the maths test than those in the cognitive reappraisal
condition. The only difference between the two groups was that one was
given a coping strategy to manage emotions adaptively, while the other had
to cope by themselves. What separated them was not stress but coping. The
researchers argued that those coping by themselves had reduced mental
resources available for self-control. This was confirmed by a follow-up study
which found a link between stereotype threat and ice-cream eating:
participants in the stereotype threat group ate more ice cream after the
maths test than did the participants from the cognitive reappraisal group.
They were the ones who had to cope with stereotype threat without the
mental resource-saving help of cognitive reappraisal techniques.

In contrast, Siy and Cheryan’s study was less complex but nonetheless drew Critical thinking:
important conclusions; they found that in all cases the experimental group more contrasts and
evaluated their partner more negatively, felt more negative emotions and the conclusions of
reported a greater sense of being depersonalised. Even control group Siy and Cheryan’s
participants’ sense of depersonalisation was at the mid-point of the scale, study.
suggesting that they did not feel treated as complete individuals perhaps
because they were always given the maths packet by their partner.
To conclude, although both studies were about stereotype threat, Inzlicht Clarity and
and Kang explored the stereotype threat spillover effect of negative organization: a
stereotypes, while Siy and Cheryan investigated the effect of positive well-organized
stereotypes. Siy and Cheryan measured the emotion of dislike directly, while essay, with contrast
Inzlicht and Kang measured anger indirectly. Inzlicht and Kang’s experiment explained
was more complex, with the presence of a cognitive reappraisal technique throughout.
being manipulated, but both made important discoveries regarding
stereotype threat.
Words: 1044
Mark band: 16-22
Contrast is a quite difficult command term, but this essay managed to contrast the two studies
throughout, by aim, method, and findings. It was well-constructed and showed detailed knowledge.
It would gain a mark in the highest descriptor band for each criterion.

Evaluate research methods used to investigate the relationship between individuals and
groups in the sociocultural approach.
‘Evaluate’ requires you to weigh up the strengths and limitations of the methods. (Choose two
methods, and evaluate them, looking at sampling, validity, generalisation, etc.)
Most of the research into relationships between the individual and the group
uses the experimental method, often conducted in an artificial setting. This Focus: Straight into
is a quantitative method, as the data generated is usually in numerical form the essay to identify
and analysed statistically to identify patterns and significance. However, the two methods to
some researchers also choose to use more qualitative methods, with focus- be compared.
group interviews resulting in rich text that can be analysed using inductive
content analysis to identify themes. The strengths and limitations of these
methods are complementary, and so sometimes interviews can be used to
check the validity of results obtained through lab experiments.
The strengths of lab experiments are that an independent variable (IV) is Knowledge and
manipulated; the effect on one or more dependent variables (DV) of this understanding:
manipulation is measured; extraneous variables that might also turn into psychological
confounding variables by having an unwanted effect on the DV are terminology used
controlled, and a single-blind or double-blind design can be used in order to effectively, and
control participant expectations and research effects. Single-blind is when details given of lab
the participants are unaware of the true aim of the experiment and the experiments as a
identity of the IV and DV; double blind is when the researchers are also method.
unaware which participants are in which conditions and which data is from
the experimental condition and which from the control group.
In a well-designed and controlled lab experiment, the participants are

allocated randomly to conditions or groups, and the results of the
experiment are not generalised beyond a reasonable target population, of
which the sample chosen is representative. Careful sampling, experiment
design and procedure should result in data that, when analysed, shows the
true cause and effect relationship between the IV and the DV. While no lab
Critical thinking:
experiment is ever perfectly designed and controlled, and so correlation is
regarding cause and
far more often found than cause and effect, lab experiments are excellent for
effect and
isolating and testing the effects of X on Y to support or refute a hypothesis.
correlation.
The more standardised a procedure is, the more replicable it is and,
therefore, the more external validity and reliability is shown by the results.
When large numbers of diverse participants are used in cross-cultural
research, lab experiments become an etic approach to research seeking to
identify general rules regarding human behaviour across cultures.
Tajfel et al. (1971) used a lab experiment to test his theory that merely being Use of research to
put in a group was enough to instil loyalty to the group and some support the answer:
discrimination towards those outside the group. He randomly allocated Tajfel’s experiment
schoolboys into two groups although they thought they had been allocated
by their preference for a painting by either Klee or Kandinsky. He had
controlled variables like age and gender, and the participants did not know
the real aim of the experiment viewing it as a game when they individually

had to distribute virtual money to other members of both groups. They were
given the code numbers and group membership of those boys to whom they
were to give money. The quantitative data generated showed that the boys
indeed favoured their own group and gave less money to the out-group.
Therefore, the researchers demonstrated that the most minimal criteria
could be used to create an in-group and out-group.
The strengths of the focus group interview method are diametrically Knowledge and
opposed to those of the lab experiment. In the focus group, a small group of understanding:
interviewees engages in a conversation about a certain topic with the details of the focus-
interviewer. Interaction between the participants is encouraged as they group method.
‘bounce ideas off one another’ and support each other’s statements.
Recording, either video or audio, of the interview results in rich data that is
high in internal validity, and, after inductive content analysis to identify
themes, can be checked for credibility by the participants themselves. This
is an emic approach to research, often used with a few participants of just
one gender or culture in order to identify the meanings of their lived
experiences, rather than isolate behaviours that conform to general rules.
Howarth (2002) conducted focus group interviews of adolescents living in Use of research to
Brixton, London. This is a community which is represented negatively in the support answer:
media as violent, criminal and full of drug dealers. Her interviews showed Howarth’s focus-
that the in-group identity of those living in Brixton was constructed in group interviews.
opposition to these negative social representations. So, instead of comparing
themselves unfavourably with other areas, the youngsters accepted that
others had this view, but their social identity was of Brixton as a lively and
vibrant community. This is not data that could have been discovered
through a lab experiment.
The largest limitation of lab experiments is that they lack internal validity: Critical thinking: a
people often do not behave the same way or answer questions in the same careful analysis of
way in experiments as they may in real life. Sometimes, they try and guess the limitations of lab
what the experiment is about and answer how they think the researcher experiments.
wants them to. These demand characteristics mean that the results lack
ecological validity – they cannot be assumed to be the same as results that
would have been obtained if the behaviour had been observed outside of the
lab. Of course, it is often impossible to test behaviour in natural conditions,
and many researchers acknowledge that the lack of internal validity is a
trade-off for higher control. They do the best they can to create a situation
where people behave as they would in the world at large.
The opposite limitation applies with focus-group interviews: they lack Critical thinking:
external validity. Because the samples are very small, and the situation focus-group
unique, we cannot generalise the results of the interviews easily to other interview
situations or interviewees. But we can be fairly sure that these are the true limitations
thoughts of those we interviewed. However, only ‘fairly sure’ because compared with lab
another limitation with focus-group interviews is the social desirability experiments.
effect. The interviewees will say what they believe to be most socially
acceptable and to make them look good in the eyes of the interviewer and
their fellow interviewees.

No one method is adequate to give a full picture of behaviour between the Clarity and
individual and the group. In order to try and gain as holistic a picture as organization is
possible of a certain behaviour, it can be beneficial, therefore, to use a shown throughout.
triangulation of methods, supplementing reliable quantitative data by The conclusion is
extracting a small sample of the participants in the original experiment and particularly strong
conducting interviews, with open-ended questioning regarding their in showing how lab
answers, feelings about the experiment and anything else that would add to experiments and
the validity of the data. In this way, the complementary qualities of these focus-group
two very different methods can be exploited. interviews can be
complementary.
Words: 1082
Mark band: 16-22
This is a good essay that would gain the top descriptor band for each criterion. It was careful to
evaluate the methods without becoming just a description of them. The conclusion pulled the
argument, that opposing methods can be complementary, together very well.

Discuss ethical considerations with sociocultural research into the relationship between
individuals and groups.
‘Discuss’ means that you should offer a balanced review of several ethical considerations that are
relevant to this sociocultural research and use examples where possible.
Ethical guidelines to protect participants in psychological research are laid Focus: this
out by national organizations, such as the American Psychological Association introduces the idea
and the British Psychological Society. These guidelines require that all of ethical
psychological research is passed by an ethics committee to ensure that it will considerations.
cause no psychological or physical harm; so ethical considerations have to
start long before the research does. Knowledge and
Understanding: clear
The ethical considerations associated with much sociocultural research are psychological
those of informed consent and confidentiality of data, and it is these that will knowledge shown of
be discussed in this essay. However, in order to conduct ethical research, the two ethical
these do not stand alone; they are closely related to the principles of no considerations, and
deception and anonymity of participants. their relationship to
others.
With all studies, participants’ informed consent should be obtained on a Knowledge and
document giving all the details of the aim and procedure of the study, and understanding:
outlining all of the participants’ rights to withdraw themselves or their data outlining the
at any time, to see their results and to know the outcome of the experiment. procedure of
The British Psychological Society guidelines for ethical research (2014) informed consent.
emphasise that consent should contain information regarding all aspects of
the experiment and that there must be a statement that participants may
withdraw at any time without penalty. In practice, once participants are
involved in a study very few withdraw.
Signed consent is required from the participants (or parents or legal

guardians if they are minors) before they become involved in the experiment.
This can be an issue, as minor deception is allowed in experiments where, if
the participants knew the true aim of the research it would invalidate the
results. As a result, a small amount of deception as to the true intent of the
experiment often takes place, as, for instance, in Tajfel et al.’s experiment.
Tajfel et al. (1971) conducted an experiment to investigate the minimal Use of research to
circumstances in which inter-group awareness, and in-group preference, support answer:
could be generated. They found that random allocation to groups was discussion of
enough to generate this, but deceived their participants into thinking that the informed consent
groups had been formed in response to the boys’ declared preference for a issues in Tajfel et al.’s
picture painted by Klee or by Kandinsky. Thus the group identity was research.
formed. If they had known that what was being investigated was in-group
and out-group behaviour, they may have exhibited demand characteristics
that would have spoilt the results of the experiment. Therefore their
informed consent, given by their parents because they were 14-15 years old,
would not have been based on the true aim of the experiment. Critical thinking: an
analysis of the

A good illustration of how deception on the informed consent form, while it necessity of informed
seems necessary at the time, in fact may not be: Billig and Tajfel (1973) consent.
found the same results, yet had made the splitting into groups explicitly
random and therefore negated the need for deception regarding at least this
aspect of their study.
Confidentiality of data is something that should be addressed in the informed Knowledge and
consent: it means that the data gathered should not be traceable back to understanding:
participants if the research is made available, through sharing or publication, details of the
to anyone outside the research team. Confidentiality of data becomes procedure of
particularly important when publishing research. confidentiality of
data.
It is vital in studies investigating sensitive topics that participants’ identities
are protected, to avoid any psychological harm coming to them through Critical thinking: link
others discovering their participation in the research and their responses. It to anonymity.
is often used along with anonymity (name changing or number allocation Use of research to
during the study) to protect participants even further. Although it is a support answer:
separate ethical consideration, anonymity to protect the privacy of reference to
participants is also important in ‘sensitive’ studies. Howarth (2002) Howarth’s study.
conducted focus group interviews of adolescents living in Brixton, London to
investigate social identity theory. She changed the names of her interviewees
to protect their anonymity, and this also resulted in confidentiality when her
study was published.
Another study where confidentiality of data is very important was that Use of research to
conducted by Van Zundert et al. (2009), who investigated if social cognitive support answer:
theory could be used to explain smoking lapse and relapse in adolescents confidentiality
who are trying to give up. Their participants were aged 15-20 years, some regarding the data
heavy smokers and others much lighter smokers. After the study, in the two- from another study.
month follow-up, it was found that fewer than 30% of the participants had
managed to give up smoking. The adolescents in this study needed to have
their confidentiality ensured, as some may not have wanted family to know
they smoked (although those who were under 16 would have had to receive
permission from parents to participate in the study). The method used was
online self-report, so those over 16 would not have had to inform their
parents.
This is a recent Dutch study, and would have been subject to an ethics
committee approval. However, as with most published studies, no details are
given of the approval process, of the obtaining of informed consent or of how
confidentiality was ensured. However, as the research would not have been
permitted otherwise, we might assume this was all done.

In conclusion, both informed consent and confidentiality of data are vital Clarity and
when conducting sociocultural research. However, because, as much as organization: issues
possible, the aim is to investigate the natural behaviour of participants, with informed
sometimes the informed consent form contains minimal deception regarding consent
the aims of the experiment. Similarly, because much of the data could be confidentiality pulled
sensitive, confidentiality should be ensured; anonymity of participants during together.
the process also helps to guarantee this.
Words: 900
Mark band: 16-22
This is a good essay. It looks in depth at two ethical considerations with sociocultural research, and
shows how they are related to others. It uses the research effectively to illustrate the answer to the
question. It would gain marks in the top band of each criterion descriptor.

To what extent can cultural origins explain behaviour and cognition?
‘To what extent’ requires a conclusion: what are the strengths and limitations of using cultural origins
to explain behaviour and cognition? Include research that suggests the explanation is more complex
than this, as well as counter-evidence.
Culture has been defined in many different ways. A broadly accepted Focus: The essay is
definition is that given by Matsumoto (1996): “the set of attitudes, values, opened with a
beliefs, and behaviors shared by a group of people, but different for each definition of culture and
individual, communicated from one generation to the next.” Cultural how cultural origins can
norms and values are communicated through the socialisation of affect behaviours and
children into culturally-acceptable ways of behaviour. In this way, our cognitions. The
cultural origins can affect our behaviour, such as conformity and behaviour (conformity)
cognitions, such as autobiographical memory. However, the question and cognition
remains to what extent cultural origins can explain behaviour and (memory) are
cognition: the actual processes of remembering and conformity exist in identified.
all societies so far as psychologists are aware; it is exactly how they
operate that may vary.
Asch (1951 and 1955) investigated the extent to which pressure from a Use of research to
majority could convince a single participant to conform in a situation support answer: Asch’s
where the decision of the majority was unambiguously wrong. He did conformity study
this using a line judgement task, where he placed one naïve participant in introduced.
a room with seven to nine confederates (actors), who had agreed their
answers in advance. In turn, each person had to say out loud which line
(A, B or C) was most like the target line in length. The correct answer was
always clear. Asch found that, on average, the naïve participants
conformed to the incorrect answers on 32% of the critical trials. This is
an example of normative conformity - when a person conforms to the
group norms in order not to be isolated.
Nearly 40 years later, Smith and Bond (1996) conducted a meta-analysis Use of research to
of the results of 133 studies that had used Asch’s line-judging task in 17 support the answer:
different countries. While Asch had manipulated variables like group Smith and Bond’s cross
size, number of confederates and the position in the room in which the cultural meta-analysis.
naïve participant sat, he had not looked at how culture might affect
conformity. Smith and Bond found that generally speaking people from
more individualist cultures (usually Western) conformed less often than
those from more collectivist cultures (usually Eastern, Asian cultures).
While this takes a very broad view and ignores the fact that some
Eastern, Asian cultures are more individualist than others, and some
Western ones more collective than others, a trend was discernible. This
suggests that culture affects the behaviour of conformity to a large
extent.
However, more up-to-date research has called into question the idea of Critical thinking: the
associating individualist cultures with Western societies and collectivist issue of labelling all
cultures with Asian societies, and has also criticised the idea that this Eastern Asian societies
degree of individualism or collectivism in a culture directly affects the as ‘collectivist’.
conformity of individuals to others. Takano and Sogon (2008)

demonstrated that Japanese participants in Asch’s experiment

conformed no more than the original US participants. They conducted a Use of research to
replication of Asch’s (1956) experiment, using Japanese members of support the answer:
different college clubs, to investigate whether membership of an in- this point is explored
group like a club would affect the individual rate of conformity. further.
The rate of conformity found was 25.2%, with 14 participants not

conforming in any of the critical trials, and 3 conforming in all 12. No
systematic relation was found between conformity rate and duration of
club membership, ruling out an in-group effect. This rate is much the Knowledge and
same as the average conformity rate among Americans in the same understanding: how
experimental setting. Although Asch reported 36.8% conformity rate, Levine and
some researchers suspect that it might be a product of the particular Norenzayan’s research
historical period in the States. Unlike other studies, this research used supports the findings of
Japanese who were resident in Japan, not the US, which also supports Japan being an
Levine and Norenzayan’s (1996) finding that Japan showed the same individualist culture.
characteristics as an individualist culture when measuring the pace of
life, being ranked fourth overall and much higher on the index than both
South Korea and China, as well as being above the ‘individualist’ UK and
USA.
So, while Bond and Smith’s research showed a different rate of Critical thinking:
conformity between individualist and collectivist cultures, Levine and applying what has been
Norenzayan demonstrated that modern Japan cannot be included within shown in the studies,
the collectivist cultures, and this makes sense of the results of Takano and linking these
and Sogon’s study. Therefore, the argument is still that culture affects results to the question.
the behaviour of conformity to a large extent, but that the term ‘culture’
needs to be carefully operationalized, with variations among the
‘supposed’ collectivist Asian cultures.
Another study suggesting that culture affects cognition to a large extent Use of research to
is Wang et al.’s (2007) study investigating autobiographical memory for support answer:
childhood events in three culture groups: US, England and China. These research into
were chosen because they differ in the degree to which they value autobiographical
individuality and an autonomous self, with the US citizens putting a memory supports the
prime value on self-sufficiency and personal autonomy and the Chinese argument that cultural
putting the least value on this (see Hofstede’s cultural dimensions, 1979, origins affect cognition.
1983). They found that the Chinese group drew their first memories
from a later age than did either of the Western groups, who did not differ
significantly from each other.

They suggest that this is because of a difference between forms of self- Knowledge and
construal. An autonomous self-construal may prioritise the early understanding:
formation of a unique, detailed and articulate personal history, resulting explanation of findings.
in earlier autobiographical memories. In contrast, a relational self-
construal may prioritise instead the retention of knowledge, not
necessarily in the form of autobiographical memories, which is related to
experiences with predominately interpersonal themes. This has a clear
relationship to cultural schemas in the shaping of memory, and again
demonstrates that cultural origins affects cognition to a great extent.
The research discussed above suggests that, while we all conform and all Clarity and
remember our childhoods, the extent to which we do so can be explained organization: after a
through cultural differences, so long as unwarranted assumptions are well organized essay,
not made regarding which are ‘individualist’ and ‘collectivist’ cultures, the conclusion remains
and instead the research carries out cross-cultural comparisons between focused and answered
as many different cultures as possible. Cultural origins can explain the question.
behaviour and cognition to a great extent.
Words: 971
Mark band: 16-22
This essay uses the examples from research well to answer the question, and shows a lot of
knowledge and understanding by mentioning extra research, by Levine and Norenzayan and
Hofstede, to answer the question. The organization and clarity are strong and it would gain marks in
the top descriptor band for all criteria.

Discuss the explanation given by one or more cultural dimensions for behaviour and
cognition.
To ‘discuss’ the explanation given by X for Y, you need to offer a considered and balanced review that
includes a range of arguments, factors or hypotheses. Opinions or conclusions should be presented
clearly and supported by appropriate evidence for or against the explanation.
Matsumoto (1996) defines culture as: “the set of attitudes, values, beliefs, Focus: The
and behaviours shared by a group of people, but different for each introduction explains
individual, communicated from one generation to the next.” The culture and cultural
influence of culture on behaviour and cognition has been investigated by dimensions.
Hofstede (1973) who first developed the theory that cultural dimensions
shape the behaviour and cognition of whole cultures. The original theory
proposed four dimensions along which those cultural values that affect
the population’s behaviour and cognition could be analysed at the country
level: individualism–collectivism; uncertainty avoidance; power distance
(strength of social hierarchy) and masculinity–femininity. Two more
dimensions were added later: short-term and long-term orientation and
indulgence vs. restraint. Hofstede conducted a huge study of IBM
employees between 1971 and 1973 and came to the conclusion that most
of these dimensions could be used universally to describe the norms for
behaviour and cognition in a certain culture.
The influence of the dimension of individualism-collectivism, along which Use of research to

cultures are classified as more or less individualist/collectivist was support answer:
investigated by Levine and Norenzayan (1999). One of their hypotheses Levine and
was that individualist cultures would have a faster pace of life than more Norenzayan’s study is
collectivist cultures. Three measures of the pace of life were sampled in described.
large cities in 31 countries: walking speed, speed of service at the post
office, and accuracy of clocks in randomly selected banks.
They found that Japan and the Western European countries that were not Knowledge and
from the ex-Soviet bloc had the fastest overall pace of life scores, with the understanding: details
nine Western European countries all scoring among the fastest eleven given of the results.
countries. Switzerland was the country with the fastest pace of life. The
middle of the list contained the ex-Soviet bloc European countries, newly-
industrialised Asian countries and the USA. The countries with the Critical thinking: the
slowest pace of life were all non-industrialised countries from the Middle consequences of their
East, Latin America and Asia. Faster paced places also tended to be more findings for behaviour
economically productive—which then raises the awareness of the value of and cognition are
time (cognition) and, subsequently, the pace of life (behaviour). explained.
The cultural dimension of individualism-collectivism seems, therefore, to Critical thinking:

explain behaviour in the respective cultures. However, there are some Discussion of the
omissions from the study. For example, the relationship between the time details of their
it took for the person serving in the post office to complete the transaction findings, and also
and the pace of life did not account for waiting time. The speed of introduction to
transaction could have been a reflection of wanting to clear a long queue multiculturalism as
rather than a general measure of the pace of life. Conditions of pavements counter-evidence.

and crowdedness at certain times of the day could also be extraneous

variables that affected the walking pace.
Moreover, in increasingly multicultural societies, are cultural dimensions

that try to describe, explain and predict the behaviours of whole
populations still relevant? This could be viewed another form of
stereotyping, although Hofstede warns against the ecological fallacy of
assuming that his dimensions apply to everyone in a given culture.
Cultures are not homogeneous entities. Matsumoto (1996) argues that Use of research to
“culture is as much an individual, psychological construct as it is a social support the answer:
construct”, and suggests that research should be conducted to analyse this point is explored
individual behaviour, through observation at the emic level (how further.
individuals behave) and analysis at the etic level to determine if the
behaviour is one that we can identify in large numbers of people from this
particular culture, i.e. a universal behaviour for this culture). In other Critical thinking:
words, we should guard against stereotyping people from one culture as a application of the
particular type, or prone to particular behaviour, without investigating at example of Japan to
an individual level. He also makes the point that cultures are dynamic and Matsumoto’s
ever changing. The example of Japan (a culture many would, because of argument.
its Asian identity, assume to be collectivist) having one of the fastest paces
of life supports Matsumoto’s view.
This is a point that Avruch (1998) develops – that we are all members of Critical thinking:
several different dynamic cultures, and therefore cultural dimensions applying what has
cannot be applied in a unitary and static way. We all belong to kinship been shown in the
cultures, ethnic cultures defined by language and belief, social cultures studies, and linking
based on social class, institutional cultures with unions, political party these results to the
membership, workplace identities, and so on. Thus no population can be question.
adequately characterised as a single culture, and the more complexly
organised a population is the more complex will its cultural mappings
appear.
Finally, because the investigation of cross-cultural differences implies Critical thinking:

comparison on a large-scale, the quantitative methods of large-scale self- methodological
report surveys or meta-analysis of previous research are often used. Their reasons why
great advantage is that they can collect a vast amount of data in a Hofstede’s findings
relatively short time. However, questionnaires are a self-report method may lack internal
with low internal validity as they are subject to participant expectations, validity.
especially the social desirability effect.
Hofstede’s survey had other problems as well as this: it was solely

undertaken within the confines of one transnational company, IBM, and as
such his participants may not have been representative of the population
of these countries as a whole. Moreover, he focuses solely on nations as
the units of culture analysis, and ever-changing national borders means
this is rather out of date, although he argues frequently on his popular site
that cultural dimensions are still relevant.

As stated above, more recent research finds that culture is, in fact, Clarity and
fragmented across group and national lines, and contains a mix of organization: The
individuals whose behaviour and cognitions are far more complex than main argument, of the
one cultural dimension can explain. The exception of Japan, and the fragmentation of
complexity of current cultures, would suggest that it takes more than cultures, is re-stated
binary dimensions to accurately explain people’s behaviour and to pull the essay
cognitions in any particular culture. together.
Words: 945
Mark band: 16-22
This is a difficult essay to write, as using the research to critique Hofstede’s wide-ranging argument
is challenging. However, this student kept their focus throughout and made some good
methodological as well as conceptual arguments. It would gain marks in the top descriptor band of
each criterion.

To what extent can enculturation explain attitudes, identity and behaviours?
‘To what extent’ requires that you consider how much enculturation can explain attitudes, identity
and/or behaviours, and what other explanations there could be. Opinions and conclusions should be
presented clearly and supported with appropriate evidence and sound argument.
Everyone is surrounded by culture – and for those of us living within the

same culture into which we were born, it is our ‘own culture’. Focus: explanation of
Enculturation is the process by which people learn the necessary and enculturation and
appropriate skills and norms in the context of their culture. Even when we explanation of issue
have moved to live elsewhere, we are often surrounded by family and of how much it can
friends of our culture so this process of enculturation continues (through explain behaviour.
socialisation and internalisation), until we are the product of our
enculturation. Theories of enculturation are developed through looking
for cultural universals, using a cross-cultural comparative (etic) approach
to research; and also through an emic approach of narrative interviews
and observations from within a single culture that identifies the individual
process of enculturation. Although the research methods are different, the
theory generated is the same: cultural transmission is the means by which
we are encultured, and this is a largely unconscious process of
internalisation that shapes our attitudes, identity and behaviours.
Enculturation ensures the continuity of cultural practices from one

generation to another through vertical cultural transmission from parents Knowledge and
to children, as well as horizontal cultural transmission through siblings understanding: of
and friends and oblique cultural transmission from other adults and social vertical cultural
institutions. Attitudes, identity and behaviours overlap, with attitudes transmission.
shaping behaviour and being shaped by identity, and identity shaping and
also being shaped by attitudes and behaviour; these will all be considered
together in this essay. At first it would seem that enculturation could
explain all attitudes, identity and behaviours, through the different types
of cultural transmission.
However, of course, people develop their own identity, attitudes and Critical thinking:
behaviours, sometimes in opposition to enculturation. Not all children are considering counter-
encultured by their parents and schools into the same behaviour, and arguments.
arguably, with more and more cultural borders being crossed through
migration and through technology (use of social media cross-culturally for
example) enculturation is beginning to explain attitudes, identity and
behaviour to a much lesser extent than previously.
There is a distinction made in the research, between cultures where Knowledge and
individuals are characterised by an independent self-construal, and those understanding:
where individuals have an interdependent self-construal. An independent Introduction of two
self-construal implies that a person sees themselves as an autonomous types of self-construal
individual separate from others; an interdependent self-construal as passed on through
characterises a person who sees themselves as embedded in their own vertical cultural
social network (Markus and Kitayama, 1991). An independent self- transmission.
construal is characteristic of an individualist culture, while an

interdependent self-construal is characteristic of a collectivist culture.
The identity (self-construal) of the parents affects their vertical cultural

transmission of values to their children and their construal of their
children as autonomous (independent) or relational (interdependent).
Therefore, looking at parenting practices is a good way to measure vertical
cultural transmission and to what extent this affects attitudes, identity and
behaviour of children. Keller et al. (2008) argue that, through generating
contingent responses in their caregivers, infants experience themselves as
the cause for other’s actions, and this fosters an independent
(autonomous) self-construal.
They investigated if and how cross-cultural differences in the pattern of Use of research to
verbal interaction between mothers and infants reflected underlying support answer:
differences between the German middle class culture (Independent details of the study.
construal expected) and Cameroonian Nso farming families
(Interdependent construal expected). The mothers were filmed playing
with their babies, and infant signals, contingent maternal response
(responding to the infant signals), no maternal response, and synchronous
vocalisations were all coded and measured. The results showed that
synchronous responses were higher with the Nso mothers, and the
contingent responses higher with the German mothers. The study
provides some evidence that the temporal structure of early mother–child
interactions follow either co-action (synchronous) or alternating
(contingent) mode, and that the first is associated with an interdependent
self-construal, while the second is commoner with an independent self-
construal. Culture helps determine both how parents interpret the needs
of children and how they react to those needs.
Keller et al.’s study makes an argument for parenting being affected by

culture, as the self-construal of the parents affects their behaviour
towards their children. This behaviour in turn affects the children’s self-
construal as autonomous (independent) when the mother is responding in
a contingent manner to them from infancy onwards and interdependent
when there is synchronous response. However, the study sample sizes
were small (20 German mother-child couples and 28 Cameroonian) and in
order to be sure that the parents’ independent/interdependent self-
construals would in fact result in the same identities for their children, it
Critical thinking:
would be necessary to revisit the mothers and children over the years to
limitations of the
observe interactions and conduct self-reports in order to ensure there is a
study
correlation between not only the mothers’ self-construals and their
communication styles, but also between the children’s subsequent self-
construals. So the extent to which enculturation affects children’s
behaviour remains to be tested further.

Moreover, studies conducted in Latin America and the Caribbean found Critical thinking:
that responsiveness to young children varied between the different intra-cultural
countries that were supposedly part of one culture. Bradley and Corwyn variations. Use of
(2005) detailed how parental responsiveness to children in Paraguay, research to support
Argentina and St. Vincent’s was significantly lower than US norms, but answer.
scores in Costa Rica and Chile were not much lower.
Parenting is influenced by culture to some extent, but any notion that

parenting is highly constricted by cultural models is partially betrayed by
substantial variation observed within and across families from the same Clarity and
culture. Family socio-economic status and demographic patterns have also organization: the
been shown to have an effect. Therefore, enculturation can explain significance of the
parents’ self-construals and communication styles to some extent, but findings was related
only in interaction with parents’ age, their comparative wealth or poverty back to the question
and whether they live in a rural or urban community. throughout.
Words: 931
Mark band: 16-22
This is a good essay that focused on vertical cultural transmission and showed that more studies are
needed to discover the complexities of this. The focus on the question was maintained throughout,
and empirical evidence was given in support of the answer.

Discuss one or more theory of acculturation.
To ‘discuss’ you need to offer a considered and balanced review that includes a range of arguments
regarding the theory or theories. Opinions or conclusions should be presented clearly and supported by
appropriate evidence.
Acculturation is the process of changing and assimilating into a Focus: explanation of

culture different from the one into which we were born. acculturation and
Acculturation is needed if we stay for any extended length of time in identification of it as a
another culture, and especially if we make our home there. It two-way process.
involves learning the language, understanding the cultural norms
and where possible conforming to them. However, it is also the
changes in customs and beliefs that result from the contact of two
or more cultures. This shows that it is a two way process, whereby
the host culture also changes to adapt to the newcomers, as well as
individuals themselves having to adapt.
This is Berry’s (2008) argument: that the process of acculturation Use of research to support
leads to cultural and psychological changes in both parties. Instead answer: identification of
of one rather homogeneous global society ensuing, as the ‘non- theory to be evaluated.
dominant group’ (the minority group) is absorbed into the
dominant culture, the behaviours of those engaged in acculturation
are varied and complex, as acculturation is negotiated through a
mutual, reciprocal process.
He identifies four acculturation strategies used by the non- Knowledge and

dominant group: assimilation (when individuals do not wish to understanding:
maintain their own culture and seek daily interactions with people description of Berry’s
from the dominant culture); separation (avoiding contact with the theory.
dominant culture); integration (when individuals wish to interact
with the dominant culture and be an integral part of this culture,
while also maintaining their own identity); marginalisation (when
individuals have no interest in integration or assimilation into the
dominant culture, even though they have lost their own).
This leads to our first evaluation point: while it is a strength of his Critical thinking: analysis
theory that he identifies the four acculturative strategies, these are of one strength and a
also rather limiting. It may be that members of the non-dominant limitations of Berry’s
group adopt different strategies under different circumstances and theory.
at different times, moving between separation at home and
assimilation at work or school, for example. While Berry might
argue that they are then bicultural and well integrated, this may not
be the case; they may be adopting assimilative behaviour when it
suits them and preferring separation when assimilation is not
required.
Berry’s theory also provides an explanation for acculturative stress. Use of research to support
He says that if the dominant and non-dominant cultures do not answer: more details of
share the same preferences for choice of acculturation strategy, Berry’s study.

then inconsistencies and conflicts between these various

acculturation preferences create difficulty, usually for acculturating Knowledge and
individuals, but sometimes for members of the dominant group. understanding:
Generally, when acculturation experiences cause problems for explanation of
acculturating individuals, or conflict between acculturating groups, acculturative stress.
we observe the phenomenon of acculturative stress. For example,
stress can be created when assimilation is required by the
dominant culture, but a mixture of integration and separation is
what individuals in the non-dominant culture want. It also takes
place when the cultural norms of the dominant and the non-
dominant cultures differ and when a person feels torn between two
or more cultures that have somewhat dissimilar norms. Berry
suggests that integration implies the lowest levels of stress and
conflict between the two cultures, while marginalisation would be
associated with the highest levels of stress.
Berry’s theory has high face validity. It describes attitudes and Critical thinking: another
allows prediction of attitudes, identity and behaviour. The choice of strength of the theory is
a particular acculturative strategy reflects the attitude that an its high face validity.
individual has towards their culture of origin (the non-dominant
culture) and towards the other culture. Organista et al. (2010) point Use of Organista’s
out, in support of the model, that the fewest attitudinal changes on research to support
the part of the individual can be found among individuals who have theory.
chosen the separation strategy and the largest number among those
using the assimilation strategy. Integration, and to some extent
marginalisation, implies a selective process of maintenance and
rejection that involves some individual changes of attitude and
behaviour.
However, Organista et al. also point out that one limitation of Critical thinking: another
Berry’s theory is that it cannot be easily applied to individuals who limitations – the inability
belong to more than two ethnicities or cultures. For example, a child to explain the behaviour of
born of Chinese and Latino parents can choose an integration multicultural individuals.
strategy into the dominant US culture while maintaining the
Chinese and Latino heritage learned from the parents. Berry’s
theory works at this level, but difficulties ensue when the
hypothetical individual wishes to diminish the significance of one of
the cultures of origin and maintain the other. Berry’s acculturation
strategies cannot predict what the pattern of individual behaviour
will be in this situation.
The theory has also been criticised for the lack of construct validity Critical thinking: a second
of the concept of marginalisation. Del Pilar and Udasco (2004) point limitation –
out that this does not accurately explain what happens when people marginalisation critiqued
deliberately isolate themselves from the dominant culture. In fact, as lacking construct
these authors argue, individuals then reframe or reshape their validity.
culture of origin rather than lose the culture and be left ‘cultureless’.

In conclusion, while the constructs used in Berry’s theory have high Clarity and organization:
face validity, marginalisation at least lacks construct validity, and it the significance of the
is questionable whether each construct can apply separately in the evaluation is shown in the
way that Berry suggests. Organista et al.’s criticism, that the theory final sentence. Refers
cannot accommodate individuals from two or more cultures who back to the question.
decide to prioritise one above the other and also integrate into the
‘host’ culture, suggests that our multicultural world is changing
faster than a static theoretical model can accommodate. It may be
that a structural model cannot accurately explain a dynamic process
of acculturation.
Words: 882
Mark band: 16-22
This is a very good essay that gives a detailed evaluation of Berry’s theory of acculturation. The
points made are supported by research, and the conclusion is strong. The focus on the question was
maintained throughout.

Discuss the influence of globalization on individual behaviour.
For ‘discuss’ you need to offer a considered and balanced review that includes a range of arguments,
factors or hypotheses regarding the influence of globalization on individual behaviour. Opinions or
conclusions should be presented clearly and supported by appropriate evidence.
Globalization is represented by the growing interconnectedness of

economic, social and cultural networks, through trade, information
technology and travel. The psychological changes that accompany this Focus on the question of
are what interest sociocultural psychologists. Globalization brings intergroup contact and
people of different cultures into physical and virtual contact with each the influence when
other. This affects cross-cultural attitudes and behaviour, as they begin different cultures come
to know more about each other. The influence of globalization on into contact with each
behaviour depends on the position that the person occupies in relation other.
to the information technology and social and cultural networks. Like all
changes, globalization can have both positive and negative effects.
Gordon Allport’s (1954) intergroup contact theory proposed that Use of research to
increased contact between ethnic groups living in close proximity (and support the answer.
we can now include virtual connections through social networks) would
increase their knowledge about each other and thereby decrease
prejudice. He stressed that the positive effects of intergroup contact
occur only in situations marked by four key conditions: equal group
status within the situation; common goals; intergroup cooperation, and
the support of authorities, law or custom.
However, often the intergroup contact generated by globalization is not Use of research to
that between equals who have common goals. Arnett (2002) developed support the answer.
a theory of the effect of globalization on the behaviour of young people Arnett’s argument
in particular, who are often in a less powerful position than other adult regarding globalization
groups. He describes how adolescents, as emerging adults with enough leading to identity
maturity and autonomy to explore non-traditional possibilities, are confusion in bicultural
primarily affected by the identity issues accompanying globalization. He adolescents.
notes that while globalization has affected virtually all regions, urban
areas have been more affected by the Western-led, free-market
consumerism and individualism that characterises globalization, and
this has led to a clash between traditional values and the values of the
global culture. Arnett argues that the influence on identity development
and consequent behaviour has been a mixture of positive and negative.
Many young people have developed a bicultural identity, with part of
their behaviour rooted in their local tradition, and the other part, their
global identity, leading to behaviour that contradicts traditional beliefs.
Because the adolescents have one identity at work and with their peers
and one ‘local’ identity at home with their family, this can lead to
increasing identity confusion. Erikson’s (1968) developmental
psychology theory of identity confusion in adolescence is relevant here, Knowledge and
and Arnett argued it could be used to explain how identity confusion understanding shown of
may be reflected in behaviours such as depression and substance use. Arnett’s theory.

Others choose to form ‘sub-cultures’ with like-minded persons who

wish to withdraw from the global culture and behave in opposition to
globalization. These could be fundamentalist movements, religious or
secular groups.
Related to Arnett’s argument that one effect of globalization is identity Use of research to
confusion in young people is the argument by Bhugra and Mastrogianni support answer: Bhugra
(2004) that globalization has also resulted in progressive spatial & Mastrogianni extend
segregation, separation and exclusion that, combined with a sense of the argument that
alienation, can increase the stress of vulnerable individuals. They argue globalization can
that globalization will increase the challenges of cross-cultural diagnosis increase stress and
and treatment of depression, as it is likely to influence both expressions depression, and also
of symptoms (what they call ‘idioms of distress’) and how care is given, change how these are
in ways that are difficult to predict. diagnosed.
They conducted a meta-analysis of a large number of studies and

analyses from different cultures. The experience of depression is
recognisable across different cultures, although there are different local
expressions of symptoms. Clashes of cultures caused by globalization
are seen as responsible for stress and depression, the example being Knowledge and
given is that of self-harm by young Indian women living in London in understanding of the
1999, which was attributed to social and cultural stress. research shown.
Explanation of Bhugra
Regarding expressions of symptoms and treatments: when depressed, and Mastrogianni’s
help may be sought from families, friends and traditional healers rather arguments.
than professionals. Despite stating that expressions of symptoms and
the nature of care-giving will change in unknown ways, Bhugra and
Mastrogianni point out that, eventually, with globalization bringing the
need to be seen as modern and progressive, across cultures beliefs
about depression and treatment will probably change to a more
medicalized model.
While Arnett, Bhugra and Mastrogianni view globalization as a mixture Knowledge and
of positive and negative, by opening up possibilities but also increasing understanding: more
stress, Allport’s theory of increased contact under conditions of equality support for Allport, from
being positive is supported by Chiu et al. (2011). They argue that Chiu.
globalization and the resulting multiculturalism have been shown to
foster creativity by inspiring novel, creative ideas, as long as emotional, Critical thinking: how
exclusionary reactions are avoided, which does seem to be the vital Allport’s theory cannot
point. Allport does not address exactly how intergroup contact can be explain all influences of
globalization
kept positive to ensure that it decreases prejudice, and he also ignores
the fact that attitudes and experiences affect whether people even seek
intergroup contact. Therefore his theory cannot explain all the
influences of globalization.

In conclusion, the influence of globalization on individual behaviour Critical thinking: final

can be varied: under ideal conditions, the intergroup contact that is synthesis of the
engendered can result in creativity and open up possibilities; under arguments.
less favourable conditions it can produce stress and depression, and
the unavoidable strain between traditional and global values is Clarity and organization
particularly hard on the mental health of young people growing up with shown throughout.
a bicultural identity
Words: 841
Mark band: 16-22
This is a well-constructed essay that pulls together several arguments about the influence
globalization. It shows the positive and negative effects, and why these happen under different
conditions. It would gain marks in the top descriptor.

Discuss methods used to investigate the effects of globalization on individual behaviour.
For ‘discuss’ you need to offer a considered and balanced review that includes a range of arguments,
factors or hypotheses regarding the methods used. Opinions or conclusions should be presented clearly
and supported by appropriate evidence.
Most of the methods used to investigate the effects of globalization on Focus on the question:
behaviour are etic methods of cross-cultural comparison. Meta-analyses An outline of the main
of previous cross-cultural studies (secondary data) often serve to methods used in
generate hypotheses concerning globalization, while the primary research into the effects
research methods are large-scale, cross-cultural surveys involving of globalization on
questionnaires. Experimental methods, mainly quasi–experiments individual behaviour.
where participants are assigned to groups by culture, and some
triangulation of methods are also used.
Arnett (2002) is a good example of the cross-cultural etic approach Use of research to
using meta-analysis of previous research in his exploration of the effects support answer: Two
of globalization on adolescents in different cultures, including Russia, examples of meta-
Latin America and the Middle East. Because it was not his own research, analysis given and
but based on secondary sources, Arnett was not able to identify the discussed.
reasons for the adolescents’ behaviour, and he may overestimate the
power of individual choice of adolescents and young adults who may, Critical thinking:
indeed, be making choices, but not necessarily in the total freedom he example from the first
implied. Often the common decision to stay longer in education, for piece of research
example, is made in the face of growing unemployment rather than analysed and applied.
increasing wealth.
The research of Bhugra and Mastrogianni (2003) took the same

approach, with a meta-analysis of a large number of studies and
analyses from different cultures. The exact number is not stated, but the
article contains 91 references. Results of studies from the late 1980s,
1990s and early 2000s were analysed, and depression serves as an
example in the discussion of the impact of globalization on the
prevalence of mental disorders and behavioural expressions of
symptoms. However, again, the personal narrative is missing.
The Pew Research Center global survey in 2014 (published 2016) Use of research to
collected data face-to-face and over the telephone from 1000 or more support answer: large
respondents from 51 countries worldwide. Respondents from seven questionnaire-based
countries, who represented the dominant culture in each case, were survey. Knowledge and
asked to choose which of a pair of statements was nearest to what they understanding: details
believed. The results of this survey show that structural changes in a given of the survey.
culture can be related to individual cultural attitudes. Greece and Italy
felt strongly that immigrants were a burden; these are the two countries
that in 2014 were receiving the highest numbers of refugees from
conflicts in Africa (Italy) and the Middle East and Asia (Greece).

Meta-analyses and surveys gather large amounts of data that can be Critical thinking:
analysed statistically, ranked and prioritised in order to give a broad discussion of the role of
picture of individual behaviour in response to globalization. The etic research.
conclusions often seem descriptive (just describing what is observed)
rather than explanatory or predictive. However, even just describing the
behaviour of a large number of people can be used to generate testable
hypotheses.
Experimental methods are employed by researchers, for example, to Knowledge and

investigate the bicultural exposure effect. Participants are often US understanding of
university students of Chinese or Asian origin and the experiments experimental methods
involve comparing their responses with those of European origin. shown, and drawbacks
Therefore, the results of these cannot be generalized to those affected by described.
globalization living in other parts of the world. There is still a need for
more multiple cultural perspectives. We cannot argue that even first-
generation Chinese or Indian immigrants in the US are typical of their
counterparts back in Asia.
Responses to questionnaires often lack internal validity because of the Critical thinking:
social desirability effect that leads the responders to exaggerate their analysis of the
own positive qualities in order to boost their self-esteem. Experimental drawbacks of
results also lack validity, as the behaviour of the participants cannot be quantitative methods.
said to be that which they would display in a real situation. Therefore,
triangulation of methods, with etic research supplemented by a more
emic approach using individual and focus group interviews, would give
a more holistic picture.
This triangulation of methods was used by Lyons-Padilla et al. (2015) in Use of research to
their research into how globalization can be responsible for the support answer:
marginalization that leads to radicalization. They conducted anonymous triangulation of methods
interviews of 20 Muslim Americans and a survey questionnaire of 198 and research into
Muslim Americans’ attitudes and beliefs, the results of which suggested globalization.
that more intercultural contact could also increase prejudice, rather
than diminish it. The interviews were used to generate salient questions
for the questionnaires by identifying items of importance to the Muslim
immigrants to the US. They tried to control for social desirability by
stressing the anonymity of the interviews and questionnaires, and by
wording the questions hypothetically rather than directly, especially
when asking about possible membership of radical organisations.
Rudmin (2003) argues that researchers should use qualitative methods Use of research to
to understand the motivations and emic perspectives of the minority support answer.
and majority groups. There is indeed a lack of emic methods used in
research into the effects of globalization on individual behaviour. This is
possible because when thinking cross-culturally, a large-scale
comparison of different cultures in order to identify universals in Critical thinking:
behaviour would seem logically to be the preferred method, but it omits explanation of why etic
the personal, individual impact on different people within a culture. research is used.

In conclusion, cross-cultural quantitative research, such as meta- Clarity and organization:

analyses, surveys and experiments generate large amounts of data that demonstrated
can be used for comparative purposes to examine the effects of throughout.
globalization on individual behaviours. However, qualitative research is
also needed to supply the meaning of globalization to the individual, and
especially to look at differences within cultures, as well as between
them.
Words: 882
Mark band: 16-22
This is a good essay that engages with the discussion over methods, using plenty of examples to
support the argument that there is a need for more emic research. Critical thinking is displayed, as is
extensive knowledge and understanding of the research. This would gain a mark in the top
descriptor band.

More IB Psychology revision and support at:
www.tutor2u.net/psychology
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IB DIPLOMA

LAURA SWASH & Joseph Sparks

To what extent can social cognitive theory explain individual behaviour?

Evaluate one theory of stereotype formation.

Contrast two theories or studies on the effect of stereotypes.

Evaluate research methods used to investigate the relationship between individuals

Discuss ethical considerations with sociocultural research into the relationship

To what extent can cultural origins explain behaviour and cognition?

To what extent can enculturation explain attitudes, identity and/or behaviours?

Discuss one or more theory of acculturation

Discuss the influence of globalization on individual behaviour.

Discuss methods used to investigate the effects of globalization on individual

Evaluate social identity theory.

The researchers randomly allocated 48 schoolboy participants to 3 Knowledge,

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Howarth conducted focus-group interviews with adolescents living in Use of research to

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in reaction to what others think; that it is not the membership of the

Mark band: 16-22

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To what extent can social cognitive theory explain individual behaviour?

A complex independent measures design was used where children were

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process of reciprocal determinism, to affect one another. For example, our

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Evaluate one theory of stereotype formation.

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Perdue et al.’s experiments demonstrated the automatic processes

In conclusion, both of the experiments set up to demonstrate how Clarity and

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Contrast two theories or studies on the effect of stereotypes.

At the end of the task, the participant completed a questionnaire evaluating

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In a well-designed and controlled lab experiment, the participants are

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Signed consent is required from the participants (or parents or legal

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To what extent can cultural origins explain behaviour and cognition?

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demonstrated that Japanese participants in Asch’s experiment

The rate of conformity found was 25.2%, with 14 participants not

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The influence of the dimension of individualism-collectivism, along which Use of research to

The cultural dimension of individualism-collectivism seems, therefore, to Critical thinking:

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and crowdedness at certain times of the day could also be extraneous

Moreover, in increasingly multicultural societies, are cultural dimensions

Finally, because the investigation of cross-cultural differences implies Critical thinking:

Hofstede’s survey had other problems as well as this: it was solely

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To what extent can enculturation explain attitudes, identity and behaviours?

Everyone is surrounded by culture – and for those of us living within the

Enculturation ensures the continuity of cultural practices from one

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interdependent self-construal is characteristic of a collectivist culture.

The identity (self-construal) of the parents affects their vertical cultural