Solution Manual Advance Solar

Chapter 1 Problems and Solution
Energy and Civilization

1.1 Perform the following: write a 3000 word report summarizing the Kyoto Protocol
(http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/items/2830.php)
i) Compute the simple operating margin CO2 footprint factor for a power grid load of 6000 MW,
if it is supplied by 50 coal fired units with a capacity of 100 MW, 10 oil-fired generators with a
capacity of 50 MW, and 10 gas-fired generators with a capacity of 50 MW. ii) If the grid loads of
6000 MW is supplied equally from gas-fired, wind and solar powered generators each.
Solution:
i) The simple operating margin CO2 footprint factor is calculated as the amount of CO2
emissions of all units supplying power to a grid during a year. The simple operating
margin footprint factor has a unit of ton of CO2 per MWh (tCO2/MWh). According to
Kyoto Protocol,
n
∑ x .y i i
Z= i =1
n
∑x i =1
i
where
Z = Simple operating margin CO2 emission factor (lb-CO2/kWh)
xi= Net electricity power generated by unit i (kWh)
yi = CO2 emission factor of unit i (lb-CO2/kWh)
n = number of units in operation
The simple operating margin can be calculated from two sources: table 1.2 and table 1.4 using
two different unit systems.
Conversion in Metric system to English system is needed to solve this problem. The
conversion from BTU to Watt is given below.
P = energy / time
Watt = Joule/ Sec.
Watt-Sec= Joule
A BTU (British thermal unit) measures the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of
1 lb of water by one degree Fahrenheit (1°F). It is equivalent to the measures used for energy
or work, i.e., a joule or W·sec.
Energy needed to raise the temperature in BTU = (specific heat of the material). (mass in lb) .
(change in temperature in F)
Or in metric system, the specific heat of water is given as
J
Specific heat of water = 4 . 186
g .° C
Therefore, heat needed to raise 1 g of water by 1 °C = 4.186 J
Therefore, heat needed for 453.5 g (= 1 lb) by 1 °C
= 4 . 186 × 453 . 5 = 1898 J
Converting one degree F to metric system in degree C, we have
One degree F = 0.556 C
Heat needed for 1 lb of water to raise by 1 °F (= 0.556 °C) is expressed as
One BTU = 1898 × 0 . 556 = 1055 J
From definition of BTU, one BTU is equal to amount of heat needed to raise 1 lb of water by
one degree Fahrenheit (F).
Therefore, from above, we have
1 BTU = 1055 J
One BTU= 1055 joule
1055 watt . sec = 1 BTU
= 1055 W × 1 hour = 1 BTU

3600
3600
= Wh = BTU
1055
= Wh = 3 . 41 BTU
= kWh = 3 . 41 × 10 3 BTU
ii)
Based on Table 1.2 we have the following data on CO2 carbon footprints.
Table 1.2. Carbon Footprint of Various Fossil Fuels for Production of 1 kWh of Electric
Energy27 (Low Impact Life Onboard. Carbon footprints. Available at
http://www.liloontheweb.org.uk/handbook/carbonfootprint. Accessed 2010 Nov 9)
Fuel Type CO2 Footprint
(lb CO2/kWh)
Wood 3.306
Coal-fired plant 2.117
Gas-fired plant 1.915
Oil-fired plant 1.314
Combined-cycle 0.992
gas
Table 1.4. Fossil Fuel Emission Levels in Pounds of pollutant per Billion BTU of Energy Input.27
(Low Impact Life Onboard. Carbon footprints. Available at
http://www.liloontheweb.org.uk/handbook/carbonfootprint. Accessed 2010 Nov 9)
Natural
Oil (lb Coal (lb
Gas(lb
Pollutant /billion /billion
/billion
BTU) BTU)
BTU)
Carbon
dioxide (CO2 117,000 164,000 208,000
)
Carbon
Monoxide, 40 33 208
CO
Nitrogen
92 448 457
oxides
Sulfur
1 1,122 2,591
dioxide
Particulates 7 84 2,744
Mercury 0.000 0.007 0.016
Number of hours in one year = 24 × 365 = 8760 h

kWh generated by coal in one year = 50 × 100 × 8760 × 10 3 = 43.8 × 10 9 kWh
kWh generated by gas in one year = 10 × 50 × 8760 × 10 3 = 4.38 × 10 9 kWh
kWh generated by oil in one year = 10 × 50 × 8760 × 10 3 = 4.38 × 10 9 kWh
From table 1.2, the simple operating margin =

43.8 × 10 9 × 2.117 + 4.38 × 10 9 × 1.915 + 4.38 × 10 9 × 1.314
Zj =
43.8 × 10 9 + 4.38 × 10 9 + 4.38 × 10 9
= 2.0332 lb of CO 2 / kWh
Total kWh in one year = 6000 × 10 × 8760 = 5.2560 × 10 kWh
3 10
Total CO2 in one year = 5.2560 × 10 × 2.0332 = 106.86 × 10 lb of CO 2

10 9
Total BTU = 5.2560 × 10 × 3.41 × 10 = 17.9230 × 10 BTU

10 3 13
1 kWh = 3.41 thousand BTU

We can rewrite the simple operating margin in term BTU by converting lb of Co2/kWh. to lb of
co2/BTU
2.0332
Zj = = 0.59625 × 10 -3 lb of CO 2 / BTU
3.41 × 1000
Z j = 0.59625 × 10 -3 × 109 = 596,250 lb of CO 2 / billion BTU

From table 1.4,
BTU generated by coal in one year = 43.8 × 10 9 × 3.41 × 10 3 = 149 .35 × 10 3 billion BTU
BTU generated by gas in one year = 4.38 × 10 9 × 3.41 × 10 3 = 14.935 × 10 3 billion BTU
BTU generated by oil in one year = 4.38 × 10 9 × 3.41 × 10 3 = 14.935 × 10 3 billion BTU
Simple operating margin,

149.35 × 10 3 × 208,000 + 14.935 × 10 3 × 164,000 + 14.935 × 10 3 × 117,000
Zj =
14.935 × 10 3 + 14.935 × 10 3 + 14.935 × 10 3
= 196,750 lb of CO 2 / billion BTU
Total CO2 in one year = 196,750 × 17.9230 × 1013 / 10 9 = 35.264 × 10 9 lb of CO 2
The results obtained form table 1.2 and 1.4 are different. That is because the two sources
have used different qualities of coal, natural gas and oil to analyze the CO2 content.
iii) The simple operating margin can be calculated from the data in table 1.3
Table 1.3. Carbon Footprint of Green and Renewable Sources for Production
of 1 kWh of Electric Energy.27
Fuel Type CO2 Footprint
(lb Co2/kWh)
Hydroelectric 0.0088
PV 0.2204
Wind 0.03306
6000
The power generated by each of the units = = 2000 MW
3
kWh generated by each unit in one year = 2000 × 8760 × 10 3 = 17.52 × 10 9 kWh
From table 1.2 and 1.3,
17.52 × 10 9 × 1.915 + 17.52 × 10 9 × 0.03306 + 17.52 × 10 9 × 0.2204

Simple Operating margin Z j =
17.52 × 10 9 + 17.52 × 10 9 + 17.52 × 10 9
= 0.7228 lb of CO 2 / kWh
Total CO2 in one year = 5.2560 × 1010 × 0.7228 = 37.99 × 10 9 lb of CO 2
1 Wh = 3.41 BTU

Therefore,
0.7228
Zj = = 0.212 × 10 -3 lb of CO 2 / BTU
3.41 × 1000
Z j = 0.212 × 10 -3 × 10 9 = 212,000 lb of CO 2 / billion BTU

3 10
Total BTU in one year = 5.2560 × 10 × 3.41 × 10 = 17.9230 × 10 BTU

10 3 13
Total CO2 in one year = 212,000 × 17.9230 × 10 13 / 10 9 = 37.997 × 10 9 lb of CO 2
1.2. For one year of operation, using the data in table 1.4 perform the following:
i) The carbon footprint of 500 W if coal is used to produce the electric power.
ii) The carbon footprint of a 500 W bulb if natural gas is used to produce the electric power.
iii) The carbon footprint of a 500 W bulb if wind is used to produce the electric power.
iv) The carbon footprint of a 500 W bulb if PV energy is used to produce the electric power.
Solution
1
Since 1 BTU = W . h = 0 . 293 W . h , therefore, one thousand BTU= 293 Wh and one
3 . 41
million BTU= 293 kWh. From the table 1.4, pounds of CO2 emission per billion BTU of
energy input for coal is 208,000 lb, and that of natural gas is: 117,000 lb.
Hours in one year = 24 × 365 = 8,760 h

Energy consumed in one year = 500 × 10 −3 × 8760 = 4,380 kWh
= 3.41 × 10 3 × 4,380 = 14,935.8 × 10 3 BTU
i) From table 1.4, Carbon foot print with coal as fuel =
14,935.8 × 10 3 × 208000
= 3,106 lb of CO 2
10 9
1 kg = 2.2 lb. or 1 lb. = 0.45 kg

Therefore, the carbon footprint = 3106 × 0 .45 lb = 1,395 kg of CO 2
From table 1.2, Carbon foot print with coal fuel =
4,380 × 2.117 = 9,272 lb of CO 2
The difference in the value may be due to the quality of fuels might differ.
ii) From Table 1.4, Carbon foot print with gas as fuel =
14,935.8 × 10 3 × 117000
= 1,747 lb of CO 2
10 9
Therefore, the carbon footprint = 1, 747 × 0 .45 lb = 786 kg of CO 2
From table 1.2, Carbon foot print with gas as fuel =
4,380 × 1.915 = 8,387 lb of CO 2
iii) From table 1.3, Carbon foot print with wind farm generating power
4 ,380 × 0 .03306 = 144 .8 lb of CO 2
Therefore, the carbon footprint = 144 .8 × 0.45 = 65 .16 kg of CO 2
iv) Carbon foot print with PV farm generating power
4,380 × 0.2204 = 965.3 lb of CO 2
Therefore, the carbon footprint = 965 .3 × 0.45 = 434 .38 kg of CO 2
1.3 Compute the money saved in one month by using a CFL (compact fluorescent light) bulb (18
W) instead of using an incandescent light bulb (60 W) if the cost of electricity is $ 0.12 per kWh.
Assume the lights are used for 10 hours a day.
Solution
Power saved when CFL light bulb is used instead of incandescent light bulb = 60 − 18 = 42 W
Number of hours the bulb is used in a year = Hours per day × number of days in a month =
10 × 30 = 300 h
Energy saved in one month = power × hours = 42 × 300 × 10 −3 = 12.6 kWh
Money saved in one month = cost per unit × no. of units = 0.12 × 12.6 = $1.51
1.4 Compute the carbon footprint of the light bulb of Problem 1.3 if natural gas is used as fuel to
generate electricity. How much more will the carbon footprint are increased if the fuel used is
coal?
Solutions
From the table 1.4, pounds of CO2 emission per billion BTU of energy input for coal is: 208,000
lb of CO2/ billion BTU
And that of natural gas is: 117,000 lb of CO2/ billion BTU
Hours used in one year = 10 × 365 = 3650 h
Energy consumed by incandescent light bulb = 3650 × 60 × 10 −3 = 219 kWh
= 3.41 × 10 3 × 219 = 746.79 × 10 3 BTU
Energy consumed by CFL light bulb = 3650 × 18 × 10 −3 = 65.7 kWh
= 3.41 × 10 3 × 65.7 = 224.04 × 10 3 BTU
Carbon foot print for incandescent light bulb with natural gas as fuel =
746.79 × 10 3 × 117000
= 87.374 lb of CO 2
10 9
Carbon foot print for CFL light bulb with natural gas as fuel =
224.04 × 10 3 × 117000
= 26.300 lb of CO 2
10 9
Carbon foot print for incandescent light bulb with coal as fuel =
746.79 × 10 3 × 208000
= 155.332 lb of CO 2
10 9
Carbon foot print for CFL light bulb with coal as fuel =
224.04 × 10 3 × 208000
= 46.756 lb of CO 2
10 9
Amount of carbon footprint more with coal for incandescent light bulb = 155.332 − 87.374
= 67.957 lb of CO 2
Amount of carbon footprint more with coal for CFL light bulb = 46.600 − 26.212
= 20.387 lb of CO 2
From table 1.2, the difference in carbon foot print in coal and natural gas = 2.117 − 1.915
= 0.202 lb of CO 2 / kWh
Therefore, amount of carbon footprint more with incandescent light bulb =
= 0.202 × 219 = 44.23 lb of CO 2
Therefore, amount of carbon footprint more with CFL lamp = 0.202 × 65.7 = 13.27 lb of CO 2
1.5 Will an electric oven rated at 240 V and 1200 W provide the same heat if connected to a
voltage of 120 V? If not, how much power will it consume now?
Solution
No, the oven will not give the same power output at 120 V
Power consumed by a device ∝ (voltage )
2
2
⎛ 120 ⎞
Therefore, the power consumed by the oven at 120 V = 1200 × ⎜ ⎟ = 300 W
⎝ 240 ⎠
1.6 If the emission factor of producing electric power by PV cells is 100 g of CO2 per kWh, by
wind power is 15 g of CO2 per kWh, and by coal is 1000 g of CO2 per kWh, then find the ratio of
CO2 emission when (a) 15% of power comes from wind farms, (b) 5% from a PV source, and (c)
the rest from coal as opposed to when all power is supplied by coal-run power stations.
Solution
Emission when wind power, PV and coal is used to produce 1 kWh of energy =
0.15 × 15 + 0.05 × 100 + (1 − 0.15 − 0.05) × 1000 = 807.25 g of CO 2
The emission with all-coal power plant = 1000 g of CO 2
Therefore, the emission with renewable energy is reduced to 80.7% as opposed to coal.
1.7 Compute the operating margin of the emission factor of a power plant with three units with
the following specifications over one year:
Unit Generation Emission Factor
(MW) (lb. of CO2/MWh)
1 160 1000
2 200 950
3 210 920
Solution
Hours in one year = 24 × 365 = 8760 h
Energy consumed in one year by 160 MW unit = 160 × 8760 = 1.40 × 10 6 MWh
Energy consumed in one year by 200 MW unit = 160 × 8760 = 1.75 × 10 6 MWh
Energy consumed in one year by 210 MW unit = 210 × 8760 = 1.84 × 10 6 kWh
∑ x .y i i
Z= i =1
n
∑x i =1
i
where
Z = Simple operating margin CO2 emission factor (lb-CO2/MWh)
xi= Net electricity power generated by unit i (MWh)
yi = CO2 emission factor of unit i (lb-CO2/MWh)
n = number of units in operation
∑ x .y i i
Z= i =1
n
∑x i =1
i
1.40 × 10 6 × 1000 + 1.75 × 10 6 × 950 + 1.84 × 10 6 × 920

= = 952.98 lb of CO 2 / MWh
1.40 × 10 6 + 1.75 × 10 6 + 1.84 × 10 6
1.8 If the initial installation cost of a thermal power plant of 100 MW is 2 million dollars and
that of a PV farm of the same capacity is 300 million dollars, and the running cost of the thermal
power plant is $90 per MWh and that of PV farm is $12 per MWh then find the time in years
needed for the PV farm to become economical if 90% of the plant capacity is utilized in each
case.
Solution
The total cost of installation and running a thermal power plant for t years =
2 × 10 6 + 0.9 × 100 × 24 × 365 × 90 × t
The total cost of installation and running a PV farm for t years=

300 × 10 6 + 0.9 × 100 × 24 × 365 × 12 × t
For the cost to be equal,
2 × 106 + 0.9 × 100 × 24 × 365 × 90 × t = 300 × 106 + 0.9 × 100 × 24 × 365 × 12 × t
Or 0.9 × 100 × 24 × 365 × 90 × t − 0.9 × 100 × 24 × 365 × 12 × t = 300 × 10 − 2 × 10
6 6
Or 61,495,200 × t = 298 × 10 6
298 × 10 6
Therefore, the time required for PV to be more economical = t = = 4.85 years
61,495,200
1.9 Consider a feeder that is rated 120 V and serving five light bulbs. Loads are rated 120 V and
120 W. All light loads are connected in parallel. If the feeder voltage is dropped by 20%,
compute the following:
i) The power consumption by the loads on the feeder in watts
ii) The percentage of reduction in illumination by the feeders
iii) The amount of carbon footprint if coal is used to produce the energy
Solution
i) The power carried by feeder at 120 V = 5 × 120 = 600 W
⎛ 0.8 × 120 ⎞
2
The power carried at 20% reduced voltage = 600 × ⎜ ⎟ = 384 W

⎝ 120 ⎠
600 − 384
ii) Percent reduction in power = = 36%
600
Since illumination is directly proportional to the power,
Percent reduction in illumination = 36%
iii) The energy consumed in one year = 384 × 10 −3 × 24 × 365 = 3363 .84 kWh
3.41 × 10 3 × 3363.84 = 11,470,694.4 BTU
Hence, carbon footprint for coal from table 1.4 =
11,470,694.4 × 208000
= = 2,385.9 lb of CO 2
10 9
Hence, carbon footprint for coal from table 1.2 = 3363 .84 × 2 .117 = 7121 lb of CO 2
1.10 The same as Problem 1.9, except a refrigerator rated 120 V and 120 W is also connected to
the feeder and voltage is dropped by 30%.
i) Compute the power consumption by the loads on the feeder in watts

ii) Compute the percentage of reduction in illumination by the feeders
iii) Do you expect any of the loads on the feeder to be damaged?
iv) Compute the amount of carbon footprint if coal is used to produce the energy
(Hint: a 40 W incandescent light bulb produces approximately 500 lumens of light)
Solution
i) The power carried by feeder at 120 V = 5 × 120 + 120 = 720 W
⎛ 0.7 × 120 ⎞
2
The power carried at 20% reduced voltage = 720 × ⎜ ⎟ = 352.8 W

⎝ 120 ⎠
( )
ii) Percent reduction in power = 100 12 − 0.7 2 = 51%
Percent reduction in illumination = 51%
iii) The motors connected to the feeder will also be subjected under-voltage and will cause
reduction in torque to support its load and motor will be running at much lower speed and
motor will heat up and over time will burn the motor coils.
iv) The energy consumed in one year = 352 .8 × 10 −3 × 24 × 365 = 3090 .53 kWh
3.41 × 10 3 × 3090.53 = 10,538,707.3 BTU
Hence, carbon footprint for coal from tab. 1.4 =
10,538,707.3 × 208000
= = 2,192.05 lb of CO 2
10 9
Hence, carbon footprint for coal from table 1.2 = 3090.53 × 2.117 = 6,542 lb of CO 2
1.11 The same as Problem 1.9, except a refrigerator rated 120 W is also connected to the feeder
and voltage is raised by 30%.
i) Compute the power consumption by the loads on the feeder in watts
ii) Compute the percentage of reduction in illumination by the feeders
iii) Do you expect any of the loads on the feeder to be damaged?
iv) Compute the amount of carbon footprint if coal is used to produce the energy
Solution
i) The power carried by the feeder at 120 V = 5 × 120 + 120 = 720 W
⎛ 1.3 × 120 ⎞
2
The power carried at 30% increased voltage = 720 × ⎜ ⎟ = 1,216.8 W

⎝ 120 ⎠
ii) ( )
Percent increase in power = 100 1.3 2 − 12 = 69%
Percent increase in illumination = 69%
iii) The devices connected to the feeder may be affected in two ways: a) there
may be voltage breakdown of insulators, b) the current through the devices
will increase and contribute towards power loss and increase the
temperature of the device which may cause burnout of light bulb and
motor over time..
iv) The energy consumed in one year =
1216.8 × 10 −3 × 24 × 365 = 10,659.17 kWh
3.41 × 10 3 × 10,659.17 = 36,347,769.7 BTU
Hence, carbon footprint for coal from table 1.4=
36,347,769.7 × 208000
= 7,560.33 lb of CO 2
10 9
Hence, carbon footprint for coal from table 1.2 = 10 , 659 . 17 × 2 . 117 = 22 ,565 lb of CO 2
1.12 Compute the CO2 emission factor in pounds of CO2 per BTU for a unit in a plant that is
supplied by coal, oil, and natural gas if 0.3 million tons of coal, 0.1 million barrels of oil, and 0.8
million cubic feet of gas have been consumed over one year. The average power produced over
the period was 210 MW. Use the following data and the data of Table 1.4 for computation: a ton
of coal has 25 million BTU; a barrel (i.e., 42 gallons) of oil has 5.6 million BTU; a cubic foot of
natural gas has 1030 BTU.
Solution
Total number of hours in one year = 24 × 365 = 8760

The energy produced in one year = 210 × 10 3 × 8760 = 1839 .6 × 10 6 kWh
= 1839.6 × 10 6 × 3.41 × 10 3 = 6,273.04 × 10 9 BTU
n
∑ f .Q .y
i i i
Z= i =1
where,
Z = CO2 emission factor of generating unit (lb-CO2/BTU)
fi = fuel of type i consumed by a generating unit per year (mass or volume unit)
Qi = heat energy of fuel type i in BTU per ton of coal, in BTU per gallon of oil or in BTU per
cubic feet of natural gas
yi = CO2 emission factor of fossil fuel type i (lb-CO2/BTU)
x = Net power delivered to power grid in BTU
n = total number of units.
Here,
9
x = 6,273.04 × 10 BTU
f coal = 0.3 × 10 6 tons of CO 2
Q coal = 25 × 10 6 BTU / ton of coal ,
From table 1.4, y coal = 208,000 lb per billion BTU
f oil = 0.1 × 10 6 barrels of oil
Q oil = 5.6 × 10 6 BTU / barrel of oil ,

From table 1.4, y oil = 164,000 lb of CO 2 per billion BTU
f gas = 0.8 × 10 6 cubic feet of gas
Q gas = 1030 BTU / cubic feet of gas ,
From table 1.4, y gas = 117,000 lb of CO 2 per billion BTU
Therefore,
⎛ 0.3 × 10 6 × 25 × 10 6 × 208000 × 10 −9 + 0.1 × 10 6 × 5.6 × 10 6 × 164000 × 10 −9 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎜ + 0.8 × 10 6 × 1030 × 117000 × 10 −9 ⎟
Z=⎝ ⎠
6,273.04 × 10 9
= 0.263 × 10 −3 lb of CO 2 per BTU

3 9
Total BTU in one year = 1.839 × 10 × 3.41 × 10 = 6.271 × 10 BTU

9 3 12
Total CO2 in one year = 0.263 × 10 −3 × 6.271 × 1012 = 1.649 × 10 9 lb of CO 2

Chapter 2
Power Grids
2.1 Assume a =120 + j 100, b = 100 + j 150 and c = 50 + j 80. Compute the following
complex numbers:
i) (a × b) / c
ii) (a / b) × c
iii) (a − b) /(c − a)
Solutions
i) 234 + j 184
ii) 61 + j 54
iii) − 0.075 + j 0.74
2.2 Assume V = 120cos(377t + 5°) .If a voltmeter is used to measure this voltage, what
value should the voltmeter read? Express this voltage in polar form.
Solution
The voltmeter will read 120 / 2 = 84 .85 V
V = 120∠5°
2.3 The operation of AC machines (in particular, transformers and induction machines)
can be studied with the aid of the T-circuit shown in Fig. 2.65 below.
Figure 2.65 Equivalent Circuit for Problem 2.3.
Assume the frequency is 60 Hz. The circuit elements are given in table.
C R1 L1 Rf Lm R2' L2 ' RL LL V1 V I I If
as 2 1 2
e ’
1 1 0.01 1000 8 1 0.01 Open 480 ? ? ? ?
2 1 0.01 1000 8 1 0.01 200 0 480 ? ? ? ?
3 0.0 0.0026 Open 0 0 Open 1 ? ? ? ?

2 5
4 0.0 0.0026 Open 0 0 1 0 1 ? ? ? ?

2 5
5 0.0 0.0026 Open 0 0 0.707 1.87 ? 1 ? ? ?

2 5 5
× 10 −3
6 0 0 100 0.1 0.01 106 1 0 1 ? ? ? ?

−6
× 10
7 0 0 100 0.01 0.01 106 1.414 3.75 1 ? ? ? ?

−6 −3
× 10 × 10
8 0.3 1.33 Ope 3.45 0.15 0.56 7.35 0 127 ? ? ? ?

× 10 −3 n × 10 −2 × 10 −3
9 10 5.2 Ope 0 0 200 0.4 0 500 ? ? ? ?

× 10 −2 n
10 0.1 2.54 Ope 1.57 6.24 98.5 0.178 0 240 ? ? ? ?

5 × 10 −3 n × 10 −3
11 0.3 0.003 1 4.25 0.2 0.003 10 0 440 ? ? ? ?

−2
× 10
12 0.3 0.003 0 4.25 0.2 0.003 1 0 380 ? ? ? ?

× 10 −2
Use the polar form for all complex numbers and solve set 1 through set 12. Show your
calculations separately.
Solutions
Case 1:
Z L = R L + j X L = open
Z1 = R 1 + j X 1 = 1 + j 0.01 × 2π × 60 = 1 + j 3.77 Ω
R f × j Xm
Z ϕ = R f || j X m = = 900.95 + j 298.73 Ω
R f + j Xm
V1
I1 = I ϕ = = 0.504∠ - 18.5407 ° A
Z1 + Z ϕ
V2 = ZϕI ϕ = (900.95 + j 298.73)0.504∠ - 18.5407° = 478.91∠-0.19o V
I2 = 0
Case 2:
Vϕ − V1 Vϕ − V2 Vϕ
+ + =0
Z1 Z2 ' Zϕ
V2 − Vϕ V2
+ =0
Z2 ' ZL '
(Vϕ − V1 )Y1 + (Vϕ − V2 )Y2 '+ Vϕ Yϕ = 0
(V2 − Vϕ )Y2 '+ V2 YL ' = 0
1 1 1
Where Y1 = , Y2 ' = , Yϕ =
Z1 Z2 ' Zϕ
Rearranging,
⎡Y1 + Y2 '+ Yϕ − Y2 ' ⎤ ⎡Vϕ ⎤ ⎡V1 Y1 ⎤

⎢ =
⎣ − Y2 ' Y2 '+ YL '⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ V2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
−1
⎡ Vϕ ⎤ ⎡ Y1 + Y2 '+ Yϕ − Y2 ' ⎤ ⎡ V1 Y1 ⎤
⎢V ⎥ = ⎢ − Y2 ' Y2 '+ YL '⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
⎣ 2⎦ ⎣
The MATLAB program for solving the above (Case 2) is given below.
X1 = L1*w;
Z1 = R1+X1*1j;
Y1 = 1/Z1;
Rf = 1000;
Lm = 8;
Xm = Lm*w;
Zf = Rf*Xm*1j/(Rf+Xm*1j);
Yf = 1/Zf;
R2 = 1;
L2 = 0.01;
X2 = L2*w;
Z2 = R2+X2*1j;
Y2 = 1/Z2;
Rload = 200;
Lload = 0;
Xload = Lload*w;
Zload = Rload + Xload*1j;
Yload = 1/Zload;
Ybus = [Y1+Y2+Yf -Y2; -Y2 Y2+Yload];
VfV2 = inv(Ybus)*[V1*Y1; 0];
Vf = VfV2(1);
V2 = VfV2(2);
abs_V2 = abs(V2)
angle_V2 = angle(V2)*180/pi
Iphi = Vf*Yf;
abs_Iphi = abs(Iphi)
angle_Iphi = angle(Iphi)*180/pi
I_f = Iphi*Xm*1j/(Rf+Xm*1j);
abs_I_f = abs(I_f)
angle_I_f = angle(I_f)*180/pi
I2 = V2*Yload;
abs_I2 = abs(I2)
angle_I2 = angle(I2)*180/pi
I1 = (V1-Vf)*Y1;
abs_I1 = abs(I1)
angle_I1 = angle(I1)*180/pi
The above program can be used to solve other cases by using the data from the problem
by substituting the values of impedances and voltages. When a part of circuit is specified
as open, its value can be substituted with a large number and when as a short with zero
impedance. The results are tabulated in table 2 blow:
SOLUTION TABLE 2.1 The results for all cases.

case V1 V2 I1 I2’ If
1 480 478.91 0.505 0 0.48
-0.19o -18.5o -0.2o
2 480 473.82 2.85 2.37 0.48
-2.33o -5.32o -2.33o -1.26o
3 1 1 0 0 0
0o
4 1 0.7 0.7 0.7 0
‐44.4o ‐44.4o ‐44.4o
5 1.85 1 0o 1 1 0
‐21.9o ‐45o ‐45o
6 1 0.989 1 0.989 0.01
‐2.27o ‐3.76o ‐2.27o 0o
7 1 0.983 0.71 0.491 0.01
‐0.6o -60o ‐45.6o 0o
8 127 115.1 18.29 15.65 0
‐3.87o ‐33.4o ‐3.87o
9 500 0 22.71 0 0
‐62.97
o
10 240 0.0011 0.411 0.0065 0
‐89.86o ‐89.98 ‐89.86

o o
11 440 229.90 259 22.99 235.93
-47.12o -44.61o -47.13o -40.80o

12 380 0 324.76 0 324.76
-75.14o -75.14o
2.4. Assume a balanced three-phase load. Each phase load is rated 120 Ω with a phase
angle of 10° lagging and the load is connected as a Y bank. A three-phase balance source
rated 240 V is applied to this three-phase load. Perform the following:
i) Give the three-phase circuit of this load.
ii) Compute the active and reactive power consumed by this load.
Solutions
Figure 2.4.1 The Three Phase Wye connected load of problem 2.4.
P=
3.Vph2
cos θ =
(
3 × 240 / 3 )
2
cos10 = 472.7 W
Z 120
Q=
3.Vph2
sin θ =
(
3 × 240 / 3 ) 2
sin 10 = 83.3 VAr

Z 120
The load consumes472.7 W of active power and 83.3 VAr .
2.5 Assume a single-phase load has inductance of 10 millihenry (mH) and resistance 3.77
Ω and it is connected to a 60 Hz source at 120 V. Compute the active and reactive power
consumed or generated by the load.
Solution
X = Lω = 10 × 10 −3 × 2π × 60 = 3.77 Ω
Z = R 2 + X 2 = 5.33 Ω
3.77
θ = tan −1 = 45°
3.77
V2 120 2
P= cos θ = cos 45 = 1,910 W
Z 5.33
V2 120 2
Q= sin θ = sin 45 = 1,910 VAr
Z 5.33
The load consumes 1,910 W of active power and 1,910 VAr of reactive power.
2.6 Assume a single-phase load has a capacitance of 10 millifarad (mF) and resistance of
2.0 Ω and it is connected to a 60 Hz source at 120 V. Compute the active and reactive
power consumed or generated by the loads.
Solution
1 1
X= = −3
= 0.265 Ω
Cω 10 × 10 × 2π × 60
Z = R 2 + X 2 = 2.02 Ω
0.265
θ = tan −1 = −7.5°
2
V2 120 2
P= cos θ = cos 7.5 = 7.06 × 10 3 W
Z 2.02
V2 120 2
Q=− sin θ = − sin 7.5 = −930.4 VAr
Z 2.02
The load consumes 7060 W of active power and generates 930.4 VAr of reactive power.
2.7 A single-phase load consumes 10 kW at 0.9 power factor, p.f. lagging at 220 V. What
is the magnitude and phase angle of current drawn from the source? If another single-
phase load rated at 10 kW and 0.8 leading power factor is connected in parallel to the
same sources, what is the magnitude of current drawn? What is the current drawn from
the source? Give your answers in polar form.
Solution
P 10,000
I lag = ∠ − cos −1 θ = ∠ − cos −1 0.9 = 50.5∠ − 25.84° A
V. cos θ 220 × 0.9
P 10,000
I lead = ∠ cos −1 θ = ∠ cos −1 0.8 = 56.8∠36.8° A
V. cos θ 220 × 0.8
I source = I lag + I lag = 91.03∠ − 7.28° A
2.8. A single-phase transformer is rated 200 kVA, 120/220 V, 5% reactance. Compute the
reactance of the transformer from the high-voltage side. Give the single-phase equivalent
circuit.
Solution
2
V 220 2
Zb = b = = 0.242 Ω
Sb 200,000
Z = Z b × Z p .u = j 0.242 × 0.05 = j 0.0121 Ω
Solution Figure 2.8.1 The single-phase equivalent circuit of problem 2.8
Solution Figure 2.8.2 The per-unit equivalent circuit of problem 2.8.
2.9 Compute the per unit model of Problem 2.7 based on 40 kVA and a base voltage of
440 V.
Solution
S
Lagging load in p.u = Sp.u ,lag = ∠ cos −1 0.9
Sb
10 / 0.9
= ∠ cos −1 0.9 = 0.277∠25.84° p.u kVA
40
S
Lagging load in p.u = Sp.u ,lead = ∠ − cos −1 0.8
Sb
10 / 0.8
= ∠ − cos −1 0.9 = 0.3125∠ − 36.86° p.u kVA
40
V 220
Per unit voltage = Vp.u , = = = 0.5 p.u V
Vb 440
= 0.277∠25.84° p.u kVA = 0.3125∠ − 36.86° p.u kVA
Solution Figure 2.9.1 The per-unit -model diagram for problem 2.9
2.10 Three single-phase transformers are each rated 460 V/ 13.2 kV, 400 kVA and 5%
short circuit reactance. The three single-phase transformers are connected as a three-
phase Y–Y transformer. Perform the following:
i) Compute the line-to-line voltages of three-phase Y–Y transformer from the high-
voltage-side and the low-voltage-side voltage and kVA ratings.
ii) Compute the per unit model of the three-phase transformer.
Solutions
i) Low voltage side rating = V ph 3 = 460 3 = 796.7 V
High voltage side rating = V ph 3 = 13.2 3 = 22.86 kV
kVA rating = 3 × S1φ = 3 × 400 = 1200 kVA
ii) Base values: = S b = 1200 kVA, Vb ,LV = 796.7 V, Vb,HV = 22.86 kV
2
V 796.7 2
Base impedance at low voltage side: = Z b = b = = 0.5289 Ω
Sb 1200 × 10 3
The per unit transformer impedance = 5%
Solution Figure 2.10.1 The per-unit equivalent model of the three-phase transformer of
problem 2.10.
2.11A bank of three-phase Y-connected resistive load of 30 Ω is connected to the low-

voltage side of the transformer of Problem 2.10 using a feeder with resistance of 1 + j10
Ω. Perform the following:
i) Give the three-phase equivalent model.
ii) Give a one-line diagram.
iii) Compute the per unit model based on the transformer rating.
Solutions
2
Vb 22860 2
i) Base impedance on high voltage side: = Z b = = = 435.5 Ω
Sb 1200 × 10 3
Transformer impedance on high voltage side: = Z b × j X = 435.5 × 0.05 = 21.7 Ω
Solution Figure 2.11.1 The three-phase equivalent circuit of problem 2.11
ii)
Solution Figure 2.11.2 The one-line diagram of problem 2.11
iii) Base values: = S b = 1200 kVA, Vb ,LV = 796.7 V, Vb,HV = 22.86 kV

2
Vb 796.7 2
Base impedance low voltage side: Z b = = = 0.5289 Ω
Sb 1200 × 10 3
Z 30
Per unit transformer impedance = Z load,p.u = = = 56.72 Ω
Z b 0.5289
Z 30
Per unit load impedance = Z load,p.u = = = 56.72 p.u Ω
Z b 0.5289
Z 1 + j 10
Per unit line impedance: = Z line,p.u = = = 1.89 + j 18.9 p.u Ω
Z b 0.5289
Solution Figure 2.11.3 The per-unit equivalent circuit of problem 2.11

2.12 Three single transformers are each rated 460 V/ 13.2 kV 400 kVA, 5% short circuit
reactance. The three single-phase transformers are connected as a three-phase Y–Δ
transformer. Perform the following:
i) Compute the line-to-line voltage of the three-phase Y–Δ transformer from high-
voltage-side and low-voltage-side voltage and kVA ratings.
ii) Compute the per unit model of the three-phase transformer.
Solutions
Assuming that the low voltage side is Y connected and high voltage side is Δ connected,
we will have:
i) Low-voltage-side rating = Vph 3 = 460 3 = 796.7 V
High-voltage-side rating = Vph = 13 .2 = 13.2 kV
kVA rating = 3 × S1φ = 3 × 400 = 1200 kVA
ii) Base values: = S b = 1200 kVA, Vb ,LV = 796.7 V, Vb ,HV = 13.2 kV
2
Vb 796.7 2
Base impedance on low voltage side: = Z b = = = 0.5289 Ω
Sb 1200 × 10 3
2.13 A bank of three-phase Y-connected resistive load of 30 Ω is connected to the low-

Ω. Perform the following:
ii) Give the one phase of a Y-connected equivalent circuit.
iii) Give a one-line diagram.
iv) Compute the per unit model based on the transformer rating.
Solutions
i) Assuming low voltage side is Y connected,

ii) Low-voltage-side line to neutral rating = Vph = 460 V
VL − L 13.2
High-voltage-side line to neutral rating = = = 7.62 kV
3 3
2
V 13200 2
Base impedance on high voltage side: = Z b = b = = 145.2 Ω
Sb 1200 × 10 3
Transformer impedance on high voltage side: = Z b × j X = 145.2 × 0.05 = 7.26 Ω

iii)
iv) Basevalues: = S b = 1200 kVA, Vb ,LV = 796.7 V, Vb ,HV = 13.2 kV

2
V 796.7 2
Base impedance on low voltage side: Z b = b = = 0.5289 Ω
Sb 1200 × 10 3
Theper unit transformer impedance = 5%
Z 30
Per unit load impedance = Z load,p.u = = = 56.72 p.u Ω
Z b 0.5289
Z 1 + j 10
Z b 0.5289
2.14 Three single-phase transformers are each rated 460 V/ 13.2 kV 400 kVA, 5% short
circuit reactance. The three single-phase transformers are connected as a three-phase Δ–Δ
transformer. Perform the following:
i) Compute the line-to-line voltage of three-phase Δ–Δ transformer from the high-
voltage-side and the low-voltage-side voltage and kVA ratings.
ii) Give the three-phase equivalent model.
iii) Give the one-phase of a Y-connected equivalent circuit.
Solutions
i) Low-voltage-side rating = Vph = 460 = 460 V
High-voltage-side rating = Vph = 13 .2 = 13.2 kV
kVA rating = 3 × S1φ = 3 × 400 = 1200 kVA
ii)
460
iii) Low-voltage-side rating of Y equivalent = Vph = = 265.5 V
3
13.2
High-voltage-side rating of Y equivalent = Vph = = 7.62 kV
3
kVA rating = 3 × S1φ = 3 × 400 = 1200 kVA
2
Vb 13200 2
Base impedance on high voltage side: = Z b = = = 145.2 Ω
Sb 1200 × 10 3
Transformer impedance on high voltage side: = Z b × jX = 145.2 × 0.05 = 7.26 Ω
iv)
Base values: = S b = 1200 kVA, Vb = 796.7 V
2
V 460 2
Base impedance on low voltage side: = Z b = b = = 0.1763 Ω
Sb 1200 × 10 3
Low-voltage-side base voltage = Vb ,LV = 460 V
High-voltage-side base voltage = Vb , HV == 13.2 kV
The per unit transformer impedance = 5% ohm
2.15 A bank of three-phase Δ–connected resistive load of 30 Ω is connected to the low-

Ω.Perform the following:
ii) Give the one phase of a Y-connected equivalent circuit.
iii) Give a one-line diagram.
Solutions
i)
460
ii) Low-voltage-side line to neutral voltage = VL − N ,low = = 265.5 V
3
13 .2
High-voltage-side line to neutral voltage = VL − N , high = = 7.62 kV
3
2
Vb 13200 2
Base impedance on high voltage side: = Z b = = = 145.2 Ω
Sb 1200 × 10 3
Transformer impedance on high voltage side: = Z b × jX = 145.2 × 0.05 = 7.26 Ω
The Y-equivalent load = Z Y = 3.Z Δ = 3 × 30 = 90 Ω
iii)
Solution Figure 2.15.3 The one-line equivalent circuit of problem 2.15
iv) Base values: = S b = 1200 kVA, Vb ,LV = 460 V, Vb ,HV = 13.2 kV

2
V 460 2
Base impedance on low voltage side: = Z b = b = = 0.1763 Ω
Sb 1200 × 10 3
Z 90
Per unit load impedance = Z load ,p.u = = = 510 .5 p.u Ω
Z b 0.1763
Z 1 + j 10
Z b 0.1763
2.16 A balanced three-phase, three-wire feeder has three balanced loads as shown in Fig.
2.66.
Figure 2.66 The three-phase diagram of problem 2.16.
Each lamp is rated at 100 W and 120 V. The line-to-line voltage on the feeder is 240 V
and remains constant under the loads. Find the source current in the feeder lines and the
power delivered by the source.
i) Compute the line current in phase a.
ii) Compute the active and reactive power supplied by the sources.
Solutions
120 2
R lamp = = 144 Ω
100
240
I lamp = = 0.96 A
144 3
240
IR = = 1.38 A
100 3
240
I j20 = = 12∠ − 90 A
j20
240
I − j20 = = 12∠90 A
− j20
I S = I lamp + I R + I j20 + I − j20 = 2.34∠0
P s = 3.I S .Vs cos θ = 3 × 240 × 2.34 × 1 = 0.973 kW

Q s = 0 kVar
2.17. Consider a three-phase distribution feeder as shown in Fig. 2.67.
Figure 2.67 The single–line diagram of Problem 2.17.
For the three-phase system, all voltages are given line-to-line and the complex power is
given as three-phase power.
Compute the following:
i) The source voltage Vs, if VR is to be maintained at 4.4 kV (VR = 4.4 kV V line value)
ii) The source current and the power factor at the source
iii) The total complex power supplied by the source
iv) How much reactive power should be connected to the source bus to obtain a unity
power factor at the source bus?
Solutions
S1 = 60 − j 80 kVA
S 2 = 100 + j 133 .33 kVA
S 3 = 0 − j 133.33 kVA
S 4 = j 100 kVA
S R = S 2 + S 3 + S 4 = 100 + j 100
*
⎛ 100 + j 100 ⎞
I R = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 13.14 − j 13.14 A
⎝ 3 × 4.4 / 3 ⎠
4400
i) VS = V R + I R Z = + (13.14 − j13.14) × j100 = 4.12∠16.35° kV
3
*
⎛ 60 − j 80 ⎞
ii) I L1 =⎜ ⎟ = 8.09∠69.48 A
⎝ 3 × 4.12∠16.35 ⎠
I S = I L1 + I R = 15.59∠ − 5.56° , power factor = cos18.5 = 0.94 , lagging
*
iii) SS = 3.VS .I S = 178.77 + j 71.90 kVA
iv) Reactive power to be connected to the source for unity power factor = -j 71.90kVar
2.18 Assume a three-phase transformer is Y-grounded on the low-voltage side and Δ-

connected winding on the high-voltage side as shown in Fig. 2.68. Each winding of tap-
changing winding has 2000 turns on the low-voltage side, and a variable number of turns
on the high-voltage winding side. Assume the high-voltage winding side has a maximum
number of turns equal to 7300 turns and a minimum number of turns equal to 5300.
Compute the minimum and maximum line-to-line voltage that can be maintained on the
high-voltage side. Assume the winding voltage across the low-voltage side is set equal to
36.4 kV.
Figure 2.68 Figure for Problem 2.18.
Solution
Vp 36.4 ×10 3 / 3
= = 10.5 V / T
2000 2000
Vp Vsec Vsec
= = 10 .5 = , Vsec = 76 .65 kV
2000 N sec max
7300
Vp Vsec Vsec
= = 10.5 = , Vsec = 55.65 kV
2000 N sec min
5300
Thus, secondary voltage can be changed to between 55.65 and 76.65 kV.
2.19. Write a term paper on the capital cost of a one megawatt solar system and its
payback over 25 years. Assume the cost of a coal-fired power plant is $.10 per kWh and
PV, to generate electricity the cost is about $0.25–0.40 per kWh.
2.20. A three-phase generator rated 480 V and 400 kVA connected to a three-phase
transformer rated 3.2 kV/480 V, 200 kVA, with reactance of 10% is used to serve a load
over a line of 1 + j20 Ω. At the load site, the voltage is stepped down to 220 V from 3.2
kV using a three-phase transformer rated 150 kVA with reactance of 7%. The voltage at
the load is to be maintained at 220 V. Perform the following:
i) Give a one-line diagram.
ii) Compute a per unit equivalent circuit based at 200 kVA and 480 V.
iii) Compute the required generator voltage for unity power factor load. Is this design
viable?
Solutions
i)
Solution Figure 2.20.1 The one-line diagram of Problem 2.20.
2
Vb 3,200 2
ii)Base impedance on the high voltage side = Z b = = = 51.2 Ω
Sb 200,000
1 + j 20
The per unit impedance of the feeder = = 0.019 + j 0.39 p.u Ω
51.2
The per unit impedance of the transformer on the generator side= j 0.1 p.u Ω
200
The per unit impedance of the distribution transformer = j 0.07 × = 0.093p.u Ω
150
Solution Figure 2.20.1 The per unit equivalent circuit of problem 2.20
iii) The generator voltage in per-unit =
= 1 + ( j 0.1 + j 0.093 + 0.019 + j 0.39 ) × 1 = 1.17 ∠ 29.8° p.u V
Because the generator voltage is not within ±5% of the rated value, the design is
unacceptable.
The magnitude of the generator voltage = 1.17 × 480 = 561.6 V

CHAPTER 3
MODELING CONVERTERS IN MICROGRID
POWER SYSTEMS
3.1 Consider the microgrid of Figure 3.66. A three-phase transformer, T1, is rated 500
kVA, 220 Y grounded / 440 VΔ, transformer with the reactance of 3.5%.The microgrid is
supplied from an AC bus of a PV generating station with its DC bus rated at 540 V. The
distribution line is 10 miles long and has a series impedance of 0.1 + j 1.0 Ω per mile and
local load of 100 kVA at 440 V. The microgrid is connected to the local power grid using
a three-phase transformer T2, rated at 440V Y grounded/13.2 kV Δ, 500 kVA with the
reactance of 8%. Compute the per-unit impedance diagram of the microgrid system.
Assume the voltage base of 13.2 kV on the local power grid side and a kVA base of 500.
Figure 3.66 A One-Line Diagram for Problem 3.1.
Solution
S b = 500 kVA , Vb = 13.2 kV
S load 100
S pu ,load = = = 0.2 p.u kVA
Sb 500
Assuming that power factor is unity, the load is equal to 0.2 p.u kW
2
Vbase 440 2
Z b , trans = = = 0.38 Ω
VA base 500 × 10 3
Z trans 1 + j 10
Z pu ,trans = = = 2.63 + j 26.3 p.u Ω
Z b,trans 0.38
X pu ,T 2 = j 0.08 p.u Ω , X pu ,T1 = j 0.035 p.u Ω
VLV 440
The AC bus-base voltage on the LV side of T2 = Vb,HV = × 13.2 = 440 V
VHV 13.2
VLV 220
The AC bus-base voltage on the LV side of T1 = Vb,HV = × 440 = 220 V
VHV 440
Vb AC side of inverter = base voltage for low voltage side of T1 =VLL,b = 220 V
P 500 × 10 3
The current rating of the inverter on DC side = I = = = 926 A
VDC 540
For three phase power, VA = 3.V.I where VA is the volt-ampere V is the line to line
voltage and I is the line current.
500 × 10 3
The current rating of the inverter on AC side = I = = 1,312 A
220 3
3 VDC
Using equation VLL = M a (3.81), for three-phase inverter, the modulation index,
2 2
can be computedas:
2 VLL 2 220
The modulation index of the inverter = M a = 2 =2 × = 0.665
3 VDC 3 540
2 VLL,b
Vb DC side assuming the Ma remains fixed at 0.665 = VDC,b = 2
3 Ma
2 220
=2 × = 540 V DC
3 0.665
The inverter and the PV are designed to be rated at 500 kW.

P 500 × 10 3
The current rating of the PV bus = I = = = 926 A
VDC 540
Solution Figure 3.1.1 A One line diagram of problem 3.1

Solution Figure 3.1.2 The Per Unit Diagram of Problem 3.1.
3.2 Consider the microgrid of Figure 3.67. Assume the inverter AC bus voltage of 240
V and transformer T1 is rated 5% impedance, 240 V Δ/120 V Y-grounded and 150 kVA.
The transformer T2 is rated at 10% impedance, 240 V Δ/3.2 kV Y-grounded and 500
kVA. The local loads are rated at 100 kVA and a power factor of 0.9 lagging. The
inverter modulation index is 0.9.Compute the following:
i) The DC bus voltage and inverter rating
ii) The boost converter PV bus input voltage and input current ratings for the
required DC bus voltage of the inverter
iii) The size of the microgrid PV generating station
iv) The per unit model of microgrid
DC Bus AC Bus
PV DC Bus
Load-1
PV Generating
DC/DC DC/AC T1
Station
Boost Inverter Local
Converter Power
Grid
T2
Load-2
Figure 3.67.A One-Line Diagram of Problem 3.2.

Solutions
3 VDC
i) Using equation VLL = M a (3.81), for three-phase inverter,
2 2
2 VLL 2 240
VDC = 2 =2 × = 435 V
3 Ma 3 0.9
Rearranging DC-DC converter equation (3.47), Vin = Vo (1 – D),as presented in

the book, we will have
Assuming the duty ratio of the DC-DC converter is fixed at 0.7,
VPV = VDC (1 − D ) = 435(1 − 0.7 ) = 130.5 V
The rating of the PV bus is 130.5 V.
The power rating of the PV, boost converter, and inverter should be more than the
sum of the transformer ratings = 150 + 500 = 650 kW
The converter rating for a lossless converter on high and low voltage sides can be
expressed as
(Vdc. Idc) high voltage side= ( Vdc.Idc) low voltage side
P 650
The current rating of the inverter on the DC side = I = = = 1.49 kA
VDC 435
650
The current rating of the inverter on the AC side = I = = 1.56 kA
240 3
ii) The PV bus voltage changes with a change in environmental conditions.
The rating given above is treated as the maximum PV bus voltage. As the
voltage of the PV bus drops, the duty ratio of the boost converter should
be adjusted to maintain the DC bus voltage of the inverter.
Table 3.2.1 Boost Converter Ratings
Output voltage = 435 V
Power = 650 kW
Output current = 1.49 kA
Input D Input
Voltage, Current, kA
V Duty
Ratio
100 0.77 6.50
75 0.82 8.67
50 0.88 13.0
iii) The size of the microgrid is 650 kVA

iv) Sb = 650 kVA, Vb = 3.2 kV on the utility side
The voltage base of all sides of the transformer is the same as the rating because the base
voltage has been chosen at the rated value.
V 240
The AC bus-base voltage on the LV side of T2 = LV Vb,HV = × 13.2 = 240 V
VHV 13.2
VLV 120
The AC bus-base voltage on the LV side of T1 = Vb,HV = × 240 = 120 V
VHV 240
The base voltage of the AC side of the inverter

= base voltage of the LV side of T2 = VLL,b = 240 V
The base voltage of the DC side of the inverter and the PV side are also the same at the
rated value assuming the modulation index and the duty ratio are fixed at 0.9
2 VLL,b
The base value of DC side of the inverter is therefore = VDC,b = 2
3 Ma
2 240
× =2 = 435 V
3 0.9
With the duty ratio of the boost converter fixed at 0.7, the base voltage at the PV bus is
VPV ,b = VDC , b (1 − D ) = 435(1 − 0.7 ) = 130.5 V
S load 100
S pu ,load = = = 0.153 p.u kVA
Sb 650
Assuming that the load power factor is unity, the load is 0.153 p.u KW.
S 650
Z pu ,T1 = Z pu ,T1old new = j 0.05 × = j 0.22 p.u Ω
S old 150
S new 650
Z pu ,T 2 = Z pu ,T 2 old = j 0 .1 × = j 0.13 p.u Ω
S old 500
The AC bus base voltage of the inverter = 240 V
The DC side base voltage of the inverter = 435 V
The PV side base voltage of the converter = 130.5 V
Solution Figure 3.2.1 A One line diagram of problem 3.2
Solution Figure 3.2.2 The Per Unit Model of Problem 3.2
3.3 For Problem 3.2 depicted in Figure 3.67, assume the DC bus voltage of the inverter
is equal to 800 V DC. The transformer T1 is rated 9% at impedance, 400 VΔ/220 V Y
groundedand 250 kVA. The transformer T2 is rated at 10% impedance, 400 V Y
grounded /13.2 kV Δ and 500 kVA. The Load 1 is rated at 150 kVA with a power factor
of 0.85 lagging. The Load 2 is rated at 270 kVA with a power factor of .95 leading.
i) The modulation index and inverter rating
ii) The boost converter PV bus voltage and input current for the required DC bus
voltage of the inverter
iii) The minimum size of the microgrid PV station
Solutions
3 VDC
i) Using equation VLL = M a (3.81), for three-phase inverter, the
2 2
modulation index, can be computed as:
2 VLL 2 400
Ma = 2 =2 × = 0.81
3 VDC 3 800
Sizing the inverter as a sum of the rating of the transformers = 500 + 250 =
750 kW
ii) The high voltage DC bus of boost converter is equal to 800 V. Assuming the duty ratio
of the DC-DC boost converter is 50%, the PV bus voltage on low side of boost converter
rearranging DC-DC converter equation (3.47), Vin = Vo (1 – D), as presented in the book,
we will have
VPV = VDC (1 − D ) = 800(1 − 0.5) = 400 V
The output voltage rating = 800 V
The input voltage rating = 400 V
The rating of the converter and the inverter is so chosen that they are able to supply full
load to the two transformers at the same time.The power rating of the inverter and the
boost converter must be equal to the ratings of transformerT1 and transformer T2.
Boost Converter rating= 750 kW
Inverter rating= 750 kW
iii) Since the converters are rated 750 kW, the size of the PV-generating station
cannot be greater than 750 kW with an output voltage of 400 V.
P 750
VDC 800
750
400 3
The PV bus voltage changes with achange in environmental conditions. The
rating given above is treated as the maximum PV bus voltage. As the voltage of
the PV bus drops, the duty ratio of the boost converter should be adjusted to
maintain the DC bus voltage of the inverter.
Table 3.3.1 Boost Converter Ratings
Power = 750 kW
Input D Input
V Duty
Ratio
300 0.625 2.5
200 0.75 3.75
100 0.875 7.5
Size of the PV station is the sum of the transformer ratings = 500 + 250 = 750
kW
The voltage rating of the PV = input bus voltage of the boost converter = 400
V
3.4 For Problem 3.3 depicted in Figure 3.67, assume transformer T1 is rated at 5%
impedance, 440 V Y grounded /120 V Δ and 150 kVA. The transformer T2 is rated at
10% impedance, 440 V Y grounded/3.2 kV Δand 500 kVA. The inverter modulation
index is 0.9. Select the power base of 500 kVA and the voltage base of 600V. The local
power grid internal reactance is 0.2 per-unit based on 10 MVA and 3.2 kV.Assume the
microgrid is not loaded.Assume PV has 50% short circuit resistance based on its own
rating. Compute the following:
i) The per-unit equivalent impedance model
ii) The fault current if a balanced three-phase fault occurs on the inverter AC bus
Solutions
S b = 500 kVA , Vb = 600 V on the AC side of the inverter
i) The transformer high and low voltages are as follows:
Voltage base of the low-voltage side of T1 =
VLV 120
Vb ,HV = × 600 = 163.6 V
VHV 440
VHV 3200
Voltage base of high-voltage side of T2 = Vb , LV = × 600 = 4.3 kV
VLV 440
2 2
S new ⎛ Vold ⎞ 500 ⎛ 440 ⎞
Z pu ,T1 = Z pu ,T1old ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = j 0.05 × ×⎜ ⎟ = j 0.089 p.u Ω
Sold ⎝ Vnew ⎠ 150 ⎝ 600 ⎠
2 2
S new ⎛ Vold ⎞ 500 ⎛ 440 ⎞
Z pu ,T 2 = Z pu ,T 2old ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = j 0.1 × ×⎜ ⎟ = j 0.053 p.u Ω
S old ⎝ Vnew ⎠ 500 ⎝ 600 ⎠
2 2
S new ⎛ Vold ⎞ 500 ⎛ 440 ⎞
Z pu , Utility = Z pu , Utility,old ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 0.002 × ×⎜ −5
⎟ = j5 × 10 p.u Ω
S old ⎝ Vnew ⎠ 10,000 ⎝ 600 ⎠
3 VDC
Using equation VLL = M a (3.81), for three-phase inverter,
2 2
The base voltage of the AC side of the inverter = base voltage of LV side of T2
VLL,b = 600 V
2 VLL,b 2 600
VDC,b = 2 =2 × = 1,088 V = base voltage of the DC side of the inverter
3 Ma 3 0.9
assuming that the modulation index remains fixed.
Assuming a duty ratio of 0.6 for the DC-DC converter,
Rearranging DC-DC converter equation (3.47), Vin = Vo (1 – D), as presented in the

book, we will have
VPV , b = VDC ,b (1 − D ) = 1088(1 − 0.6 ) = 435.2 V = base voltage on the PV side assuming
duty ratio of the converter remains fixed.
The inverter, converter, and the PV voltages should be rated at 500 + 150 = 650
kV. The PV cells and DC-AC converters have losses and the PV-generating station as
seen from AC side has a net short circuit resistance. Assume the PV-generating station
has a short circuit resistance of 50% based on its own rating.
Z pu ,PV = 0.5 p.u Ω
S new 500
Z pu ,PV ,new = Z pu ,PV ,old = 0 .5 × = 0.38 p.u Ω
S old 650
Assuming the AC bus of inverter is at its rate voltage before the fault, the per-unit
voltage of AC bus can be computed as
440
The per unit voltage of inverter AC bus load voltage = Vpu = = 0.73 p.u V
600
The inverter AC bus voltageis rated at 440 V AC
The DC bus voltage is rated at 0.73 × 1088 = 794 V DC
The boost converter high DC bus voltage is rated at 794 V DC and
Low DC bus voltage is rated at (1 − D )Vo = (1 − 0.6) × 794 = 317 V DC.
Therefore, the PV bus is rated at 317 V DC.
P 650
VDC 794
650
440 3
The PV bus voltage changes with achange in environmental conditions. The
rating given above is treated as the maximum PV bus voltage. As the voltage of
the PV bus drops, the duty ratio of the boost converter should be adjusted to
maintain the DC bus voltage of the inverter.
Table 3.4.1 Boost Converter Rating
Power = 650 kW
Input D Input
V Duty
Ratio
100 0.87 6.50

75 0.91 8.67
50 0.94 13.0
Solution Figure. 3.4.1 one line diagram of problem 3.4
Solution Figure 3.4.2 The Per Unit Model of Problem 3.4
ii) The figure below shows the per unit model for short-circuit studies.
Solution Figure 3.4.3 The Per Unit Model for Fault Studies Neglecting the Loads.
To calculate the fault current if a balanced three-phase fault occurs on the inverter AC
bus, we can use superposition concept one source acting at a time. We have two sources
of fault currents when AC side is subjected to three-phase faults. The calculation of the
short-circuit current is to estimate the expected short circuit current to rate the circuit
breakers and to adjust the settings for protection. The maximum inverter short-circuit
current is if the inverter acts as short. Then we have two sources of short-circuit currents.
One source is a PV DC bus; its short-circuit current is limited by its internal resistance of
the PV source. The other source is a short-circuit current contribution from the grid side.
The total fault current is summation of the current contribution from the PV (DC) and the
utility (AC).
Solution Figure 3.4.4 Equivalent circuit before fault

Solution Figure 3.4.5 Fault current contribution from PV
Solution Figure 3.4.6 Fault current contribution from utility
Solution Figure 3.4.7 Fault current as superposition of both PV and utility

Vpu 0.73
I F,PV = = = 1.92 p.u A
R pu ,PV 0.38
Vpu 0.73
I F,utility = = = − j13.7 p.u A
Z pu ,T 2 + X pu ,utility j0.053 + j5 × 10 −5
IF,PV is DC and IF,utility is AC and therefore the fault current is the two currents
superposed.
I F = I F,PV + I F,utility = 1.92 + 13.7 cos ωt
2 2
The rms value of the fault current = I F,rms = I F,PV + I F,utility
= 1.92 2 + 13.7 2 = 13.83 p.u. A

Sb 500
The base current = I base = = = 0.44 kA
3Vb 3 × 650
Fault current = 13.83 × 0.44 = 6.08 kA
3.5 Consider the microgrid of Figure 3.68. A three-phase 500 kVA, 440 V Y grounded/
3.2 kV Δ transformer with the per-unit reactance of 3.5% feeds from an AC source of a
PV generating station. The distribution line is 10 miles long and has a series impedance
of 0.01 + j 0.09 Ω per mile. The local load is 250 kVA. Balance of power can be injected
into the local utility using a 500 kVA, 3.2kV Y grounded/ 13.2 kV Δ transformer with a
per-unit reactance of 8%. Assume the voltage base of 13.8 kV on the local power grid
side, kVA base of 500, and the DC bus voltage of 800 V.
i) The inverter and the PV generating station ratings
ii) The per unit impedance diagram of the microgrid
Figure 3.68 A One-Line Diagram of Problem 3.5.
Solution
3 VDC
i) Using equation VLL = M a (3.81), for three-phase inverter, the
2 2
modulation index, can be computed as:
2 VLL 2 440
Ma = 2 =2 × = 0.90
3 VDC 3 800
The PV bus is rated at 500 kVA, 800 V. The inverter is rated at 500 kVA, 800
V DC, and 440 V AC.
ii)
S b = 500 kVA , Vb = 13.8 kV on the utility side
VLV 3 .2
Voltage base of the low-voltage side of T2 = VHV , b = × 13.8 = 3.3 kV
VHV 13.2
2 2
⎞
S new ⎛ Vold 500 ⎛ 13.2 ⎞
Z pu ,T 2 = Z pu ,T 2old ⎜⎜
⎟⎟ = j 0.08 × ×⎜ ⎟ = j 0.073 p.u Ω
Sold⎠ ⎝ Vnew 500 ⎝ 13.8 ⎠
V 440
Voltage base of the low-voltage side of T1 = LV VHV , b = × 3300 = 453 V
VHV 3200
2 2
S new ⎛ Vold ⎞ 500 ⎛ 3.2 ⎞
Sold ⎝ Vnew ⎠ 500 ⎝ 3.3 ⎠
The base voltage of the AC side of the inverter = base voltage of the LV side of T1 =
VLL,b = 453 V
3 VDC
Using equation VLL = M a (3.81), for three-phase inverter, the modulation index,
2 2
can be computed as:
2 VLL 2 440
Ma = 2 =2 × = 0.90
3 VDC 3 800
The PV bus is rated at 500 kVA, 800 V. The inverter is rated at 500 kVA, 800 V
DC, and 440 V AC.
13.2
The per unit voltage = Vpu = = 0.96 p.u V
13.8
The base voltage of the PV side assuming modulation index is fixed at 0.9 =
2 VLL,b 2 453
VDC,b = 2 =2 × = 822 V DC
3 Ma 3 0.9
Sb 500×103
The per unit impedance of the transmission line = Z × 2
= (0.01+ j 0.09) ×
Vb 33002
= 0.00046 + j 0.004 p.u Ω

Assuming unity power factor, the per-unit load is given as
S load 250
The per unit load = = = 0.5 p.u kVA
Sb 500
P 500
VDC 800
voltage and Iis the line current.
500
440 3
Solution Figure 3.5.1. One-line diagram of problem 3.5
Solution Figure 3.5.2 The Per Unit Model of problem 3.5

3.6 Consider the microgrid of Figure 3.68 and the data of Problem 3.5. The local power
grid net input reactance can be approximated as 9% based on the voltage base of 13.2 kV
and 500 kVA base. Assume DCbus voltage of 880 V.
i) The inverter modulation index and inverter rating
ii) The short-circuit current of the AC bus if a three-phase short circuit occurs on
the AC bus of the inverter;ignore the PV station fault current contribution.
iii) The same as part (ii), except assume that the internal resistance of the PV
generating station can be approximated as 1 per-unit based on the inverter
rating.
Solutions
2 VLL 2 440
i) Ma = 2 =2 × = 0.81
3 VDC 3 880
The inverter is rated at 440 V AC, 880 V DC and 500 kVA
500
The current rating of the inverter on the DC side = I = = 0.56 kA
880
500
440 3
ii) With Vb = 13.8 kV and Sb = 500 kVA,
VLV 3 .2
Voltage base of the low-voltage side of T2 = VHV , b = × 13.8 = 3.3 kV
VHV 13.2
2 2
⎞
S new ⎛ Vold 500 ⎛ 13.2 ⎞
Z pu ,T 2 = Z pu ,T 2old ⎜⎜
⎟⎟ = j 0.08 × ×⎜ ⎟ = j 0.073 p.u Ω
Sold⎠ ⎝ Vnew 500 ⎝ 13.8 ⎠
V 440
Voltage base of the low-voltage side of T1 = LV VHV , b = × 3300 = 453 V
VHV 3200
2 2
S new ⎛ Vold ⎞ 500 ⎛ 3.2 ⎞
Sold ⎝ Vnew ⎠ 500 ⎝ 3.3 ⎠
Base voltage of the AC side of the inverter = base voltage of LV side of T1 = VLL,b =
453 V
13.2
The p.u voltage = Vp.u = = 0.96 p.u V
13.8
The base voltage of the PV side assuming modulation index is fixed at 0.81 =
2 VLL,b 2 453
VDC,b = 2 =2 × = 917 V DC
3 Ma 3 0.81
2 2
S new ⎛ Vold ⎞ 500 ⎛ 13.2 ⎞
Z pu ,utility = Z pu ,T1old ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = j 0.09 × ×⎜ ⎟ = j 0.082 p.u Ω
Sold ⎝ Vnew ⎠ 500 ⎝ 13.8 ⎠
Z pu ,Utility = j 0.09 p.u Ω
Z =
Vb
=
3.3 × 103
2
= 21.78 p.u Ω
( )2
Base impedance for the transmission line = b Sb 500 × 103

The p.u impedance of the transmission line =
Z 10(0.01 + j0.09)
Z p.u ,tran = tran = = 0.005 + j0.041 p.u Ω
Zb 21.78
Solution Figure 3.6.1 One-line diagram of problem 3.6

Vpu 0.96
I F,utility = =
Z pu ,T1 + Z pu ,Tran + Z pu ,T 2 + Z pu ,utility j0.03 + (0.005 + j0.041) + j0.073 + j0.082
= 4.24∠ − 88.73° p.u A
Sb 500
3Vb 3 × 453
Fault current = 4.24 × 0.63 = 2.67 kA
iii) To calculate the fault current if a balanced three-phase fault occurs on the
inverter AC bus, we can use superposition concept one source acting at a time.
We have two sources of fault currents when AC side is subjected to three-
phase faults.
2 2
S ⎛ Vold ⎞ 500 ⎛ 880 ⎞
Z pu ,PV = Z pu ,T1old new ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 1 × ×⎜ ⎟ = j 0.92 p.u Ω
Sold ⎝ Vnew ⎠ 500 ⎝ 917 ⎠
Vpu 0.96
I F,PV = = = 1.04 p.u A
Z pu , PV 0.92
We assume that the inverter acts as a short circuit after the switches get
destroyed by the high current and the current contributed by the PV source is
limited by its internal resistance. The total fault current is summation of the
current contribution from the PV (DC) and the utility (AC).
Solution Figure 3.6.3 Equivalent circuit before fault

Solution Figure 3.6.4 Fault current contribution from PV
Solution Figure 3.6.6 Fault current as superposition of both PV and utility
IF,PV is DC and IF,utility is AC and therefore the fault current is the two currents
superposed.
I F = I F,PV + I F,utility = 1.04 + 4.24 cos ωt
The rms value of the fault current =
2 2
I F,rms = I F,PV + I F,utility = 1.04 2 + 4.24 2 = 4.36 p.u. A
Sb 500
3Vb 3 × 453
Fault current = 4.36 × 0.64 = 2.79 kA
3.7 Consider a three-phase DC/AC inverter with a DC bus voltage rate at 600 V.
Assume the DC bus voltage can drop during a discharge cycle to 350 V DC. Determine
the AC bus voltage range for a modulation index of 0.9.
Solution
3 VDC
VLL = Ma
2 2
3 VDC 3 600
VLL = Ma = × × 0.9 = 331 V
2 2 2 2
3 VDC 3 350
VLL = Ma = × × 0.9 = 193 V
2 2 2 2
193 V ≤ VLL ≤ 331 V
3.8 Consider a rectifier mode of operation for the following system data of a three-
phase rectifier. Assume the data given in Table 3.8.
TABLE 3.8 Data for Problem 3.8.
VAN f1 P X p.f. Ma
120 V RMS 60 Hz 1500 15 Ω 1 0.85

W
Perform the following:
i) Find the angle δ and the DC link voltage. Ignore the resulting harmonics.
ii) Write a MATLAB program to simulate the rectifier operation to plot the current Iaand
the voltage VAN considering VPWMa and δ are known and have the same values as the
results of part i). Assume the PWM voltage is calculated from the incoming AC power.
Ignore the resulting harmonics.
Solutions
i) The three-phase power is given by
P = 3.VAN .I a . cos θ
Therefore, the phase current,
P 1500
Ia = = = 4.17∠0 A
3.VAN . cos θ 3 × 120 × 1
δ I a .X
Ia VAN
The PWM voltage of the rectifier input is given by
VPWMa = VAN − I a jX
= 120 − 4.17∠0 × 15∠90 = 135.3∠ − 27.5° V
Hence, the angle δ = 27.5°
The line to neutral voltage of the input of the rectifier is given by
M a Vdc
VL − N , rms =
2 2
Hence, the rectified voltage is
2 2.VPWMa 2 2 × 135.3
VDC = = = 450.22 V
Ma 0.85
ii) The MATLAB program is given below:
clc; clear all;

Van=120; % the values assigned
Vpwma=135.3;
f=60;
delta=27.53;
X=15i;
t=0:0.0001:0.2;
Vpwma=Vpwma*(cosd(-delta)+sind(-delta)*i); % expresses in cartesian coordinate
Ia=(Van-Vpwma)/X; % Ia determined
Ia_r=real(Ia);
Ia_im=imag(Ia);
[theta, Ia]=cart2pol(Ia_r,Ia_im); % Ia expressed in polar form
Van=Van*sqrt(2)*sin(2*pi*f*t); % Van expressed as afunction of time
Ia=Ia*sqrt(2)*sin(2*pi*f*t-theta); % Ia expressed as afunction of time
plot(t,Van,t,10*Ia)
grid on;
ylabel('Input voltage (V) and Current (A)');
xlabel('time(sec)');
title('Input Current (magnified 10 times) and Voltage');
Solution Figure 3.8.1 Voltage and Current

3.9 A three-phase rectifier has a supply-phase voltage of 120 V.The reactance between
the AC source and the rectifier is 11 Ω. Write a MATLAB program to plot the
modulation index necessary to keep the VDC constant at 1200 V when the input power
factor angle is varied from -60o to 60o. Assume that the active power supplied by the
system remains fixed at 5.5 kW.
Solutions
Steps to write the program:

1. The values of AC supply voltage (VAN), reactance (X), active power (P), and DC
link voltage, (VDC) are specified.
2. The range of the power factor angle is set.
3. The value of Ia is computed for the specific power factor angle and active power:
P
Ia =
3.V AN . cos θ
4. VPWMa is computed: VPWMa = VAN − I a jX
5. From the magnitude of VPWMa, the modulation index is computed:
2. 2.VPWMa
ma =
VDC
6. The plot of the modulation index versus the power factor angle is determined.
The MATLAB code:
% MODULATION INDEX vs POWER FACTOR ANGLE FOR FIXED Vdc and P

clc; clear all;
P=5.5e3;
Van=120;
X=11i;
Vdc=1500;
theta=-60:1:60; % power factor angle is varied from -60 to 60 degree
Ia=P/3/Van./cosd(theta);
Vpwma=Van-X*Ia.*(cosd(theta)+i*sind(theta)); % Vpwma is computed for the power
factor
Vpwma=abs(Vpwma); % The magnitude of Vpwma is found out
ma=2*sqrt(2)*Vpwma/Vdc; % modulation index is determined to keep Vdc fixed
plot(theta,ma) % modulation index vs power factor angle
axis([-60 60 0 1]);
grid on;
ylabel('m_a');
xlabel('power factor angle (degree)');
title('m_a versus power factor angle');
Result:
ma versus power factor angle
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
a
m
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60
power factor angle (degree)
Solution Figure 3.9.1 The Plot of Ma versus the Power Factor Angle to Keep VDC and
the Active P Fixed.
3.10 Develop a MATLAB testbed and compute the triangular waveVT using the
Fourier series. Assume the following specifications: peak 48 V, frequency 1 kHz, and
order of harmonics ≤ 30. Plot the waveform.
Hint:VT(t) can be constructed using the Fourier series of a triangular wave. An advantage
to this method is that you can create the waveform over a long period. The equation and
solution of a Fourier series can be found on many sites online. It should be quickly
noticed that the triangular waveform has an odd symmetry, thus: a0 = 0 and ak = 0.
The Fourier equation becomes
∞
F (t ) = a0 + ∑ a k . cos( k .ωt ) + bk .sin( k .ωt )
k =1
∞
F (t ) = ∑ bk .sin( k .ωt )
k =1
bkis all that needs to be solved for. The triangular function can then be split into sections,
somewhat like the first method, to findbk.
The equation to form a triangular wave has been discussed in section 3.5.1.
− 8.( −1) k ⎛ π⎞
bk = sin ⎜ k . ⎟
k .π
2 2
⎝ 2⎠
Now, we will substitute bkand we will obtain the equations for the triangular wave as
shown by equation:
∞
− 8.(−1) k ⎛ π⎞
F (t ) = A. ∑ sin ⎜ k . ⎟. sin (k .ωt )
k =1, 3, 5 k .π
2 2
⎝ 2⎠
whereA is amplitude. This equation can then be put into a MATLABsimulation:We can
use this equation to describe the operation of a converter in a MATLAB simulation.
For example, let us define the frequency, sampling time, and amplitude as
fs = 5000; Ts = 1 / fs; VTMax = 48
To see the full waveform, the step size should be at least half of Ts and a power of 10
smaller to create enough points.
t = 0 :Ts / 20 : 10
The above MATLAB codes will create a waveform 10 seconds long. We can use a loop
∞
to iterate the equation constantly adding it to itself as needed by a series ∑
k =1,3 ,5
.
Solution
Following the hint,Matlab program:
clc; clear all;
%defining the parameters
Vt_max = 48;
fs = 1000;
dt = 1/fs/100;
t = 0:dt:2/fs;
fori = 1:length(t)
Vt(i) = 0;
for j = 1 : 2 : 30 %VT is defined using fourier series
Vt(i) = Vt(i)+(-8*(-1)^j)/(j^2*pi^2)*sin (pi*j/2)*sin (j*2*pi*fs*t(i));
end
end
Vt = Vt*Vt_max;
%Plotting the result
plot(t,Vt);
grid on;
ylabel('V_T');
xlabel('time (mili-sec)')
Solution Figure 3.10.1 The Waveforms of Problem 3.10 and 3.11
3.11. Develop a MATLAB testbed and compute the triangular wave for PWM using the
identity mapping method. Assume a peak value of 48 and a frequency of 1 kHz. Plot the
waveform.
Solution
It is the same program as was created forProblem 3.10. The only difference isthat the
triangular waveisdefined using identity mapping:
Vt(i) = -2/pi*(asin(sin(2*pi*fs*t(i))));
The waveform is the same as that for Problem 3.10.
3.12Develop a MATLAB testbed for the DC/AC inverter given below.

Figure 3.69 The Linear and Overmodulated Operation of a Three-Phase Converter.
Assume Vidc is equal to 560 V (DC), VC (max) is equal to 220 V, fe is equal to 60 Hz a

modulation index of 0.5 ≤ Ma ≤ 1.0.Change Mf from 2 to 20.
i) The ratio of the fundamental–frequency of the line–line (RMS) to the input
DC voltage, Vidc, ( V(lin –line (RMS)) / Vidc.)
ii) Plot the V(lin –line (RMS)) / Vidcas a function of Ma for Mf= 2 and Mf= 20.
Solutions
i) The ratio of the fundamental output voltage and the input DC voltage is
Vo 3
= Ma
Vidc 2 2
ii) From the relationship in part i), the following plot is derived.
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
Vo / Vidc
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Ma
Solution Figure 3.12 Plot of the Ratio of the Output Voltage to the Input Voltage
versustheAmplitude Modulation Index
With the changing frequency modulation index, Mf, the harmonic content in the voltage
of the inverter will change.
The Solution Table 3.12.1 shows the harmonics for different modulation indices.
SOLUTION TABLE 3.12.1 The Harmonics for the Different Modulation Indices.
Ma = 0.8, Mf = 5 Ma = 0.8, Mf = 15
Harmonic % of fundamental Harmonic % of fundamental
3rd 27.08 3rd 0
5th 6.51 5th 0.01
7th 28.8 7th 0.01
It is observed that as the frequency modulation index is increased, the harmonics in the
voltage gets reduced to insignificant value.
3.13 Consider a PV source of 60 V. A single-phase inverter with four switches is used
to convert DC to 50 Hz AC using a unipolar scheme. Select the following modulation
indices:
a. Ma = 0.5 and Mf = 7
b. Ma = 0.5 and Mf = 10
c. Ma = 0.9 and Mf = 4
Write a MATLAB program to generate the waveforms of the inverter showing Van, Vbn,
Vcn voltages. Make tables and discuss your results.
Solution
Matlab program for part a. is given below, similar programs can be written for part b. and
c.
%% Sine PWM Half Bridge Inverter
clc; clear all;
%defining the parameters
Vidc = 60;
fe = 50;
Ma = 0.5;
Mf = 7;
fs = fe*Mf;
dt = 1/fs/100;
t = 0:dt:2/fe;
%Deciding the output volatge
fori = 1:length(t)
Vc(i) = Ma*sin(2*pi*fe*t(i));
Vt(i) = 0;
for j = 1 : 2 : 30 %VT is defined using fourier series
Vt(i) = Vt(i)+(-8*(-1)^j)/(j^2*pi^2)*sin (pi*j/2)*sin (j*2*pi*fs*t(i));
end
ifVc(i) >Vt(i)
Vo(i) = Vidc;
else
Vo(i) = -Vidc;
end
end
%Plotting the result
subplot(2,1,1)
plot(t,Vc);
holdon;
plot(t,Vt);
gridon;
ylabel('V_c and V_T');
subplot(2,1,2)
plot(t,Vo)
gridon;
xlabel('time (sec)')
ylabel('output voltage (V)')
axis([0 2/60 -(Vidc+10) (Vidc+10)]);
a.
1
0.5
V c and VT 0
-0.5
-1
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04
60
40
output voltage (V)
20
-20
-40
-60
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03

time (sec)
Solution Figure 3.13.1 Part a. Ma = 0.5 and Mf = 7.
b.
0.5
V c and VT
-0.5
-1
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04
60
40
output voltage (V)
20
-20
-40
-60
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03

time (sec)
Solution Figure 3.13.2 Part b. Ma = 0.5 and Mf = 10.
c.
1
0.5
V c and VT
0
-0.5
-1
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04
60
40
output voltage (V)
20
-20
-40
-60
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03

time (sec)
solution Fig. 3.13.3 Part c. Ma = 0.9 and Mf = 4
Solution table 3.13.1 The table below shows the harmonics for different modulation
indices.
Ma = 0.5, Mf = 7 Ma = 0.5, Mf = 10 Ma = 0.9, Mf = 4
Harmonic % of Harmonic % of Harmonic % of
fundamental fundamental fundamental
3rd 0.23 3rd 0.01 3rd 2.38
5th 18.74 5th 0.03 5th 0.99
7th 10.63 7th 0.04 7th 28.62
Therefore we see that as the frequency modulation index is increased, the harmonic
voltages are reduced. However, the modulation index should be limited by the properties
of the switches.
Chapter 4
Smart Power Grid Systems
4.1 A three-phase generator rated 440 V, 20 kVA is connected through a cable with impedance
of 4 + j15 Ω to two loads:
a. A three-phase, Y-connected motor load rated 440 V, 8 kVA, p.f. of 0.9 lagging.
b. A three-phase, Δ-connected motor load rated 440 V, 6 kVA, p.f. of 0.85 lagging
If the motor load voltage is to be 440 V, find the required generator voltage.
Solution
E Vph
Z
I
E Load 2
Load 1
I1 I2
Solution Figure 4.1.1 The Single Phase Equivalent Circuit
Cable impedance = Z = 4 + j15 = 15.52∠75.07°

S 8 × 10 3
I1 = ∠ − cos −1
(p.f .) = ∠ − cos −1 (0.9) = 10.5∠ − 25.84 o A
3 × VL −L 3 × 440
VL − L 440
Vph = = = 254.03∠0 V , taking the infinite bus as the reference
3 3
S 6 × 10 3
I2 = ∠ cos −1 (p.f .) = ∠ cos −1 (0.85) = 7.87∠31.78 o A
3 × VL − L 3 × 440
I = I 1 + I 2 = 10.5∠ − 25.84 o + 7.87∠31.78 o = 16.14∠ − 1.53 o A
E = Vph + IZ = 254.03∠0 + 16.14∠ − 1.53o × 15.52∠75.07° = 404∠36.4 o V
The line voltage of the generator = 404 3 = 700 V
4.2 A generator is rated at 100 MVA, 20 kV, 60 Hz, 0.8 p.f. lagging and reactance of 10%.
i) The generator per unit model if it is loaded at 50%

ii) The generator per unit model if it is loaded at 100%
1
iii) The number of poles in the generators if the shaft power is supplied at 1200 rpm
Solutions
i) Let the base voltage Vb = 20 kV and base power Sb = 100 MVA
Per unit reactance = 0.1 p.u Ω
For 50% load, the per unit load = 0.5∠ − cos −1 0.8 = 0.5∠ − 36.86° p.u MVA
ii) For 100% load, the per unit load = 1∠ − cos −1 0.8 = 1∠ − 36.86° p.u MVA
E Vt
j0.1Ω
IL
Generator P + jQ (load)
Solution Figure 4.2.1 Per unit model for part i) and ii)
f 120 × 60
iii) Number of poles = P = 120 = =6
N 1200
4.3 Develop a table showing the speed of magnetic field rotation in AC machines with two, four,
and six poles operating at frequencies 50, 60, and 400 Hz.
Solution
f
N = 120 rpm . The table shows the speed of the magnetic field.
P
SOLUTION TABLE 4.3.1 The Speed of the Magnetic Field Rotation with Two, Four, and Six
Poles Operating at Frequencies 50, 60, and 400 Hz.
2 Poles 4 Poles 6 Poles
50 Hz 3000 rpm 1500 rpm 1000 rpm
60 Hz 3600 rpm 1800 rpm 1200 rpm
400 Hz 24000 rpm 12000 rpm 8000 rpm
4.4 A 20 MVA machine-rated 20 kV, three-phase, 60 Hz generator is supplying power to the

local power grid at rated machine voltage. The machine is delivering the rate power to the local
power grid. The machine’s synchronous reactance is equal to 8 Ω with negligible resistance.
i) The machine excitation voltage when the machine is operating at 0.85 lagging power factor
ii) The machine excitation voltage when the machine is operating at 0.85 leading power factor
iii) The machine excitation voltage when the machine is operating at unity power factor
2
iv) The maximum power the machine can deliver for i, ii, and iii.
Solutions
EA V∞
jXs
IL
Pmech EA Pɸ+jQɸ (load)
Solution figure 4.4.1 The One-Phase Equivalent Circuit Diagram
20 × 10 3
i) Assuming a full load, the current = I L = ∠ − cos −1 0.85 = 577∠ − 31.7° A
3 × 20
20×103
Excitation voltage = EA = V∞ + I L .jXS = + 577∠ − 31.7° × j8 = 14.51∠15.69° kV
3
EA
X S .I L
δ
θ
IL
The Figure Phasor Diagram for a Lagging Load
20 × 10 3
ii) Assuming a full load, the current = I L = ∠ cos −1 0.85 = 577∠31.7° A
3 × 20
20 × 103
Excitation voltage = E A = V∞ + I L . jX S = + 577∠31.7° × j8 = 9.93∠23.29° kV
3
EA X S .I L
IL
θ δ
V∞
The Figure Phasor Diagram for a Leading Load
20 × 10 3
iii) Assuming a full load, the current = I L = = 577∠0° A
3 × 20
3
20 × 10 3
Excitation voltage = E A = V∞ + I L . jX S = + 577∠0° × j8 = 12.43∠21.7° kV
3
EA
X S .I L
δ
IL
The Figure Phasor Diagram for a Unity Power Factor Load
iv) Active power for part i) = P = 20 × 0.85 = 17 kW

Reactive power for part i) = Q = 20 × sin 31.7 = 10.5 kVar
The torque angle for part i) is δ = 15.69°
Active power for part ii) = P = 20 × 0.85 = 17 kW

Reactive power for part ii) = Q = −20 × sin 31.7 = −10.5 kVar
The torque angle for part ii) is δ = 23.29°
Active power for part iii) = P = 20 × 1 = 20 kW

Reactive power for part iii) = Q = 20 × sin 0 = 0 kVar
The torque angle for part iii) is δ = 21.7°
4.5 For Problem 4.4, assume the load is equal to 5000 W at unity p.f. Compute the p.u equivalent
circuit. Assume Sb = 100 MV A, Vb = 345 kV.
Solution
5000
Per unit load = Sload = = 0.00005 p.u W
100 × 10 6
345 2
Base impedance = Z base = = 0.0012 p.u Ω
100 × 10 6
8
Per unit synchronous reactance = Z p.u = = 6,667 p.u Ω
0.0012
4
Solution figure 4.5.1 Per Unit Model for Problem 5.5
4.6 A two-pole, Y-connected generator rated at 13.8 kV, 20 MVA, 0.8 p.f. leading is running at
1800 rpm. The generator has a synchronous reactance of 8 Ω per phase (at 60 Hz) and a
negligible armature resistance per phase. The generator is operated in parallel with an
interconnected power network.
i) What is the torque angle of the generator at rated conditions?
ii) What is the maximum power possible out of this generator?
Solutions
20 × 10 3
i) Assuming full-load, the current = I L = ∠ cos −1 0.8 = 837∠36.8° A
3 × 13.8
13.8 ×103
Excitation voltage = E A = V∞ + I L . jXS = + 837∠36.8° × j8 = 6.67∠53.57° kV
3
Therefore, the torque angle = δ = 53.57°
ii) Active power = P = 20 × 0.8 = 16 kW

Reactive power = Q = −20 × sin 36.8 = −11.98 kVar
4.7 A three-phase, eight pole, 220 MVA, 13.2 kV, 0.9 leading power factor, Y-connected
synchronous generator is running at 1200 rpm. Its synchronous reactance is 0.8 Ω per phase at 60
Hz. The generator is fully loaded and supplies power to a network at rated voltage. Compute the
generator voltage regulation.
Solution
220 × 10 3
Assuming a full load, the current = I = ∠ cos −1 0.9 = 9623∠25.84° A
3 × 13.2
5
13.2 × 10 3
Excitation voltage = E f = V + I. jX = + 9623∠25.84° × j0.8 = 8.14∠58.36° kV
3
8.14 3 − 13.2
Voltage regulation = × 100 = 6.81%
13.2
4.8 The one line diagram of power grid is depicted by Fig. 4.47. The data for the system are as
follows:
Transmission line between bus 2 and bus 3 is j10 Ω and between bus 3 and bus 5 is j6 Ω
G1 wind generating system 25 MVA, 13.2 kV, and reactance of 0.20 per unit
G2 gas turbine generating system 50 MVA, 20 kV, and reactance of 0.20 per unit
Transformer T1 100 MVA, 220 Y/13.8 Δ kV, and reactance of 10%
Transformer T2 200 MVA, 220/20 kV, and reactance of 10%
Transformer T3 100 MVA, 220 Y/22Y kV, and reactance of 10%
Figure 4.47 The System for Problem 4.8.
Develop the following:
i) Per unit impedance model for short-circuit studies
ii) Per unit impedance model for power flow studies
Solution
S base = 100 MVA , Vbase = 220 kV on the line between bus 2 and 3
2
Vbase 220,000 2
Base impedence of transmission line between bus 2 and bus 3 = = = 484 Ω
S base 100 × 10 6
X 10
The p.u reactance in the line between bus 2 and 3 = X p.u , 2−3 = = = 0.021 p.u. Ω
Z base 484
6
X 6
The p.u reactance in the line between bus 3 and 5 = X p.u ,3−5 = = = 0.012 p.u Ω
Z base 484
Per unit reactance remains same because the base values are same as rated for transformer T1 =
Xp.u,T1 = 0.1
S 100
New per unit reactance of T2 = X p.u ,T 2 = X old new = 0.1 = 0.05
S old 200
Per unit reactance is same as the base values are same as rated T3 = Xp.u,T3 = j0.1
VLV 13.8
Base voltage of bus 1 = VHV ,b = × 220 = 13.8 kV
VHV 220
VLV 22
Base voltage of bus 4 = VHV ,b = × 220 = 22 kV
VHV 220
VLV 20
Base voltage of bus 6 = VHV ,b = × 220 = 20 kV
VHV 220
S 25
Per unit generation of G1 = = = 0.25 p.u kVA
S b 100
2 2
S new ⎛ Vold ⎞ 100 ⎛ 13.2 ⎞
New per unit reactance of G1 = X p.u ,G1 = X old ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 0.2 × ×⎜ ⎟ = 0.73 p.u Ω
S old ⎝ Vnew ⎠ 25 ⎝ 13. 8 ⎠
S 5
Per unit generation of G2 = = = 0.5 p.u kVA
S b 100
2 2
⎛ Vold S new ⎞ 100 ⎛ 20 ⎞
New per unit reactance of G2 = X p.u ,G 2 = X old ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = j0.2 × × ⎜ ⎟ = j0.4 p.u Ω
⎝ Vnew S old ⎠ 50 ⎝ 20 ⎠
The load at bus 4 is assumed to be 1‫ס‬0° per unit kVA
2
Vp.u 12
The load impedance = Z p.u ,load = = = 1∠0 p.u Ω
S p.u
*
(1∠0)*
i) The short circuit model:
7
Solution figure 4.8.1 The Model for short circuit studies.
ii) The model for power flow studies

In this model, the buses 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 are considered. The buses 1′ and 2′ are
neglected.
Solution figure 4.8.2 Fig. Model for power flow studies.
4.9 The one-line diagram of a power grid is depicted by Fig. 4.48. The data for the grid are given
in the figure.
8
Infinite
Bus T1 HV Bus T2
CB To Feeder
Local Net
Utility CB Metering CB CB CB CB
13.2 / 3.3 kV
7 20 MVA 8
1 Xt = 12%
0.05 +j0.5
Utility EMS 4.5 MW
2.2 MVar 10
1.2 MW
0.62 MVar CB CB
0.04 +j0.4
11 9
0.9 MW
CB CB
0.48 MVar
CB CB CB CB
12 0.04 +j0.51
CB CB CB 0.96 MW CB
0.04 +j0.5 0.51 MVar
0.99 MW
0.54 MVar
0.01 +j0.12
Gas turbine
Sync. Gen.
3
T7 1.8 MVA
13
CB CB G
1.18 MW 15
CB 0.62 Mvar CB
CB CB CB CB 0.04 +j0.45
CB CB
0.03 +j0.32
CB CB 0.9 MW
0.48 Mvar 1.06 MW
T3 14 CB 0.56 Mvar
CB
2 DG
CB EMS
16 17 18
G Local Local Local
Loads
T4 Loads T5 Loads
T6
Variable Speed 4 5 6
Wind Turbine with
DFIG (2 MW) DC/AC DC/AC DC/AC
PV PV PV
Station Station Station
(Micro-Grid System) 1 MW 1 MW 1 MW
A Zone with DGs
9
Assume an MVA base of 100 and base voltage of 13.2 kV; also assume the input reactance of
the local power grid is 10% based on the transformer T1. The input reactance of all the sources is
7% with a base same as their rating.
The system data are
Transformer T1: 20 MVA, 33 /13.2 kV, 10% reactance
Transformer T2: 20 MVA, 13.2 / 3.3 kV, 12% reactance
Transformer T3: 5 MVA, 3.3 / 460 V, 6.5% reactance
Transformer T4, T5, and T6: 2 MVA, 3.3 / 460 V, 6.5% reactance
Transformer T7: 5 MVA, 3.3 / 460 V, 6% reactance
Transmission line impedance is given in Table 4.7
TABLE 4.7 Transmission Line Data for Problem 4.9.
Line Resistance (Ω) Series Reactance (Ω)
8–9 .05 0.5
9–10 0.04 0.4
9–11 0.04 0.51
11–12 0.04 0.5
11–13 0.01 0.12
13–14 0.03 0.32
14–15 0.04 0.45
The local loads are 1 MVA at 0.85 power factor lagging.
Develop the following:
i) Per unit model for power flow studies
ii) Per unit model for short-circuit studies
10
Solutions
The new p.u impedances of the transformers:
100
For T1, X p.u = 0.1 × = 0.5 p.u Ω
20
100
For T2, X p.u = 0.12 × = 0.6 p.u Ω
20
100
For T3, X p.u = 0.065 × = 1.3 p.u Ω
5
100 100
For T4, T5, and T6, X p.u = 0.065 × = 3.25 p.u Ω , X p.u = 0.06 × = 1.2 p.u Ω
2 5
100
For T7, X p.u = 0.06 × = 1.2 p.u Ω
5
2
V 3.3 2
Base impedance for 3.3 kV side = Z b ,3.3 = b = = 0.109 p.u Ω
Sb 100
ZΩ
The p.u. impedance =
Zb
SOLUTION TABLE 4.9.1 the p.u line impedance.
Line Resistance (Ω) Series Reactance Per Unit Per Unit Series
(Ω) Resistance (p.u Ω) Reactance (p.u Ω)
8–9 .05 0.5 0.45 4.5
9–10 0.04 0.4 0.37 3.7
9–11 0.04 0.51 0.37 4.67
11–12 0.04 0.5 0.37 4.5
11–13 0.01 0.12 0.09 1.1
13–14 0.03 0.32 0.28 2.9
14–15 0.04 0.45 0.37 4.1
11
i)
Vb = 3.3 kV
Infinite
Bus T1 HV Bus T2
Vb = 13.2 kV P8 + jQ8
P1 + jQ1
j0.5 p.u Ω j0.6 p.u Ω
Vb = 33 kV
7 8
0.45 +j0.45 p.u Ω

1
-0.045 p.u MW
Utility EMS 10
-0.022 p.u MVar Vb = 3.3 kV
-0.012 p.u MW
-0.0062 p.u MVar 0.37 + j3.7 p.u Ω

11 9
-0.009 p.u MW
Vb = 3.3 kV
-0.0048 p.u MVar
12 0.37 + j4.67 p.u Ω

Vb = 3.3 kV -0.0096 p.u MW
-0.0099 p.u MW Vb = 3.3 kV
0.37 + j4.5 p.u Ω -0.0051 p.u MVar
0.09 + j1.1 p.u Ω
-0.0054 p.u MVar
3
T7 S = 0.018 p.u MVA
13 Vb = 3.3 kV
Vb = 3.3 kV
-0.0118 p.u MW 15
j1.2
-0.0062 p.u MVar Vb = 460 V
0.28 + j2.9 p.u Ω 0.37 + j4.1 p.u Ω
-0.009 p.u MW
Vb = 3.3 kV -0.0106 p.u MW
-0.0048 p.u MVar
T3 14
-0.0056 p.u MVar
j1.3 p.u Ω
Vb = 460 V DG
2
EMS Vb = 3.3 kV
P = 0.02 p.u MW Vb = 3.3 kV
16 17 18
Local Local Local
Loads
T4 Loads T5 Loads
T6
j3.25 p.u Ω j3.25 p.u Ω j3.25 p.u Ω
Vb = 460 V Vb = 460 V
4 5 Vb = 460 V 6
P = 0.01 p.u MW P = 0.01 p.u MW P = 0.01 p.u MW
(Microgrid System)
A Zone with DGs
Solution figure 4.9.1 Per Unit Model for Power Flow Studies.
12
2 2
Vp.u Vp.u
ii) The load impedance can be calculated by Z p.u ,load = =
S p. u
*
(P − jQ )
12
For bus 7 = Z p.u ,7 = = 17.93 + j8.76 p.u Ω
(0.045 − j0.022)
12
For bus 9 = Z p.u ,9 = = 81.2 + j43.2 p.u Ω
(0.0096 − j0.0051)
12
For bus 11 = Z p.u ,11 = = 86.5 + j46.1 p.u Ω
(0.009 − j0.0048)
12
For bus 12 = Z p.u ,12 = = 77.8 + j42.4 p.u Ω
(0.0099 − j0.0054)
12
For bus 13 = Z p.u ,13 = = 66.4 + j34.9 p.u Ω
(0.0118 − j0.0062)
12
For bus 14 = Z p.u ,14 = = 86.5 + j46.1 p.u Ω
(0.0118 − j0.0062)
12
For bus 15 = Z p.u ,15 = = 73.75 + j38.96 p.u Ω
(0.0106 − j0.0056)
13
Infinite Vb = 3.3 kV
Bus T1 Vb = 13.2 kV HV Bus T2
1'
j0.5 p.u Ω
G
Vb = 33 kV j0.5 p.u Ω j0.6 p.u Ω
7 8
0.45 +j0.45 p.u Ω

1
17.93 + j8.76 p.u Ω Vb = 3.3 kV
Utility EMS 10
0.37 + j3.7 p.u Ω
86.5 + j46.1 p.u Ω 11 9
Vb = 3.3 kV
12 0.37 + j4.67 p.u Ω

77.8 + j42.4 p.u Ω Vb = 3.3 kV
0.37 + j4.5 p.u Ω 81.2 + j43.2 p.u Ω
0.09 + j1.1 p.u Ω
Vb = 3.3 kV
3
T7 j3.85 p.u Ω
3'
13 66.4 + j34.9 p.u Ω
G 15
j1.2 p.u Ω
Vb = 460 V 73.75 + j38.96 p.u Ω
0.28 + j2.9 p.u Ω 0.37 + j4.1 p.u Ω
86.5 + j46.1 p.u Ω Vb = 3.3 kV

Vb = 3.3 kV
T3 14
j1.3 p.u Ω
Vb = 460 V 2 DG
j3.5 p.u Ω
EMS
Vb = 3.3 kV
Vb = 3.3 kV 16 17 18
2'
j3.25 p.u Ω T4 j3.25 p.u Ω T5 j3.25 p.u Ω T6
G
Vb = 460 V Vb = 460 V Vb = 460 V
4 5 6
7 p.u Ω 7 p.u Ω 7 p.u Ω
(Microgrid System) 4' 5' 6'

A Zone with DGs G G G
Solution figure 4.9.2 Per Unit Model for Short-Circuit Studies.
14
4.10 Consider the microgrid given in Fig. 4.49.
Figure 4.49 Photovoltaic (PV) Microgrid of Problem 4.10.
Assume the following data:
a. Transformers connected to the PV-generating station are rated at 460 V Y-grounded/13.2

kV Δ, have 10% reactance, and 10 MVA capacity. The transformer connected to the
power grid is 13.2 / 63 kV, 10 MVA, 10% reactance.
b. Assume the load on bus 4 is 1.5 MW at a power factor of 0.9 lagging, on bus 5 is 2.5
MW at a power factor 0.9 lagging, on bus 6 is 1.0 MW at a power factor of 0.95
lagging, on bus 7 is 2 MW at a power factor of 0.95 leading, and on bus 8 is 1.0 MW at
a power factor of 0.9 lagging.
c. Transmission line has a resistance of 0.0685 Ω/mile, reactance of 0.40 Ω/mile and half of
line charging admittance (Y′/2) of 11 × 10 −6 Ω-1/mile. The line 4–7 is 5 miles, 5–6 is 3
miles, 5–7 is 2 miles, 6–7 is 2 miles, and 6–8 is 4 miles long. The transmission line
model is given in Fig. 4.50
15
Figure 7.50 Transmission Line Pie Model.
d. Assume PV-generating station 1 is rated at 0.75 MW and PV generating station 2 is rated

at 3 MW. Assume PV generating stations are operating at unity power factors.
e. Assume Sbase of 10 MVA and a voltage base of 460 V in PV generators. Assume the local
power grid bus voltage has 5% tolerance. Develop the following:
i) Per unit model for power flow studies
ii) Per unit model for short-circuit studies
Solutions
i)
16
63 kV
P=3
1
2 460 V j0.1
S=‐0.25‐j0.01
S=‐0.2+j0.065 Local
j0.1
Utility
13.2 kV 13.2 kV
5 0.06+j0.37 7 13.2 kV
4
0.17+j0.96
S=‐0.15‐j0.07
0.1+j0.57
0.06+j0.37
0.13+j0.75
6 13.2 kV
8
j0.1
S=‐0.1‐j0.08
3 S=‐0.1‐j0.096
460 V
P = 0.075
ii)
Assume internal resistance of PV station are 50% based on 10 MVA and the local
power grid has internal short circuit reactance of 10% based on 10 MVA. For short
circuit studies. The short circuit model is given as
2 2
Vp.u Vp.u
The load impedance can be calculated by Z p.u ,load = =
S p.u
*
(P − jQ )
12
For bus 4 = Z p.u , 4 = = 5.47 + j2.55 p.u Ω
(0.15 − j0.07 )
12
For bus 5 = Z p.u ,5 = = 4 + j0.16 p.u Ω
(0.25 − j0.01)
12
For bus 6 = Z p.u ,6 = = 6.09 + j4.87 p.u Ω
(0.1 − j0.08)
17
12
For bus 7 = Z p.u ,7 = = 4.52 + j1.47 p.u Ω
(0.2 − j0.065)
12
For bus 8 = Z p.u ,8 = = 5.2 + j5 p.u Ω
(0.1 − j0.096)
63 kV
G j0.1
2' G
0.5 1 1'
2 460 V j0.1
j0.1
13.2 kV 13.2 kV
5 0.06+j0.37 7 13.2 kV
4
4 + j0.16
0.17+j0.96 5.47 + j2.55
0.1+j0.57 4.52 + j1.47
0.06+j0.37
0.13+j0.75
6 13.2 kV
8
j0.1
6.09 + j4.87 5.2 + j5 All values are
3
460 V in per unit
0.5
2
G
Solution figure 4.10.2 Per Unit Model for Short-Circuit Studies.
4.11 Consider the PV power grid given by Fig. 4.51 below. The PV1 has an internal resistance of
0.8 p.u and inject 1 per unit power into the grid; PV2 has an internal resistance of 0.4 p.u and
inject 0.5 p.u power into the grid. The load is 1 p.u active and 1 p.u reactive power.
18
i) Per unit model for short-circuit studies
ii) Per unit model for power flow studies
j0.2
Figure 4.51 The One-Line Diagram of Problem 4.11.
Solutions
Assume the infinite bus of utility has a short-circuit reactance of 0.1 p.u.
i)
Solution figure 4.11.1 Per Unit Model for Short Circuit Studies.
ii)
19
j0.2
4.12 Compute the load factor of a feeder assuming that the maximum load is 8 MW and the
average power is 6 MW.
Solution
average power 6
The load factor = = × 100 = 75%
peak power 8
4.13 Compute the load factor of a feeder for daily operation for one month assuming the same
daily profile. Assume the average power is 170 MW and the peak is 240 MW.
Solution
average power 170

The load factor = = × 100 = 70.83%
peak power 240
4.14 If the feeder of Example 4.13 is supplied from a wind source rated 80 MW and a central
power-generating station rated 500 MW, assume the capital cost of wind power is $500 per KW
and the central station $100 per KW. Compute the EUC if the maintenance cost for the wind
source is free, except maintenance is 1 cent per kWh and the central power-generating station
fuel and maintenance cost is 3.2 cents per kWh. Give a figure for EUC from zero load factors to
unity over 5 year’s utilization.
Solution
20
Steps for the program:
1. The capacities and the various costs of the wind farm and the central power station are
assigned.
2. The energy consumed at full load for 5 years, E5 is calculated:
( )
E5 = rating of wind farm + rating of central plant × no. of hours in 5 years
central
∑ plant capacityi × capital cos t i

3. The amortized fixed cost is determined by FC amor = i − wind
E5
4. The variable cost, VC, is determined from the load supplied. If the load is less than or
equal to the capacity of the wind farm, the variable cost is the same as that of the wind
farm. Otherwise, it is equal to that of the central plant.
5. Define energy unit cost (EUC) as
amortized fixed Cost

6. EUC = VC + is calculated and plotted.
LF
Assuming load factor of 10%,
The energy in one year at full capacity = (80 + 500) × 24 × 365 = 5,080,800 × 10 3 kWh
capacity wind .capital wind + capacity central .capital central

Amortized fixed cost =
energy in one year
500 × 80 × 10 3 + 100 × 500 × 10 3

= 0.017 $ / kWh
5,080,800 × 10 3

EUC = VC +
LF
0.017
= 0.01 + = 0.18 $ / kWh
0.1
The energy in two year at full capacity = 2 × (80 + 500) × 24 × 365 = 10,161,600 × 10 3 kWh
capacity wind .capital wind + capacity central .capital central

energy in one year
21
500 × 80 × 10 3 + 100 × 500 × 10 3
= 0.009 $ / kWh
10,161,600 × 10 3

EUC = VC +
LF
0.009
= 0.01 + = 0.095 $ / kWh
0.1
Solution Table 4.14.1 the EUC for different years
Year EUC
($/kWh)
1st 0.18
2nd 0.095
3rd 0.067
4th 0.052
5th 0.044
The MATLAB program:
clc; clear all;
W_cap=80e3; % capacity of wind farm in kW
C_cap=500e3; % capacity of central plant in kW
W_capital=500; % capital cost of wind farm in $/kW
C_capital=100; % capital cost of central plant in $/kW
W_VC=0.01; % variable cost for wind energy in $/kWh
C_VC=0.032; % variable cost for central plant in $/kWh
Energy5=(W_cap+C_cap)*24*365*5; % energy used in 5 years in kWh
22
FC_amor=(W_cap*W_capital+C_cap*C_capital)/Energy5;
a=W_cap/(W_cap+C_cap); % the percentage capacity of wind farm
for LF=0.01:0.001:1
if LF<=a
VC=W_VC;
else
VC=C_VC;
end
EUC=VC+FC_amor./LF; % EUC in $/kWh
EUC=EUC*100; % EUC in cents/kWh
plot(LF,EUC,'.') % plotting EUC versus load factor
hold on;
end
grid on; % labeling the axes
xlabel('Load Factor');
ylabel('EUC (in cents/kWh)');
title('EUC vs Load Factor');
The results are plotted in Solution Figure 4.14.1.
23
EUC vs Load Factor
40
35
30
25
E UC (in cents/kWh)
20
15
10
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Load Factor
Solution figure 4.14.1 The Plot of Energy unit cost, EUC (in cents/kWh) versus Load Factor for
Problem 4.14.
Since the variable cost of fuel cell is higher than that of micro-turbine, during low loads, only
micro-turbines are used. However, as the demand rises, the fuel cells are also connected. At the
point where the load exceeds the capacity of micro-turbine, fuel cell is turned on which gives rise
to discontinuity in the curve.
4.15 If the feeder of Problem 4.13 is supplied from 10 fuel cell sources rated for a total of 2 MW
and 20 microturbines rated for 6 MW, assume the capital cost of a fuel cell is $1000 per kW and
a microturbine is $200 per kW. Compute the fuel source EUC if the variable cost for the fuel cell
is 15 cents per kWh and microturbine is 2.2 cents per kWh, assume 5 years of operation. Show
EUC as a function of time from zero load factors to unity in a figure.
Solution
Assuming load factor of 50%,
The energy in one year at full capacity = (10 × 2 + 20 × 6) × 24 × 365 = 12,26,400 × 10 3 kWh
capacity fuel .capital fuel + capacity micro .capital micro

energy in one year
10 × 2 × 10 3 × 1000 + 20 × 6 × 10 3 × 200
= 0.035 S / kWh
1,226,400 × 10 3
24
EUC = VC +
LF
0.035
= 0.022 + = 0.092 $ / kWh
0.5
The energy in two year at full capacity = (10 × 2 + 20 × 6) × 24 × 365 × 2 = 24,52,800 × 10 3 kWh
capacity fuel .capital fuel + capacity micro .capital micro

energy in one year
10 × 2 × 10 3 × 1000 + 20 × 6 × 10 3 × 200
= 0.018 $ / kWh
2,452,800 × 10 3

EUC = VC +
LF
0.018
= 0.022 + = 0.058 $ / kWh
0.5
Solution Table 4.15.1 the EUC for different years
Year EUC
($/kWh)
1st 0.092
2nd 0.058
3rd 0.045
4th 0.039
5th 0.036
The steps to solve the problem are the same as those of Problem 4.14.
The MATLAB program:
clc; clear all;
F_cap=2e3; % capacity of fuel cell in kW
25
M_cap=6e3; % capacity of micro-turbine in kW
F_capital=1000; % capital cost of fuel cell in $/kW
M_capital=200; % capital cost of micro-turbine in $/kW
F_VC=0.15; % variable cost for fuel cell in $/kWh
M_VC=0.022; % variable cost for micro-turbine in $/kWh
Energy5=(F_cap+M_cap)*24*365*5; % energy used in 5 years in kWh
FC_amor=(F_cap*F_capital+M_cap*M_capital)/Energy5;
a=M_cap/(F_cap+M_cap); % the percentage capacity of micro-turbine
for LF=0.01:0.001:1
if LF<=a
VC=M_VC;
else
VC=F_VC;
end
EUC=VC+FC_amor./LF; % EUC in $/kWh
EUC=EUC*100; % EUC in cents/kWh
plot(LF,EUC,'.') % plotting EUC versus load factor
hold on;
end
grid on; % labeling the axes
xlabel('Load Factor');
ylabel('EUC (in cents/kWh)');
26
title('EUC vs Load Factor');
The results are plotted in the graph.
EUC vs Load Factor

100
90
80
70
60
EUC (in cents/kWh)
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Load Factor
Solution figure 4.15.1 The Plot of energy unit cost EUC (in cents/kWh) versus Load Factor for
Problem 4.15.
Since the variable cost of fuel cell is higher than that of micro-turbine, during low loads, only
micro-turbines are used. However, as the demand rises, the fuel cells are also connected. At the
point where the load exceeds the capacity of micro-turbine, fuel cell is turned on which gives rise
to discontinuity in the curve.
27
CHAPTER 5
MICROGRID SOLAR ENERGY SYSTEMS
5.1 Search the Internet and specify four PV modules. Give a table as shown below
(table 5.45)and compare the rated voltage, cost, width, length, and weight.
Solutions
We find BP 3230T solar panel the data sheet of which is available at
http://www.solarelectricsupply.com/images/content/pdf/panels/spec-sheets/BP-
3230T.pdf, accessed Oct 8, 2011
And the cost of which found from:
http://www.google.com/products/catalog?q=cost+of+BP+3230T&um=1&ie=UTF-
8&tbm=shop&cid=17740868210462196047&sa=X&ei=r_uQTr6KLoijsQKO9JGLAQ&
ved=0CDkQ8wIwAw, accessed Oct 8, 2011
Voltage temperature coefficient = kv = -0.36 %/°C

Current temperature coefficient = ki = 0.065 %/°C
Open circuit voltage at 10°C=
0.36
= VOC + k v .Voc (T − TSTC ) = 36.7 − × 36.7 × (10 − 25) = 38.68 V
100
Short circuit current at 10°C=
0.065
= I OC + k v .I oc (T − TSTC ) = 8.4 + × 8.4 × (10 − 25) = 8.32 A
100
0.36
Open circuit voltage at 20°C = 36.7 − × 36.7 × (20 − 25) = 37.36 V
100
0.065
Short circuit current at 20°C = 8.4 + × 8.4 × (20 − 25) = 8.37 A
100
0.36
100
0.065
100
0.36
100
0.065
100
0.36
100
0.065
100
TABLE 5.45.The Voltage and Current Characteristic of a typical PV module

Power (max) 230 W
Voltage at maximum power point (MPP) 29.1 V
Current at maximum power point (MPP) 7.90 A
VOC (open circuit voltage) 36.70 V
ISC (short circuit current) 8.40 A
Efficiency 13.8%
Cost $410.71
Width 39.4 inch
Length 65.6 inch
Height 2.0 inch
Weight 42.8 lb
5.2 Search the Internet to find the voltage-current characteristic of four PV modules.
Make a table of input impedances as current varies for each operating temperature.
Develop a plot of input impedance as a function of PV load current for each operating
temperature.
Solutions
From the PV parameters of PV-MF165EB3 found in
http://www.wholesalesolar.com/pdf.folder/module%20pdf%20folder/mf165eb3.pdf,
accessed Oct 8, 2011 we the internal resistance can be derived.
The table below lists the input impedances:
Output current, Thevenin’s
A resistance, Ω
0 to 0.9624 1.2469
0.9624 to 1.5210
1.7514
1.7514 to 1.9371
2.3709
2.3709 to 2.5797
2.8361
2.8361 to 3.5836
3.1709
3.1709 to 5.1635
3.4033
3.4033 to 7.6583
3.5600
3.5600 to 11.6002
3.6634
3.6634 to 157.3446
3.8700
160
140
120
100
R (ohm)
80
60
40
20
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
I (A)
The internal PV resistancevs current
5.3 Design a microgrid of PV rated at 100 kW of power at 230 V AC using a PV

module with the voltage and current characteristics.
TABLE 5.46.Photovoltaic Module Data for Problem 5.3.
Power (max) 320W
Voltage at Maximum Power

52.6 V
Point (MPP)
Current at MPP 6.1 A

Voc (Open-circuit voltage) 63.2 V
Isc (Short-circuit current) 7.0 A
Determine the following:

i) Number of modules in a string for each PV type
ii) Number of strings in an array for each PV type
iii) Number of arrays
iv) Inverter specifications
v) One-line diagram of this system
Solutions
It is assumed that the system is single phase and the data is given in table 5.46.
The following table lists the variables used:
Table 5.4. The PV design nomenclature
Terms Abbreviations Descriptions
String Voltage SV String voltage for series connected
modules
Power of a module PM Power produced by a module
String Power SP Power that can be generated in one
string
Number of strings NS Number of strings per array
Number of Arrays NA Number of arrays in a design
Surface area of a module SM Surface area of a module
Total Surface area TS Total surface area
Array Power AP Array power is generated by
connecting a number of strings in
parallel
Number of modules NM Number of modules per string
Total number of modules TNM Total number of modules in all
arrays put together
Array voltage for maximum VAMPP The operating voltage for maximum
power point tracking power point tracking of an array
Array current for maximum IAMPP The operating current for maximum
power point tracking power point tracking of an array
Array maximum power PAMPP The maximum operating power of
point an array
Number of converters NC Total number of DC-DC converters
Number of rectifiers NR Total number of AC-DC rectifiers
Number of inverters NI Total number of inverters
i) The load voltage is specified as 230 V single-phase AC. To acquire maximum power
from the PV array, we select a modulation index of M a = 0.9 .The inverter input voltage
is given by
2Vac
Vidc =
Ma
2 × 230
Vidc = = 361.4 V
0.9
The inverter is designed to operate at the maximum power point (MPP) tracking of the
PV array. Therefore, the number of modules to be connected in series in a string is given
by
V
NM= idc
VMPP
WhereVMPP is the voltage at the MPP of the PV array of the module.
361.4
NM = ≈7
52.6
ii) The string voltage (SV) is given as
SV = NM × V MPP
Using this module, string voltage for this design is
SV = 7 × 52.6 = 368.2 V
The power generated by one string (SP) is given by
SP = NM × PMPP
WherePMPP is the nominal power generated at the MPP.

The power generated by a string for this design is given as
kW per string = 7 × 52.6 × 6.1 = 2,246 W
iii) If we design each array to generate a power of 20 kW, then the number of strings, NS,
in an array is given by
power of one array
NS =
power of one string
20
NS = ≈ 10
2.246
The number of array(NA) for total power generation is
PV generation
NA=
power of one array
100
Therefore, NA = =5
20
SOLUTION:
The PV Generating Station Specifications.
Modules per Strings per Number of String Voltage
String Array Arrays (V)
7 10 5 368.2
iv) In the final design, the inverter should be rated such that it is able to process
generation of 20 kW for each array and supply the load at 230 V AC from its array at its
MPP tracking. Based on the PV module, the string voltage is specified as
Vidc = 368.2 V and the modulation index is given as follows:
2Vac
Ma =
Vidc
2 × 230
Ma = = 0.88
368.2
Let us select a switching frequency of 6 kHz. Therefore, the frequency modulation index
is given by
f 6000
Mf = S = = 100
fe 60
PV generation
NI =
power of one inverter
100
Therefore, NI = =5
20
SOLUTION
The Inverter Specifications.
Input Power Output Amplitude Frequency Number of
Voltage Rating Voltage, Modulation Modulation Inverters
Vidc(V) (kW) VAC Index, Ma Index, Mf
(V)
368.2 20 230 0.88 100 5
v)
DC Bus AC Bus
1 1
DC/AC
3 phase
2 Inverter
2
DC/AC
3 phase
Inverter
Amplitude
modulation
index = 0.88
100 kW
5 5
DC/AC
3 phase
368.2 V Inverter 230 V
5 PV arrays:
20 kW
10 string
each
7 modules per string
The One-Line Diagram of Problem 5.3.
5.4Design a microgrid of a PV system rated at 600 kW of power at 460 V AC (three-

phase) using a PV module with the data given in Table 5.46
TABLE 5.46. Photovoltaic Module Data for Problem 5.4.
Power (max) 320W
Voltage at maximum power

52.6 V
point (MPP)
Current at MPP 6.1 A
Voc (open-circuit voltage) 63.2 V
Isc (short-circuit current) 7.0 A

iv) Inverter specifications
Solutions
i) The load is 600 kW rated at 460 V AC. Based on the voltage of the load and an
amplitude modulation index of 0.9,we will have the following input DC voltage for a
three-phase inverter:
2 2V LL
Vidc =
3M a
2 2 × 460
= = 835 V
3 × 0.9
We will limit the maximum string voltage, SV, to 600 V DC. Therefore, we can use a
boost converter to boost the SV to 835 V.
If we select an approximateSV of 550 V, we will have the number of modules in a string
is given by
Vstring 550
= ≈ 11
VMPP 52.6
whereVMPP is the voltage of a module at MPP tracking.
ii) The string power, SP, can be computed as

SP = NM × PMPP
SP = 11 × 52.6 × 6.1 = 3,529 W
The string voltage, SV, is given as
SV = NM × V MPP
Therefore, the SV for this design is
SV = 11 × 52.6 = 578.6 V
power of one array

NS =
power of one string
20
NS = ≈6
3.578
The number of arrays, NA, for total power generation is
PV generation
NA=
power of one array
Therefore,
600 kW
NA = = 30
20 kW
iv)
SOLUTION
The PV Specifications.
11 6 30 578.6
The inverters should be rated to withstand the output voltage of the boost
converter and should be able to supply the required power. The inverter is rated at
100 kW with input voltage of 835 V DC and anamplitude modulation index of
0.9. The output voltage of the inverter is 460 V AC.
The number of inverters, NI, needed to process a generation of 600 kW is given

by
PV generation
NI=
Therefore,
600
NI = =6
100
Hence, we need to connect six inverters in parallel to supply the load of 600 kW.
If a switching frequency is set at 5.04 kHz, the frequency modulation index, Mf is
given by
f 5040
Mf = S = = 84
fe 60
SOLUTION:
Number Input Power Output Amplitude Frequency
of Voltage Rating Voltage, Modulation Modulation
Inverters Vidc (V) (kW) VAC Index, Ma Index, Mf
(V)
6 835 100 460 0.90 84
The number of boost converters needed is the same as the number of arrays,
which is 30, and the power rating of each boost converter is 20 kW.
The boost converter input voltage, Vi, is equal to the SV:
Vi = 578.6 V
The output voltage, Vo, of the boost converter, Vidc, is equal to the inverter input
voltage:
Vidc = Vo = 835 V
The duty ratio, D, of the boost converter is given by
V
D = 1− i
Vo
578.6
D = 1− = 0.31
835
SOLUTION
The Boost Converter Specifications for a 500 kW System.
Number of Input Power Output Duty Ratio,
Boost Voltage, Rating (kW) Voltage, Vo D
Converters Vi(V) (V)
30 578.6 20 835 0.31
v)
DC Bus Duty ratio DC Bus AC Bus
1 = 0.31 Amplitude
DC/DC modulation
Boost index = 0.9
1
2 DC/AC
DC/DC 3 phase
Inverter
Boost
6 600 kW
30
DC/DC DC/AC
Boost 3 phase
578.6 V 835 V Inverter 460 V
30 PV arrays: 20 kW
6 string each 100 kW
11 modules per string each
5.5 Search the Internet for four single-phase inverters and summarize the operating
conditions in a table and discuss the results.
Solutions
The table below gives the specification of single phase inverters
http://www.solaredge.com/files/pdfs/products/inverters/se-single-phase-us-
inverter-datasheet.pdf, Accessed Oct 8, 2011
Inverter SE3300US SE3800US SE6000US SE7000US
Maximum AC 3300 W 3800 W 6000 W 7000 W
power output
AC output 183-294 183-294 183-294 183-294
voltage
Maximum 16 A 18.5 A 25 A 25 A
continuous
output current
Maximum 500 V 500 V 500 V 500 V
input DC
voltage
Maximum 10.5 A 12 A 17.5 A 18 A
input DC
current
Efficiency 97.2% 97.3% 97% 97%
Weight 52 lb 52 lb 52 lb 52 lb
Length 27.5 inch 27.5 inch 27.5 inch 27.5 inch
Width 12.5 inch 12.5 inch 12.5 inch 12.5 inch
Height 7.5 inch 7.5 inch 7.5 inch 7.5 inch
5.6 Search the Internet for DC/DC boost converters and DC/AC inverters and create
a table and summarizing the operating conditions of four DC/DC boost converters
and DC/AC inverters in a table and discuss the results and operations.
Solutions
DC/DC boost converter, PC12480.8, specification is obtained from
http://www.l-com.com/item.aspx?id=20899, accessed Oct 8, 2011
SOLUTION TABLE 5.6.1 DC/DC boost converter ratings
Input voltage range 12 V to 26 V DC
Output current 0.8 Amps Max.
Output voltage 48 VDC
Weight 0.9 lbs
Dimensions 4.1 × 2.6 × 1.4 inches
The inverter specifications are given in the solution of problem 5.5
5.7 Design a microgrid of 50 kW, rated at 230 V AC. Use the PV module of
Problem 5.3 and the converters of Problem 5.5. The design should use the least
number of converters and inverters. Determine the following:
iv) Converter and inverter specifications
Solutions
i) The load voltage is specified as 230 V single-phase AC. To acquire maximum power
from the PV array, we select a modulation index of M a = 0.9 .The inverter input voltage
is given by
2Vac
Vidc =
Ma
2 × 230
Vidc = = 361.4 V
0.9
The inverter is designed to operate at the MPP tracking of PV array. Therefore, the
number of modules, NM, to be connected in series in a string is given by
V
NM = idc
V MPP
whereVMPPis the voltage at MPP of PV of the module.
361.4
NM = ≈7
52.6
The string voltage is given as
SV = NM × V MPP
Using this module, the SV for this design is
SV = 7 × 52.6 = 368.2 V
The power generated by one string is given by
SP = NM × PMPP
WherePMPP is the nominal power generated at the MPP.

The power generated by a string for this design is given as
kW per string = 7 × 52.6 × 6.1 = 2,246 W
ii) If we design each array to generate a power of 25 kW, then the number of strings, NS,
in an array is given by:
power of one array

NS =
power of one string
25
NS = = 12
2.246
iii) The number of arrays, NA, for total power generation is
PV generation
NA =
power of one array
Therefore,
50
NA = =2
25
iv)
SOLUTION:
7 12 2 368.2
In the final design, the inverter should be rated such that it is able to process the
generation of 25 kW for each array and supply the load at 230 V AC from its array at its
MPP tracking. Based on the PV module, the string voltage is specified as
Vidc = 368.2 V
and the amplitude modulation index, Ma, is given as follows:
2Vac
Ma =
Vidc
2 × 230
Ma = = 0.88
368.2
Let us select a switching frequency of 6 kHz. Therefore, the frequency modulation
index,Mf, is given by
f 6000
Mf = S = = 100
fe 60
PV generation
NI =
Therefore,
50
NI = =2
25
SOLUTION
Input Power Output Amplitude Frequency Number of
Voltage Vidc Rating Voltage, VAC Modulation Modulation Inverters
(V) (kW) (V) Index, Ma Index, Mf
368.2 25 230 0.88 100 2
v)
The One-Line Diagram of the System.
5.8 Design a microgrid of 600 kW of power rated at 230 V AC. Use the PV module
of Problem 5.3. The design should use the least number of converters and
inverters. Determine the following:
iv) Converter and inverter specifications
Solutions
i) The load is 600 kW rated at 230 V AC. Based on the voltage of the load and an
amplitude modulation index of 0.9,we will have the following input DC voltage for a
three-phase inverter:
2 2V LL
Vidc =
3M a
2 2 × 230
= = 417 V
3 × 0.9
Let us select the string voltage at approximately 420 V,we will have the number of
modules in a string given by
Vstring 420
= ≈8
VMPP 52.6
whereVMPP is the voltage of a module at MPP.
ii) The string power, SP, can be computed as
SP = NM × PMPP
SP = 8 × 52.6 × 6.1 = 2,566 W
The string voltage, SV, is given as
SV = NM × V MPP
Therefore, the SV for this design is
SV = 8 × 52.6 = 420 .8 V
power of one array

NS =
power of one string
20
NS = ≈8
2.566
The number of arrays, NA, for total power generation is
PV generation
NA=
power of one array
Therefore,
600 kW
NA = = 30
20 kW
iv)
SOLUTION:
8 8 30 420.8
The inverters should be rated to withstand the output voltage of the PV and should
be able to supply the required power. The inverter is rated at 100 kW with input
voltage of 420 V DC and anamplitude modulation index of 0.9. The output
voltage of the inverter is 230 V AC.
The number of inverters, NI, needed to process a generation of 600 kW is given

by
PV generation
NI=
Therefore,
600
NI = =6
100
Hence, we need to connect six inverters in parallel to supply the load of 600 kW.
If the switching frequency is set at 5.04 kHz, the frequency modulation index, Mf
is given by
f 5040
Mf = S = = 84
fe 60
2 2VLL 2 2 × 230
Ma = = = 0.89
3Vidc 3 × 420.8
SOLUTION:
of Voltage Rating Voltage, Modulation Modulation
(V)
6 420 100 230 0.89 84
v)
DC Bus DC Bus AC Bus
1 Amplitude
modulation
index = 0.89
1
2 DC/AC
3 phase
Inverter
6 600 kW
30
DC/AC
3 phase
420.8 V Inverter 230 V
30 PV arrays:
8 string 100 kW
5.9 Design a microgrid of a PV system rated at 2 MW and connected through a smart net
metering to the local utility at 13.2 kV. The local loads consist of 100 kW of lighting
loads rated at 120 V and 500 kW of AC load rated at 220 V. The system has a 700 kWh
storage system. Local transformer specifications are 13.2 kV/460 V, 2 MVA, and 10%
reactance; 460 V/230 V, 250 kVA, and 7% reactance; and 460V/120 V, 150 kVA, and
5% reactance. The data for this problem are given in Table 5.47.
TABLE 5.47 Photovoltaic Module Data.

Panel Type 1 Type 2 Type 3 Type 4
Power (Max), W 190 200 170 87
Voltage at max. power point
(MPP), V 54.8 26.3 28.7 17.4
Current at MPP, A 3.47 7.6 5.93 5.02
VOC (open-circuit voltage), V 67.5 32.9 35.8 21.7
ISC (short-circuit current, A 3.75 8.1 6.62 5.34
Efficiency 16.40% 13.10% 16.80% >16%
Cost $870.00 $695.00 $550.00 $397.00
Width 34.6" 38.6" 38.3" 25.7"
Length 51.9" 58.5" 63.8" 39.6"
Thickness 1.8" 1.4" 1.56" 2.3"
Weight 33.07 lb 39 lb 40.7 lb 18.3 lb
i) Search the Internet for four DC/DC boost converters, rectifier, and inverters and
create a table. Summarize the operating conditions in a table and discuss the results
and operations as relates to this design problem. Develop a MATLAB testbed to
perform the following:
ii) Select boost converter, bidirectional rectifier, and inverters for the design of a
microgrid from commercially available converters. If commercial converters are not
available, specify the data for a new design of a boostconverter, bidirectional
rectifier, and inverters.
iii) Give the one-line diagram of your design. Make tables and give the number of
modules in a string for each PV type, number of strings in an array for each PV
type, number of arrays, converters, weight, and surface area required for each PV
module type.
iv) Design a 700 kWh storage system. Search online and select a deep-cycle battery
storage system. Give the steps in your design and includethe dimension and weight
of the storage system.
v) Develop a per unit model of the PV microgrid system
Solutions
i) The following MATLAB program is used for the design:
clc;
P = 5000;
Vmpp = [54.8 26.3 28.7 17.4];
Impp = [3.47 7.6 5.93 5.02];
Wt = [33.07 39 40.7 18.3];
Pmpp = Vmpp.*Impp;
Wt_p = Wt./Pmpp;
[lightestPV_type] = min(Wt_p)
P_inv = [100 250 500 1000];

No_inv = ceil(P./P_inv);
[min_invinv_type] = min(No_inv)
SOLUTIONT;
Data for PV Modules.
Module Type 1 Type 2 Type 3 Type 4
Power (Max), W 190 200 170 87
Voltage at Max. Power 54.8 26.3 28.7 17.4
Point, V
Current at MPP, A 3.47 7.6 5.93 5.02
VOC (open-circuit voltage), V 67.5 32.9 35.8 21.7
ISC (short-circuit current, A 3.75 8.1 6.62 5.34
Efficiency 16.40% 13.10% 16.80% >16%
Cost $870.00 $695.00 $550.00 $397.00
Width 34.6" 38.6" 38.3" 25.7"
Length 51.9" 58.5" 63.8" 39.6"
Thickness 1.8" 1.4" 1.56" 2.3"
Weight 33.07 lb 39 lb 40.7 lb 18.3lb
SOLUTION:
Data Single-Phase Inverter.
Inverter Type 1 Type 2 Type 3 Type 3
Power 500 W 5 kW 15 kW 4.7 kW
Input Voltage
DC 500 V 500 V max 500 V 500 V
Output Voltage 230 VAC/60 Hz @ 230 VAC/ 60 Hz @ 220 VAC/ 60 Hz@ 230 VAC/ 60 Hz @
AC 2.17 A 27 A 68 A 17.4 A
Min. 78% @ full
Efficiency load 97.60% > 94% 96%
Length 15.5" 315 mm 625 mm 550 mm

Width 5" 540 mm 340 mm 300 mm
Height 5.3" 191 mm 720 mm 130 mm
Weight 9 lb 23 lb 170 kg 21 kg
SOLUTION:
Data forBoost Converters.
Input Voltage (V) Output Voltage (V) Power (kW)
24–46 26–48 9.2
24–61 26–63 12.2
24–78 26–80 11.23
24–78 26–80 13.1
24–98 26–100 12.5
80–158 82–160 15.2
80–198 82–200 14.2
80–298 82–300 9.5
200–600 700–1000 20.0
ii)
The load is 2 MW rated at 460 V AC. Based on the voltage of the load and an
amplitude modulation index of 0.9, we will have the following input DC voltage
for the inverter:
2 2V LL 2 2 × 460
Vidc = = = 835 V
3.M a 3 × 0 .9
Selecting an inverter rated 250 kW, the total number of inverters, NI, for processing of 2
MW is given.
PV generation
NI =
rating of inverters
2000
NI = =8
250
For this design, eight inverters should be connected in parallel. If we select a
switching frequency of 5.04 kHz, the frequency modulation index is
f 5040
Mf = S = = 84
fe 60
SOLUTION
The Three-Phase Inverter Specifications.
Number of Input Power Output Amplitude Frequency
Inverters Voltage Vidc Rating (kW) Voltage, VAC Modulation Modulation
(V) (V) Index, Ma Index, Mf
8 835 250 460 0.90 84
Other designs are also possible. The input DC voltage of PV specifies the output AC
voltage of inverters. The PV specifications are given below.
iii)
SOLUTION:
The design data for each type PV.
PV Surface Area Power Area per Unit
Type of One Module Rating Power (ft2per W)
(ft2) (W)
1 12.47 190 0.066
2 15.68 200 0.078
3 16.97 170 0.100
4 7.07 87 0.081
It can be seen from the above table, the PV module of Type 1 requires the minimum
surface area. Selecting PV Type 1 and string open circuit voltage of 550 V DC, the
number of modules, NM, is
string voltage
NM =
VMPP
whereVMPP is the voltage at maximum power point of PV module from the PV data
550
NM = ≈ 10 for type 1 PV
54.8
The string voltage, SV, under load is given as:
SV = NM × V MPP
SV = 10 × 54.8 = 548 V
The string power, SP, is given as
SP = NM × PMPP
wherePMPP is the power generated by a PV module at MPP.
SP = 10 × 190 = 1.9 kW for Type 1

If we design each array to generate a power of 20 kW, then the number of strings,
NS, is given by:
power of one array
NS =
power of one string
20
NS = = 11
1.9
The number of arrays, NA, is given by
PV generation
NA =
power of one array
2000
NA = = 100
20
The total number of PV modules, TNM, in an array is given by
TNM = NM × NS × NA
WhereNM is number of modules in a string and NS is the number of strings; NA is
number of arrays in a PV station.
NA = 10 × 11 × 100 = 11000 for PV module of Type 1
The total surface area needed, TS, for Type 1 PV module is as
11000 × 34.6 × 51.9
TS = = 137,172 sq ft = 3.14 acre
144
The total weight, TW, needed for a Type 1 PV module is the product of the number of
modules and the weight of each module.
TW = 11000 × 33.07 = 363,770 lb
The total cost for a PV module is the product of the number of modules and the cost of
each module:
Total cost = 11000 × 870 = $9.57 million for PV module Type 1
SOLUTION:
PV Number Number Number String Total Total Total
Type of of of Voltage Area of Weight Cost of
Modules Strings Arrays (V) the PV of the the PV
per String per (ft2) PV (million
Array (lb) $)
1 10 11 100 548 137,172 363,770 9.57
The output voltage of the boost converter, Vo, is the same as the input voltage, of
the inverter, Vidc..
Vo = Vidc = 835 V
The boost input voltage, Vi , is same as the string voltage, SV= Vi = 548 V
The duty ratio of the boost converter is given by
V
D = 1− i
Vo
For this design, it is,
548
D = 1− = 0.34
835
We need one boost converter for each array. Therefore, the number of boost
converters is 100 and each is rated 20 kW.
SOLUTION:
TheBoostConverter Specifications.
Boost Voltage Rating (kW) Voltage, Vo D
Converters Vi(V) (V)
100 548 20 835 0.34
iv)
SOLUTION:
The Battery Storage Specifications.

Class 1 34–40 Ah 12 V
Class 2 70–85 Ah 12 V
Class 3 85–105 Ah 12 V
Class 4 95–125 Ah 12 V
Class 5 180–215 Ah 12 V
Class 6 225–255 Ah 12 V
Class 7 180–225 Ah 6V
Class 8 340–415 Ah 6V
The battery specification given above presents a number of batteries for storing
700 kWh of energy. In storage design, we need to limit the number of batteries in
a string and limit the number of arrays to three. These limitations are imposed on
lead-acid-type batteries to extend the life of storage system. We select the Class 6
batteries that are rated at 255 Ah at 12 V. In this design, three batteries per string
and three strings in each array are used. The string voltage, SV, of a storage
system is
SV= 3 × 12 = 36 V
The string energy stored, SES, in each battery is given by the product of the Ah
and the battery voltage.
SES = 255 × 12 = 3.06 kWh

Each array has nine batteries. Therefore, the array energy stored, AES, is given as:
AES = 9 × 3.06 = 27.54 kWh
The number of arrays, NA, needed to store 700 kWh is given by
total energy
NA =
energy in each array
700
NA = ≈ 26
27.54
SOLUTION:
TheBattery Storage Array Specification.
Battery Number of Number Number String Energy
Class Batteries of Strings of Voltage Stored per
per String per Array Arrays (V) Array (kWh)
6 3 3 26 36 27.54
Becausewe have 26 storage arrays, we needone buck-boost converter for each array
storage system. Therefore, we need a total of 26 buck-boost converters. The buck-boost
converters are used to charge–discharge the battery storage system.
In this design, the buck-boost converter input is 835 V of the DC bus and its output must
be 36 V DC to charge the battery storage system.
If the storage systems are to be used for 8 hours, they can be discharged up to 50% of
their capacity; hence, they can supply 350 kWh. The power, P, supplied by the storage
system is given by
kWh
P=
hour
350
P= = 43.75 kW
8
The array power, AP, rating is given by
power
AP=
number of arrays
43.75
AP = = 1.68 kW
26
Let us select a buck-boost converter rated at 1.68 kW. The duty ratio is given by
Vo
D=
Vi + Vo
36
D= = 0.04
835 + 36
SOLUTION:
The Buck-Boost Converter Specifications.
Number of Input Power Output Duty ratio,
Buck- Voltage,Vi Rating (kW) voltage, Vo D
Boost (V) (V)
Converters
26 835 1.68 36 0.04
The One-line diagramof the PV system.

v) To compute the per unit system, we let the base volt-ampere be S b = 2 MVA . The
base values for the system of Problem5.9 are:
The base value of Wh is therefore, Eb = 2 MWh
The base voltage on the utility side is13.2 kV.
The base voltage on the low -voltage side of the transformer is 460 V.
The new p.u. reactance of the transformer on the new 1MVA base is given by
2
S b( new) ⎛V ⎞
X pu ,trans,( new) = X pu,trans,( old ) × × ⎜ b( old ) ⎟
Sb( old ) ⎜V ⎟
⎝ b( new) ⎠
2
150 ⎛ 460 ⎞
X pu ,trans,( new), 460 / 120 = 0.05 × ×⎜ ⎟ = 0.0038 p.u Ω ,
2000 ⎝ 460 ⎠
2
250 ⎛ 460 ⎞
X pu ,trans,( new),460 / 220 = 0.05 × ×⎜ ⎟ = 0.0088 p.u Ω ,
2000 ⎝ 460 ⎠
The per unit power, Pp.u, rating of the inverters is given by
power rating
Pp.u=
Sb
250 × 10 3
Pp.u.inverter = = 0.125 p.u W
2 × 10 6
And, the per unit power rating of the boost converters

20 × 10 3
Pp.uboost = = 0.010 p.u W
2 × 10 6
The base voltage of the DC side of the inverter is 835 V. Therefore, the p.u
voltage of the DC side, Vp.u, of the inverter is
835
Vp.u= = 1 p.u V
835
Becausethe base voltage of the low-voltage side of the boost converter is the same
as rated voltage, the per unit value is 1per unit. The same is true for the storage
system.
Similarly, the per unit power for buck-boost and energy storage system can be
computed.
1.68 × 10 3
Pp.u buck-boost = = 0.0008 p.u W
2 × 10 6
27.54 × 10 3
Energy stored = = 0.0135 p.u W
2 × 10 6
100 × 10 3
Per unit load S1 = = 0.05 p.u W
2 × 10 6
500 × 10 3
Per unit load S 2 = = 0.25 p.u W
2 × 10 6
The Per Unit Model of the System.
5.10 Design a PV microgrid system operating at a voltage of 400 V DC serving a load

of 50 kW and at 220 V AC. Use the datasets given in Tables 5.48 to 5.51. Perform
the following:
i) Select a deep-cycle battery to store 100 kWh
ii) Select a boost converter, bidirectional rectifier, and inverters for the design
of a microgrid from commercially available converters (see data in Tables
5.48–5.51). If commercial converters are not available, specify the data for the
new design of a boost converter, bidirectional rectifier, and inverters.
iii) Give the one-line diagram of your design. Make tables and give the
number of modules in a string for each PV type; number of strings in an array
for each PV type; number of arrays, converters, weight, and surface area
required for each PV module type.
TABLE 5.48 Typical Deep-Cycle Battery Data.

Overall Dimensions Capacity Ampere-Hours
Part 24- 48- 72- 120-
Volts Length Weight Height Unit Wt 1-H 2-H 4-H 8-H
Number lb(kg) H H H H
(mm) (mm) (mm) Rate Rate Rate Rate
Rate Rate Rate Rate
PVX- 7.71 5.18 6.89 25
12 21 27 28 30 34 36 37 38
340T (196) (132) (175) (11.4)
PVX- 7.71 5.18 8.05 30
12 26 33 34 36 42 43 43 45
420T (196) (132) (204) (13.6)
PVX- 8.99 5.45 8.82 36
12 31 39 40 43 49 52 53 55
490T (228) (138) (224) (16.4)
PVX- 8.99 5.45 8.82 40
12 36 45 46 49 56 60 62 63
560T (228) (138) (224) (18.2)
PVX- 10.22 6.60 8.93 51
12 42 53 55 60 69 73 76 79
690T (260) (168) (277) (23.2)
PVX- 10.22 6.60 8.93 57
12 52 66 68 74 84 90 94 97
840T (260) (168) (277) (25.9)
PVX- 12.90 6.75 8.96 70
12 68 86 88 97 108 118 122 126
1080T (328) (172) (228) (31.8)
PVX- 12.03 6.77 8.93 66
12 65 82 85 93 104 112 116 120
1040T (306) (172) (227) (30.0)
PVX- 12.90 6.75 8.96 62
12 55 70 72 79 89 95 98 102
890T (328) (172) (228) (28.2)
TABLE 5.49 The Specification for Boost Converters.

Input Voltage (V) Output Voltage (V) Power (kW)
24–46 26–48 9.2
24–61 26–63 12.2
24–78 26–80 11.23
24–78 26–80 11.23
24–78 26–80 13.1
24–98 26–100 12.5
80–158 82–160 15.2
80–198 82–200 14.2
80–298 82–400 12.5
TABLE 5.50 The Specification for Single-Phase Inverter Data.

Power 500 W 5 kW 15 kW 4.7 kW
Input Voltage
DC 500 V 500 V max 500 V 500 V
Output Voltage 230 VAC/60 Hz @ 230 VAC/ 60 Hz @ 220 VAC/ 60 Hz@ 230 VAC/ 60 Hz @
AC 2.17 A 27 A 68 A 17.4 A
Min. 78% @ full
Efficiency load 97.60% > 94% 96%
Length 15.5" 315 mm 625 mm 550 mm
Width 5" 540 mm 340 mm 300 mm
Height 5.3" 191 mm 720 mm 130 mm
Weight 9 lb 23 lb 170 kg 20 lb
TABLE 5.51 The Specification for Three-Phase Inverters.

Power 100 kW 250 kW 500 kW 1 MW
Input voltage 900 V 900 V max 900 V 900 V

DC
Output voltage 660 VAC/60 Hz 660 VAC/ 60 Hz 480 VAC/ 60 Hz 480 VAC/ 60 Hz
AC
Efficiency Peak efficiency Peak efficiency Peak efficiency Peak efficiency
96.7% 97.0% 97.6% 96.0%
Depth 30.84" 38.2" 43.1" 71.3"

Width 57" 115.1" 138.8" 138.6"
Height 80" 89.2" 92.6" 92.5"
Weight 2350 lb 2350 lb 5900 lb 12000lb
Solutions
The load is 50 kW rated at 220 V AC. Based on the voltage of the load and an amplitude
modulation index of 0.9, the input DC voltage for the inverter is
2 2V LL 2 2 × 220
Vidc = = = 400 V
3.M a 3 × 0 .9
Let us select a boost converter with an output voltage of 400 V and an input voltage of
250 V, and a power rating of 12.5 kW.
If we select string voltage, SV of 250 V, the number of modules is

string voltage
NM =
VMPP
Where VMPP is the voltage at MPP of the PV module.
250
NM = ≈ 5 Type 1
54.8
250
= ≈ 10 for Type 2
26.3
250
= ≈ 9 for Type 3
28.7
250
= ≈ 15 for Type 4
17.4
The string voltage, SV, is given as:
SV = NM × V MPP
Therefore, the string voltage, SV, for this design is:
SV = 5 × 54.8 = 274 V for Type 1
= 10 × 26.3 = 263 V for Type 2
= 9 × 28.7 = 258.3 V for Type 3
= 15 × 17.4 = 261 V for Type 4
Let us select the 12.5 kW boost converter, the number of boost converter, NC, is
PV generation
NC =
boost converter power rating
50
NC = =4
12.5
Therefore, the design should have fourarrays: each with its boost converter. The array
power, AP, is
PV generation
AP =
number of arrays
50
AP = = 12.5 kW
4
String power, SP, is given as
SP = NM × PMPP
where PMPP is the power generated by PV module at MPP.
SP = 5 × 190 = 0.95 kW for Type 1
= 10 × 200 = 2.0 kW for Type 2
= 9 × 170 = 1.53 W for Type 3
= 15 × 87 = 1.305 kW for Type 4
The number of strings, NS, is given by
power per array
NS =
power per string
12.5
NS = = 14 for Type 1
0.95
12.5
= = 7 for Type 2
2
12.5
= = 9 for Type 3
1.53
12.5
= = 10 for Type 4
1.305
The total number of module, TNM, is given by:
TNM = 5 × 14 × 4 = 280 for Type 1
= 10 × 7 × 4 = 280 for Type 2
= 9 × 9 × 4 = 324 for Type 3
= 15 × 10 × 4 = 600 for Type 4
The surface area, TS, needed by each PV type is given by the product of the total number
of modules, and the length and the width of one PV module:
280 × 34.6 × 51.9
TS = = 3492sq ft for Type 1
144
280 × 38.6 × 58.5
= = 4391 sq ft for Type 2
144
324 × 38.3 × 63.8
144
600 × 25.7 × 39.6
144
The total weight needed for each type of PV is the product of the number of modules and
the weight of one module:
The total weight = 280 × 33.07 = 9260 lb for Type 1
= 280 × 39.00 = 10920 lb for Type 2
= 324 × 40.70 = 13187 lb for Type 3
= 600 × 18.40 = 11040 lb for Type 4
The total cost for each type of PV is the product of the number of modules and the cost of
one module:
The total cost = 280 × 870 = $243,600 for Type 1
= 280 × 695 = $194,600 for Type 2
= 324 × 550 = $178,200 for Type 3
= 600 × 397 = $238,200 for Type 4
SOLUTION:
The Specifications of PV Designs.
per String per (ft2) PV ($)
Array (lb)
1 5 14 4 274 3,492 9,260 243,600
2 10 7 4 263 4,391 10,920 194,600
3 9 9 4 258.3 5,498 13,187 178,200
4 15 10 4 261 4,241 11,040 238,200
50
Number of boost converters required = =4
12.5
Selecting the boost converter output voltage of Vidc = Vo = 400 V and input
voltage equal to string voltage:
Vi = 274 VforType 1, Vi = 263 V for Type 2, Vi = 258.3 V for Type 3 and Vi = 261 V for
Type 4
V
D = 1− i
Vo
274
D = 1− = 0.315 for Type 1 PV
400
263
= 1− = 0.342 for Type 2 PV
400
258.3
= 1− = 0.355 for Type 3 PV
400
261
= 1− = 0.348 for Type 4 PV
440
SOLUTION:
The Boost Converter Specifications.
PV Type Number of Input Power Output Duty ratio,
Boost Voltage,Vi Rating Voltage, Vo D
Converters (V) (kW) (V)
1 4 274 12.5 400 0.315
2 4 263 12.5 400 0.342
3 4 258.3 12.5 400 0.355
4 4 261 12.5 400 0.348
The inverters should be rated to withstand the output voltage of the boost converter and
should be able to supply the required power. Let us design with each inverter having a
rating of 10 kW.
The input voltage of the inverter is Vidc = 400 V with an amplitude modulation index of
0.90. and the output voltage of the inverter is at 220 V AC.
The number of inverters, NI, to process a generation of 50 kW is given by
PV generation
NI =
50
NI = =5
10
Hence, we need to connect five inverters in parallel to supply the load of 50 kW.
Selecting a switching frequency of 5.1 kHz, the frequency modulation index will
be given as
f S 5100
Mf = = = 85
fe 60
SOLUTION:
of Voltage, Rating Voltage, Modulation Modulation
(V)
5 440 10 220 0.90 85
i) SOLUTION TABLE 5.10.4 presents the number of batteries for storing 100
kWh of energy. In storage design, we need to limit the number of batteries in a
string and limit the number of arrays to three. These limitations are imposed on
lead-acid-type batteries to extend the life of storage system. We select the Class 6
batteries that are rated at 255 Ah at 12 V. In this design, three batteries per string
and three strings in each array are used. The string voltage, SV, of the storage
system is
SV= 3 × 12 = 36 V
The string energy stored, SES, in each battery is given by the product of the
ampere-hour and the battery voltage.
SES = 255 × 12 = 3.06 kWh
AES = 9 × 3.06 = 27.54 kWh

total energy
NA =
100
NA = ≈4
27.54
SOLUTION TABLE 5.10.4:

The Battery Storage Array Specification.
6 3 3 4 36 27.54
ii) Because we have four storage arrays, we use one buck-boost converter for each array
storage system. We need a total of four buck-boost converters. The buck-boost converters
are used to charge–discharge the battery storage system.
their capacity. Therefore, they can be used to supply 50 kWh. The power, P, supplied by
the storage system is given by
kWh
P=
hour
50
P= = 6.25 kW
8
power
AP =
number of arrays
6.25
AP = = 1.56 kW
4
Vo
D=
Vi + Vo
36
D= = 0.075
440 + 36
SOLUTION:
Buck- Voltage,Vi Rating (kW) Voltage, Vo D
Boost (V) (V)
Converters
4 440 1.71 36 0.075
iii)
The One-Line Diagram
5.11.Write a MATLAB testbed for design PV system with minimum weight and
minimum number of inverters using the data of Tables 5.47–5.51.
i) PV system for 5000 kW at 3.2 kV AC: Specify the inverter operating
condition
ii) PV system for 500 kW at 460 V AC: Specify the inverter operating
condition
iii) PV system for 50 kW at 120 V AC: Specify the inverter operating
condition
Solutions
For selecting the type of PV and the type of inverter the following MATLAB program is
used:
clc;
P = 5000;
Vmpp = [54.8 26.3 28.7 17.4];
Impp = [3.47 7.6 5.93 5.02];
Wt = [33.07 39 40.7 18.3];
Pmpp = Vmpp.*Impp;
Wt_p = Wt./Pmpp;
[lightestPV_type] = min(Wt_p)
P_inv = [100 250 500 1000];

No_inv = ceil(P./P_inv);
[min_invinv_type] = min(No_inv)
i) From the program above, we find that the PV with minimum weight is of type
1 and minimum number of inverter can be used with type 4.
With the above type of PV, the design of the microgrid is presented below:
The load is 5000 kW rated at 3.2kV AC. Let a 480 V/ 3.2 kV transformer be used to step
up the voltage of the AC bus of the inverter. Based on this voltage and an amplitude
modulation index of 0.9, the input DC voltage for the inverter is:
2 2VLL 2 2 × 480
Vidc = = = 871 V
3.M a 3 × 0 .9
400 V, and a power rating of 100 kW.

string voltage
NM =
VMPP
whereVMPP is the voltage at MPP of the PV module
400
NM = ≈ 7 Type 1
54.8
SV = NM × V MPP
Therefore, the string voltage, SV, for this design is

SV = 7 × 54.8 = 383 .6 V for Type 1
Let us select the 100 kW, the number of boost converters, NC, is
PV generation
NC =
5000
NC = = 50
100
Therefore, the design should have fifty arrays: each with its boost converter. The array
power, AP, is
PV generation
AP =
number of arrays
5000
AP = = 100 kW
50
SP = NM × PMPP
WherePMPP is the power generated by the PV module at MPP.
SP = 7 × 190 = 1330 kW for Type 1

power per array
NS =
power per string
100
1.330
SOLUTION:
The specifications of minimum weight PV design.
PV Number Number Number String
Type of of of Voltage
Modules Strings Arrays (V)
per String per
Array
1 7 75 50 383.6
5000
Number of boost converters required = = 50
100
Selecting the boost converter output voltage of Vidc = Vo = 871 V and input voltage
equal to string voltage:
Vi = 383.6 V for type 1
V
D = 1− i
Vo
383.6
D = 1− = 0.56 for Type 1 PV
871
SOLUTION:
The boost converter specifications.
Boost Voltage,Vi(V) Rating (kW) Voltage, Vo D
Converters (V)
50 383.6 100 871 0.56
rating of 1 MW.
0.90. The output voltage of the inverter is at 480 V AC.
PV generation
NI =
5000
NI = =5
1000
Selecting a switching frequency of 5.1 kHz, the frequency modulation index is given as
f 5100
Mf = S = = 85
fe 60
SOLUTION:
The inverter specifications.
(V)
5 871 1000 480 0.9 85
The one-line diagram.
ii)The load is 500 kW rated at 460 V AC. Based on this voltage and an amplitude
2 2VLL 2 2 × 460
Vidc = = = 834 V
3.M a 3 × 0 .9
400 V, and a power rating of 100 kW.
string voltage
NM =
VMPP
400
NM = ≈ 7 Type 1
54.8
SV = NM × V MPP

SV = 7 × 54.8 = 383 .6 V for Type 1
Let us select the 100 kW, the number of boost converters, NC, is
PV generation
NC =
500
NC = =5
100
Therefore, the design should have five arrays: each with its boost converter. The array
power, AP, is
PV generation
AP =
number of arrays
500
AP = = 100 kW
5
SP = NM × PMPP
wherePMPP is the power generated by the PV module at MPP.
SP = 7 × 190 = 1330 kW for Type 1

power per array
NS =
power per string
100
1.330
SOLUTION:
The PV generating station specifications.
per String per
Array
1 7 75 5 383.6
500
100
Selecting the boost converter output voltage of Vidc = Vo = 834 V and input voltage
equal to string voltage:
V
D = 1− i
Vo
383.6
D = 1− = 0.54 for Type 1 PV
834
SOLUTION:
The boost converter specifications.
Boost Voltage,Vi(V) Rating (kW) Voltage, Vo D
Converters (V)
5 383.6 100 834 0.54
rating of 100 kW.
PV generation
NI =
500
NI = =5
100
Selecting a switching frequency of 5.1 kHz, the frequency modulation index is
given as
f 5100
Mf = S = = 85
fe 60
SOLUTION:
The inverter specifications.
(V)
5 834 100 460 0.9 85
The one-line diagram.
iii) The load is 50 kW rated at 120 V AC. Based on this voltage and an amplitude
2 2VLL 2 2 × 120
Vidc = = = 218 V
3.M a 3 × 0 .9
string voltage
NM =
VMPP
220
NM = ≈ 4 Type 1
54.8
SV = NM × V MPP
SV = 4 × 54.8 = 219 .2 V for Type 1
Let us have 2 arrays, therefore, the rating of each array is:
PV generation
AP =
number of arrays
50
AP = = 25 kW
2
SP = NM × PMPP
wherePMPP is the power generated by the PV module at MPP.
SP = 4 × 190 = 760 W for Type 1

power per array
NS =
power per string
25
0.76
SOLUTION:
The Specifications of PV Design.
per String per
Array
1 4 33 2 219.2
The inverters should be rated to withstand the output voltage of the PV and should be
able to supply the required power. Let us design with each inverter having a rating of 5
kW.
The input voltage of the inverter is Vidc = 219.2 V with an amplitude modulation index
of 0.90. The output voltage of the inverter is at 120 V AC.
PV generation
NI =
50
NI = = 10
5
given as
f 5100
Mf = S = = 85
fe 60
SOLUTION:
(V)
10 219.2 5 120 0.9 85
The One-Line Diagram.

5.12. Consider the residential home of Fig.5.42. Perform the following:
i) Estimate the load consumption of the house.
ii) Plot the daily load cycle operation of the house’s loads over 24 hours and
calculate the total energy consumption.
P
Ar V
TV ray
Bo
x
DC Bus
Co A
Tree
nd ir
Tree
itio DC Tree
nin Lig AC
g er Tree
hti sform
ng Inverter Net Tran
Tree
Smart
Was Meter
her
Drye AC Bus
r
Stor
ag e
AC
DC
Bi-D EV
irect
Con ion
verte al
r
Figure 5.42.Figure for Problem 5.12.

iii) Search the Internet and select a PV module and design the PV array for the
house. Compute cost, weight of PV array, and roof areas needed for the PV
system. Search the Internet and select an inverter, battery storage, and
bidirectional converter.
Solutions
i) Let us assume that the house has 1 TV set of 200 W, air conditioner of 1200
W, lighting of 100 W, washer of 1000 W and an 800 W dryer. If it is a
summer evening and all the loads are on, then the peak load that the house
consumes:
Peak load = 200 + 1200 + 100 + 1000 + 800 = 3300 W
ii) Let us assume that the air conditioner is on for the entire day, the TV is on
from 10 AM to 10 PM, the light bulb is on from 7 PM to 11 PM, washer is on
from noon to 1 PM and drier from 1 PM to 3 PM, then we have the following
load cycle:
Load from midnight to 10 AM = air conditioner = 1200 W
Load from 10 AM to 12 PM = air conditioner + TV = 1200 + 200 = 1400 W
Load from 12 PM to 1 PM = air conditioner + TV + washer
= 1200 + 200 + 1000 = 2400 W
Load from 1 PM to 3 PM = air conditioner + TV + drier
= 1200 + 200 + 800 = 2200 W
Load from 3 PM to 7 PM = air conditioner + TV = 1200 + 200 = 1400 W
Load form 7 PM to 10 PM = air conditioner + TV + light bulb
= 1200 + 200 + 100= 1500 W
Load from 10 PM to 11 PM = air conditioner + lamp = 1200 + 100 = 1300 W
Load from 11 PM to 12 PM = air conditioner = 1200 W
Power (in W)
A typical load cycle for one summer day

iii) Let us design a 2400 W 120 V AC PV system with 600 kWh of storage
The load is 2.4kW rated at 120 V AC. Based on the voltage of the load and an
amplitude modulation index of 0.9, we will have the following input DC voltage
for the inverter:
2 2VLL 2 2 × 120
Vidc = = = 217 V
3.M a 3 × 0 .9
Selecting an inverter rated 2.4 kW, the total number of inverters, NI, for processing of
2.4kW is given.
PV generation
NI =
rating of inverters
2.5
NI = =1
2.5
For this design, eight inverters should be connected in parallel. If we select a
switching frequency of 5.04 kHz, the frequency modulation index is
f 5040
Mf = S = = 84
fe 60
SOLUTION:
Number of Input Power Output Amplitude Frequency
Inverters Voltage Vidc Rating (kW) Voltage, VAC Modulation Modulation
(V) (V) Index, Ma Index, Mf
1 217 2.4 120 0.90 84
Selecting PV Type 1 from the above tableand string voltage at MPP at 220 V, the number
of modules in a string, NM, is given by:
string voltage
NM =
VMPP
where VMPP is the voltage at maximum power point of PV module from the PV data
220
NM = ≈ 4 for type 1 PV
54.8
The string voltage, SV, under load is given as:
SV = NM × V MPP
SV = 4 × 54.8 = 219.2 V
The string power, SP, is given as
SP = NM × PMPP
wherePMPP is the power generated by a PV module at MPP.
SP = 4 × 190 = 0.76 kW for Type 1

If we design each array to generate a power of 2.4 kW, then the number of strings, NS, is
given by:
power of one array
NS =
power of one string
2.4
NS = =3
0.76
The number of arrays, NA, is given by
PV generation
NA =
power of one array
2.4
NA = =1
2.4
The total number of PV modules, TNM, in an array is given by
Where NM is number of modules in a string and NS is the number of strings; NA is
number of arrays in a PV station.
NA = 4 × 3 × 1 = 12 for PV module of Type 1
The total surface area needed, TS, for Type 1 PV module is as
12 × 34.6 × 51.9
TS = = 150 ft 2
144
The total weight, TW, needed for a Type 1 PV module is the product of the number of
modules and the weight of each module.
TW = 12 × 33.07 = 397 lb
The total cost for a PV module is the product of the number of modules and the cost of
each module:
Total cost = 12 × 870 = $10,440
SOLUTION:
The PV Generating Station Specifications.
Array (lb)
1 4 3 1 217 150 397 10,440
SOLUTION TABLE 5.12.3 presents a number of batteries for storing 600 kWh of
energy. In storage design, we need to limit the number of batteries in a string and limit
the number of arrays to three. These limitations are imposed on lead-acid-type batteries to
extend the life of storage system. We select the Class 6 batteries that are rated at 255 Ah
at 12 V. In this design, three batteries per string and three strings in each array are used.
The string voltage, SV, of a storage system is
SV= 3 × 12 = 36 V
The string energy stored, SES, in each battery is given by the product of the Ah and the
battery voltage.
SES = 255 × 12 = 3.06 kWh
AES = 9 × 3.06 = 27.54 kWh
total energy
NA =
600
NA = ≈ 22
27.54
SOLUTION TABLE 5.12.3

The Battery Storage Array Specifications.
6 3 3 22 36 27.54
Because we have 22 storage arrays, we need one buck-boost converter for each array
their capacity; hence, they can supply 300 kWh. The power, P, supplied by the storage
system is given by
kWh
P=
hour
300
P= = 37.5 kW
8
power
AP=
number of arrays
37.5
AP = = 1.70 kW
22
Vo
D=
Vi + Vo
36
D= = 0.14
217 + 36
SOLUTION:
Buck- Voltage, Rating (kW) voltage, Vo D
Boost Vi (V) (V)
Converters
22 217 1.70 36 0.14
Let a 120 V / 240 V, 2.4 kVA transformer be used to connect to the utility.
TheOne-Line Diagramof the PV System.
5.13. For Problem 5.11, if only 25% of the load is operated during the night, use the data
of Problem 5.10 and specify a battery storage system to store the required energy for
operating 25% of the load during the night.
Solutions
With 25% load, the load = 0.25 × 5000 = 1250 kWh
SOLUTION TABLE 5.13.1 for storage system presents a number of batteries for storing
1250 kWh of energy. In storage design, we need to limit the number of batteries in a
string and limit the number of arrays to three. These limitations are imposed on lead-acid-
type batteries to extend the life of storage system. We select the Class 6 batteries that are
rated at 255 Ah at 12 V. In this design, three batteries per string and three strings in each
array are used. The string voltage, SV, of a storage system is
SV = 3 × 12 = 36 V
The string energy stored, SES, in each battery is given by the product of the Ah and the
battery voltage.
SES = 255 × 12 = 3.06 kWh
AES = 9 × 3.06 = 27.54 kWh
total energy
NA =
1250
NA = ≈ 45
27.54
SOLUTION TABLE 5.13.1:

The Battery Storage Array Specification.
6 3 3 45 36 27.54
Because we have 45 storage arrays, we need one buck-boost converter for each array
If the storage systems are to be used for 1 hour, they can be discharged up to 50% of their
capacity; hence, they can supply 625 kWh. The power, P, supplied by the storage system
is given by
kWh
P=
hour
625
P= = 625 kW
1
power
AP =
number of arrays
625
AP = = 13.88 kW
45
Vo
D=
Vi + Vo
36
D= = 0.04
871 + 36
SOLUTION:
Buck- Voltage, Rating (kW) voltage, Vo D
Boost Vi (V) (V)
Converters
45 871 13.88 36 0.04
Fig. One line diagram
5.14. If the price of kWh from a utility company is $0.3 for buying or selling energy,
estimate the net operating cost or revenue for the house of Problem 5.12.
Solutions
Using the data from problem 5.12,
Total energy consumed by the loads in one day = power × time
= (1200 × 10 + 1400 × 2 + 2400 × 1 + 2200 × 2 + 1400 × 4 + 1500 × 3 + 1300 × 1 + 1200 × 1) × 10 −3

= 34.2 kWh
Assuming that the PV is able to generate 2.4 kW of power for 8 hours a day
Total energy generated in one year = power × time = 2.4 × 8 × 365 = 7,008 kWh
Total energy consumed in one year by the load = 34.2 × 365 = 12,483 kWh
Energy drawn from the utility = 12,483 − 7,008 = 5,475 kWh
Total price for electricity = 5 , 475 × 0 . 3 = $ 1642 . 50
5.15 Design a PV system rated 50 kW using a boost converter and a DC/AC inverter. The
system operates as a standalone and supports a water pumping system with a rated
load voltage of 120 V AC. Use the data given in Problem 5.10.
Solution
The load is 50 kW rated at 220 V AC. Based on the voltage of the load and an amplitude
2 2VLL 2 2 × 120
Vidc = = = 218 V
3.M a 3 × 0 .9
150 V, and a power rating of 12.5 kW.

string voltage
NM=
VMPP
Where VMPP is the voltage at MPP of the PV module
150
NM = ≈ 3 Type 1
54.8
SV = NM × V MPP

SV = 3 × 54 .8 = 164 .4 V for Type 1
Let us select the 12.5 kW boost converters, the number of boost converters, NC, is
PV generation
NC =
50
NC = =4
12.5
Therefore, the design should have four arrays: each with its boost converter. The array
power, AP, is
PV generation
AP =
number of arrays
50
AP = = 12.5kW
4
SP = NM × PMPP
Where PMPP is the power generated by the PV module at MPP.
SP = 3 × 190 = 0.57 kW for Type 1

power per array
NS =
power per string
12.5
0.57
The total number of modules, TNM, is given by

TNM = 3 × 22 × 4 = 264 for Type 1
The surface area, TS needed by each PV type is given by the product of the total number
of modules, and the length and the width of 1PV module:
264 × 34.6 × 51.9
TS = = 3292 sq ft for Type 1
144
The total weight needed for each type of PV is the product of the number of modules and
the weight of one module:
The total weight = 264 × 33.07 = 8730 lb for Type 1
The total cost for each type of PV is the product of the number of modules and the cost of
one module:
The total cost = 264 × 870 = $ 229 ,680 for Type 1
SOLUTION:
The Specifications of PV Types.
Array (lb)
1 3 22 4 164.4 3,292 8,730 229,680
50
12.5
Selecting the boost converter output voltage of Vidc = Vo = 220 V and input
voltage equal to string voltage:
V
D = 1− i
Vo
164.4
D = 1− = 0.25 for Type 1 PV
220
SOLUTION:
PV Type Number of Input Power Output Duty Ratio,
Boost Voltage, Rating Voltage, Vo D
Converters Vi(V) (kW) (V)
1 4 164.4 12.5 220 0.25
rating of 10 kW.
PV generation
NI =
50
NI = =5
10
given as
f 5100
Mf = S = = 85
fe 60
2 2VLL 2 2 × 120
Ma = = = 0.89
3.Vidc 3 × 220
SOLUTION
(V)
5 220 10 120 0.89 85
The One-Line Diagram.
5.16. Design a residential PV system. The load cycle is 10 kW from 11 P.M.until8 A.M.
and 14 kW for the remaining 15 hours. Determine the following:
i) Total kWh energy consumption for 24 hours
ii) What is the roof space needed to generate adequate kWh for 24 hours
operation
iii) Assume the maximum kWh to be used during the night is 40% of the total
daily load. Search the Internet to select a battery storage system and compute
the required energy for nightly operation. Give your design data.
Solutions
i) The load is 10 kW for 9 hours (11:00 P.M. to 8:00 A.M.) and it is 14 kW for 15
hours (8:00 A.M. to 11:00 P.M.). The load cycle is given below:
Plot of the daily load cycle
The total kWh energy consumption for 24 hours is the area under the curve of
daily load cycle and is given by kWh = kW × hours
Therefore, the energy consumption = 10 × 9 + 14 × 15 = 300 kWh
ii) Assuming 0.5 sun and sun is available for 8 hours a day.
Type 1 PV is selected because it needs the minimum area per unit power
produced.
The amount of power produced by type 1 PV is equal to 190 W per module for 1
sun. Therefore, the energy produced for 0.5 sun for 8 hours is given by:
0.5 × 190 × 8 = 0.76 kWh
The number of modules, NM, needed is given by:
total energy demand
NM =
energy of one panel
300
NM = ≈ 394
0.76
The surface area, SM, of one module is given by width × length
SM = 34.6 × 51.9 / 144 = 12.47sq. ft

The total area, TS, for 300 kWh is given by the product of the number of modules
and the area of one module:
TS = 394 × 12 . 47 = 4913 . 18 sq . ft
iii) The energy used during the night is 40% of the total energy. Therefore, the
energy demand for one night = 0.4 × 300 = 120 kWh .
A Class 6battery storage system is chosen to store the kWh needed for the night.
The batteries should not be discharged more than 50% of their capacity.
The energy stored per battery is given by Ah × voltage . Therefore, the energy
stored in one battery = 255 ×12 = 3.06 kWh . The number of batteries, NB, needed
is given by
2 × energy demand
NB =
energy stored per battery
2 × 120
NB= = 79 .
3.06
We can use three batteries in a string and the maximum number of strings in an
array is equal to three. Therefore, the maximum number of batteries in the array is
equal to 3 × 3 = 9 .
The number of arrays of battery is given by
total number of batteries
NA=
number of batteries per array
79
NA = ≈9
9
5.17 Design amicrogridfora PV system rated 1MW of power at 220 V, 60 Hz, with all
the PV strings connected to the same DC bus. The transformer data are 220/460
V, 250 kVA, and 5% reactance; and 460 V/13.2 kV of 1 MVA, and 10%
reactance. Use the data given in Tables 5.47–5.51.
i) Number of modules in a string for each PV type, number of strings in an

array for each PV type, number of arrays and surface area, weight and cost for
each PV type.
ii) Boost converter and inverter specifications and the one-line diagram of this
system
Solutions
Let the inverter output voltage be 460 V AC at a modulation index of 0.85
2 2V LL 2 2 × 460
Vidc = = = 884 V
3M a 3 × 0.85
We will limit the maximum voltage that a string is allowed to have to 600 V. Therefore,
we use a boost converter to boost the string voltage to 884 V.
i) If we select an approximatestring voltage of 550 V, the number of modules in

a string, NM, is given as
Vstring 550
NM= = ≈ 10
VMPP 54.8
WhereVMPP is the voltage at MPP of the PV module.
SP = NM × PMPP
WherePMPP is the power generated by a PV module at MPP.
SP = 10 × 190 = 1900 W
And the string voltage, SV, is
SV = NM × V MPP
Therefore, the string voltage for this design is
SV = 10 × 54.8 = 548 V
If each array is to have a rating of 20 kW, the number of strings, NS, in an array is
AP
NS =
SP
20
NS = = 11
1.9
The number of arrays for this design is
PV generation
NA =
power of one array
1000
NA = = 50
20
The total number of PV modules, TNM, is given by the product of the number of
modules per string, the number of strings per array, and the number of arrays:
TNM = NM × NS × NS
TNM = 10 × 11 × 50 = 5,500
The surface area of one module, SM, is given by the product of its length and width.
34.6 × 51.9
SM= = 12.5 sq. ft.
144
The total surface area, TS, is therefore given by the total number of modules and the
surface area of each module.
68,750
TS = 5500 × 12.5 = 68,750 sq. ft. = = 1.57 acre
43,560
The total cost of PV modules is given by the product of the number of PV modules and
the cost of one module.
The total cost = 5500 × 870 = $4.78million
The total weight of PV modules is given by the product of the number of PV modules
and the weight of one module.
The total weight = 5500 × 33.07 = 181,885 lb
SOLUTION:
The PV Specifications for 1000 kW Generating Station.
Modules Strings Number String Total Total Total
per String per of Arrays Voltage Area weight cost
2
Array (V) (ft ) (lb) (million
$)
10 11 50 548 68,750 181,885 4.78
ii) The inverters should be rated to withstand the output voltage of the boost
converter and should be able to supply the required power. Selecting an inverter rated at
250 kW, we have the number of inverters, NI, needed to process thegeneration of 1000
kW given by
PV generation
NI =
1000
NI = =4
250
Hence, we need to connect four inverters in parallel to supply the load of 1000
kW.

given by
f S 5400
Mf = = = 90
fe 60
SOLUTION:
TheInverterSpecifications.
Inverters Vidc (kW) VAC Index, Ma Index, Mf
(V) (V)
4 884 250 460 0.85 90
The number of boost converters needed is the same as the number of arrays, which is 50.
Select a boost converter rating of 20 kW and let the boost converter input voltage be
equal to the string voltage:
Vi = 548 V
The output voltage of the boost converter is equal to the inverter input voltage:
Vidc = Vo = 884 V
V
D = 1− i
Vo
548
D = 1− = 0.38
884
SOLUTION:
Boost Voltage, Rating (kW) Voltage, Vo D
Converters Vi (V) (V)
50 548 20 884 0.38
460 V / 120 V
AC Bus 250 kVA
X = 5%
460 V / 120 V
250 kVA 250 kW
DC Bus Duty ratio DC Bus X = 5%
1 = 0.38 Amplitude
1 modulation
DC/DC
Boost index = 0.85
1
2 DC/AC
2
DC/DC 3 phase 460 V / 120 V
Inverter 250 kVA 250 kW
Boost
X = 5%
50
4 460 V / 120 V
50 250 kVA
DC/DC DC/AC 250 kW
X = 5%
Boost 3 phase
548 V 884 V Inverter
50 PV arrays: 20 kW
11 string array, each 250 kW
460 V
250 kW
The One-Line Diagram
5.18 Assume a sample value for the global daily irradiation,G = [1900, 2690, 4070,
5050, 6240, 7040, 6840, 6040, 5270, 3730, 2410, 1800],for 12 months of the year.
Assume a reflectivity of 0.25. Perform the following:
i) Write a MATLAB M-file program to (a) compute the irradiation on
different inclination angles, (b) tabulate the irradiance for each month at
different inclination angles, (c) tabulate the overall irradiance per year for
different inclination angles, and (d) find the optimum inclination angle for
each month and a year.
ii) If the sun irradiance is 0.4 sun for 8 hours daily for this location, what is
the roof space needed to capture 20 kW at an optimal angle?
iii) If the sun irradiance is 0.3 sun on the average over a year for 5 hours daily
for this location, what total kW can be captured over 1500 square feet at the
optimum inclination angle?
Solutions
1. The solar declination angle, in degrees, can be found out from an empirical
⎡ 360(d n + 284 )⎤
formula, δ = 23.45 sin ⎢ ⎥ , as mentioned in [P. I. Cooper, The
⎣ 365 ⎦
Absorption of Solar Radiation in Solar Stills, Sol. Energy 12 (3), 333 – 346
(1969)]
2. The sunset hour angle, in radian, is found from [M. Iqbal, An Introduction to
Solar Radiation, New York: Academic Press, 1983, pp. 1 – 84.]:
ω s = cos −1 [− tan δ. tan φ] for tan δ. tan φ ≤ 1
=π tan δ. tan φ > 1
3. The extraterrestrial daily irradiance, Bo, in Wh/m2, is calculated from [M. Iqbal,
An Introduction to Solar Radiation, New York: Academic Press, 1983, pp. 1 –
84.]
24 ⎧ ⎛ 2πd n ⎞⎫
Bo = .S .⎨1 + 0.033 cos⎜ ⎟⎬.(cos φ. cos δ. sin ω s + ω s . sin φ. sin δ )
π ⎩ ⎝ 365 ⎠⎭
4. The clearness index, KT is calculated K T = G / Bo
5. The diffusion factor, D / G , is calculated empirically from D / G = 1 − 1.13K T [ J.
K. Page, “The estimation of monthly mean values of daily total short-wave
radiation on vertical and inclined surfaces from sunshine records for latitudes
40°N – 40°S”, in Proc. United Nations on New Sources of Energy, vol. 4, 1961,
pp. 378 – 390]
6. The beam irradiation is calculated from B = G − D
7. The sunset angle for the tilted module is determined using:
ω s ,tilt = cos −1 [− tan δ. tan (φ − β )] for tan δ. tan φ ≤ 1
=π tan δ. tan φ > 1
8. The effective sunset angle is determined from ω s ' = min(ω s ,tilt , ω s )
9. The value of the beam irradiation is adjusted for the tilt angle from [ T. Markvart,
Solar Electricity, West Sussex, England: Wiley, 1994, pp. 11 – 16.]:
cos(φ − β). cos δ. sin ω s '+ω s '. sin (φ − β). sin δ
B(β) = B
cos φ. cos δ. sin ω s + ω s . sin φ. sin δ
10. Assuming that the diffusion is isotropic, the diffusion irradiation on tilted surface
is given by [ T. Markvart, Solar Electricity, West Sussex, England: Wiley, 1994,
1
pp. 11 – 16]: D (β ) = (1 + cos β ).D
2
11. The isotropically modeled albedo is given by [ T. Markvart, Solar Electricity,
1
West Sussex, England: Wiley, 1994, pp. 11 – 16]: R (β ) = (1 − cos β ).ρ.D
2
12. The global irradiation on the tilted surface is the sum of beam irradiation,
diffusion irradiation and albedo [T. Markvart, Solar Electricity, West Sussex,
England: Wiley, 1994, pp. 11 – 16.]: G (β ) = B(β ) + D (β ) + R(β)
i) The Steps 1–12 given above are used to calculate irradiance for each month.
The tilt angle β is varied from zero to 90 degrees in steps of 12 degrees. The
results are tabulated below.
The MATLAB program:
clc;
clearall;
% solar irradiation data on horizontal surface in Wh/m^2/day
GI = [1.90 2.69 4.07 5.05 6.24 7.04 6.84 6.04 5.27 3.73 2.41 1.80]*1e3;
% latitude of Los Angeles, California, in degree

L=33.93;
S=1367; %W/m2 global irradiation
deg = 5; % tilt angle adjustment degree

g = 0.25; % for semi bare ground reflectivity
month = zeros(1,12); % initialising

betha = zeros(1,floor(90/deg)+1); % initialising
fori=1:12 % finding the day number for the middle of each month
month(i)=15+(i-1)*30;
end
fori=1:floor(90/deg)+1 % Varying the tilt angle
betha(i)=(i-1)*deg;
end
Ir(floor(90/deg)+1,13)=zeros; % initialising irradiation matrix

fori=1:floor(90/deg)+1
GG=0;
for j=1:12
delta=23.45*sind(360*(284+month(j))/365);% Calculating declin. angle
% Calculate the sunset angle
x = -tand(L)*tand(delta);
if abs(x) > 1
if x > 0
x = 1;
else
x = -1;
end
end
ws = acos(x); % Finding sunset angle
y = -tand(L-betha(i))*tand(delta);
if abs(y) > 1
if y > 0
y = 1;
else
y = -1;
end
end
ws1=acos(y); % Finding sunset angle for tilted surface
wo=min(ws,ws1);
% Calculationg extraterrestrial irradiation
Bo=(24/pi)*S*(1+.0333*cos(2*pi*month(j)/365))*(cosd(L)*cosd(delta)*sin(
ws)+ws*sind(L)*sind(delta));
if Bo == 0 % no sunrise
DD = GI(j); % radiation on surface is all
diffusion
B = 0;
else
KT=GI(j)/Bo; % clearness index
DD=GI(j)*(1-1.13*KT); % diffuse irradiation
BB=GI(j)-DD; % beam(direct irradiation)
B=BB*(cosd(L-betha(i))*cosd(delta)*sin(wo)+wo*sind(L-
betha(i))*sind(delta))/(cosd(L)*cosd(delta)*sin(ws)+ws*sind(L)*sind(del
ta));
end
D=DD*0.5*(1+cosd(betha(i))); % diffused irradiation on
tilted surface
R=DD*0.5*g*(1-cosd(betha(i))); % reflection irradiation on
tilted surface
G=B+D+R; % total global irradiation
GG=GG+G;
Ir(i,j)=G; % irradiation for each month at different
inclination angles
end
Ir(i,13)=GG/12; % irradiation for entire year
end
a=Ir(:,13);
mm=max(a); % the maximum yearly average irradiation for optimum angle
fori=1:floor(90/deg)+1 % Finding optimum angle

if a(i)== mm
nn=i;
end
end
% Display the irradiation of each month and the year

Ir
optimal_angle = betha(nn) % optimum angle for the entire
year
SOLUTION:
The Winter Irradiation at Different Tilt Angles
Tilt January February March
2
Angle W/m W/m2 W/m2
0 ̊ 1900 2690 4070

12 ̊ 2194 3016 4414
24 ̊ 2425 3253 4616
36 ̊ 2582 3390 4667
48 ̊ 2660 3421 4567
60 ̊ 2653 3344 4316
72 ̊ 2563 3164 3929
84 ̊ 2393 2887 3421
90 ̊ 2281 2716 3129
SOLUTION:
The SpringIrradiation at Different Tilt Angles.
Tilt April May June
2 2
Angle W/m W/m W/m2
0 ̊ 5050 6240 7040

12 ̊ 5237 6231 6851
24 ̊ 5252 6016 6433
36 ̊ 5093 5595 5787
48 ̊ 4768 4986 4940
60 ̊ 4288 4214 3928
72 ̊ 3678 3320 2807
84 ̊ 2965 2356 1653
90 ̊ 2582 1870 1099
SOLUTION:
The SummerIrradiation on Different Tilt Angles.
Tilt July August Sept.
Angle W/m2 W/m2 W/m2
0 ̊ 6840 6040 5270

12 ̊ 6721 6180 5699
24 ̊ 6368 6095 5915
36 ̊ 5784 5784 5910
48 ̊ 4991 5259 5682
60 ̊ 4024 4542 5241
72 ̊ 2935 3671 4608
84 ̊ 1795 2689 3810
90 ̊ 1237 2175 3361
SOLUTION:
The Autumn and Yearly Average Irradiation on Different Tilt Angles.
Tilt Oct. Nov. Dec. Yearly
2 2 2
Angle W/m W/m W/m Average
W/m2
0 ̊ 3730 2410 1800 4233
12 ̊ 4221 2803 2117 4640
24 ̊ 4570 3110 2371 4702
36 ̊ 4760 3316 2553 4602
48 ̊ 4785 3415 2653 4344
60 ̊ 4641 3398 2667 3938
72 ̊ 4337 3270 2595 3406
84 ̊ 3885 3035 2440 2778
90 ̊ 3609 2880 2333 2439
The above tables list the irradiance in W/m2 for tilt angles varying from zero to 90
degreeswith an interval of 12 degrees. The maximum irradiation occurs at a tilt angle of
24 degrees if the PV modules are fixed and not free to change the tilt angle. At this angle,
irradiance energy is 4702 Wh/m2. This amount is almost 469 Wh/m2 greater than the
irradiation on a horizontal surface. If the angle of tilt can be changed every month of the
year, the yield will be almost 4923.5 Wh/m2. Using the optimum angle of irradiance, we
can increase substantially the average of the maximum value of each month’s irradiation
in the PV system.
ii) With the optimum angle, G = 4702 W / m2,the power received is
Ps = 0.4 × 4702 = 1881 W / m 2
Selecting a module of Type 1, which has an efficiency of 16.4%, the electrical
power developed from the solar power =
Pe = 0 . 164 × 1881 = 308 W / m 2
20 × 10 3
The area needed A = = 65 m 2
308
iii) The power received Ps = 0.3 × 4702 = 1410.6 W / m 2
With an efficiency of 16.4%, the electrical power developed from the solar
power =
Pe = 0.164 × 1410.6 = 231 W / m 2
Therefore, with 1500 m2, the electrical power, Pe
= 1500 × 231 = 346.500 kW
With 5 hours of sunshine, the energy produced = 346.5 × 5 = 1732.5 kWh
5.19 Assume the global daily irradiation (G) forthe city of Columbus solar irradiation
data, G, on the horizontal surface is as follows:
G = [1800, 2500, 3500, 4600, 5500, 6000, 5900, 5300, 4300, 3100, 1900, 1500] for
12 months of the year. The latitudinal location of Columbus is 40 degrees. Assume a
reflectivity of 0.25. Perform the following:
i) Write a MATLAB M-file to (a) compute the irradiation on different
inclination angles, (b) tabulate the irradiance for each month at different
inclination angles, (c) tabulate the overall irradiance per year for different
inclination angles, and (d) find the optimum inclination angle for each month
and a year.
ii) If the sun irradiance is 0.4 sun for 8 hours daily for this location what is the
roof space needed to capture 50 kW at an optimum inclination angle?
iii) If the sun irradiance is 0.3 sun on average over a year for 5 hours daily for this location what
is the total kW that can be captured over 1500 ft2 at the optimum inclination angle?
Solutions
i) The algorithm and the MATLAB program is given in problem 5.18
SOLUTION:
The Winter Irradiation Data for Columbus, Ohio.
Tilt January February March
2 2
Angle W/m W/m W/m2
0 ̊ 1800 2500 3500

12 ̊ 2112 2822 3782
24 ̊ 2363 3061 3948
36 ̊ 2541 3206 3992
48 ̊ 2638 3250 3911
60 ̊ 2650 3193 3708
72 ̊ 2577 3035 3394
84 ̊ 2422 2784 2981
90 ̊ 2315 2627 2743
SOLUTION:
The Spring Irradiation Data for Columbus, Ohio.
Tilt April May June
2 2
Angle W/m W/m W/m2
0 ̊ 4600 5500 6000

12 ̊ 4776 5512 5882
24 ̊ 4802 5353 5585
36 ̊ 4675 5022 5109
48 ̊ 4399 4534 4470
60 ̊ 3987 3908 3698
72 ̊ 3457 3176 2832
84 ̊ 2835 2378 1927
90 ̊ 2499 1971 1484
SOLUTION:
The Summer IrradiationData for Columbus,Ohio
Tilt July Aug Sept
2 2
Angle W/m W/m W/m2
0 ̊ 5900 5300 4300

12 ̊ 5832 5431 4614
24 ̊ 5579 5378 4772
36 ̊ 5140 5138 4764
48 ̊ 4531 4720 4593
60 ̊ 3779 4143 4265
72 ̊ 2922 3434 3794
84 ̊ 2013 2630 3202
90 ̊ 1561 2206 2869
SOLUTION:
The Autumn and Yearly Average Irradiation Data for Columbus, Ohio.
Tilt Oct Nov Dec Yearly
2 2 2
Angle W/m W/m W/m Average
W/m2
0 ̊ 3100 1900 1500 3825

12 ̊ 3479 2182 1762 4016
24 ̊ 3748 2400 1973 4080
36 ̊ 3895 2546 2125 4013
48 ̊ 3912 2613 2211 3815
60 ̊ 3800 2597 2227 3496
72 ̊ 3563 2500 2172 3071
84 ̊ 3211 2326 2049 2563
90 ̊ 2997 2212 1964 2287
With the tilt angle set at the optimal value of 24°,

Ps = 0.4 × 4080 = 1632 W / m 2
Selecting a module of Type 1, which hasan efficiency of 16.4%, the electrical
power developed from the solar power =
Pe = 0.164 × 1632 = 268 W / m 2
50 × 10 3
The area needed is A = = 187 m 2
268
iii) The power received is Ps = 0.3 × 4080 = 1224 W / m 2
With an efficiency of 16.4%, the electrical power developed from the solar
power =
Pe = 0.164 × 1224 = 200 W / m 2
Therefore, with 1500 m2, the electrical power,
P = 1500 × 200 = 300 kW
e
With 5 hours of sunshine, the energy produced = 300 × 5 = 1500 kWh
5.20For your city, search the Internet for solar irradiation data, G, on the horizontal
surface and its latitudinal location. Perform the following:
i) Write a MATLAB M-file to (a) compute the irradiation on different inclination
angle, (b) tabulate the irradiance for each month at different inclination angles, (c)
tabulate the overall irradiance per year for different inclination angles, and (d) find
the optimum inclination angle for each month and a year.
ii) If the sun irradiance is 0.3 sun on the average over a year for 5 hours daily for
this location what is the total kWh that can be captured over 1500 ft2 at the optimum
inclination angle?
Solutions
Los Angeles, California
The optimum tilt angle for each month and the entire year is found for Los
Angles, California. The city is located at 33.93° N. The global irradiation of the city is
given in table below:
Table Mean monthly Global Radiant Exposure (kWh/m2/day) over Los Angeles,
California
http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/pubs/redbook/PDFs/CA.PDF, accessed Oct 8, 2011
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Annual
2.8 3.6 4.8 6.1 6.4 6.6 7.1 6.5 5.3 4.2 3.2 2.6 4.9
Following the above algorithm, the solar irradiation on Los Angeles for different tilt
angles for each month and annual average is given in tables below. The optimum
irradiations are highlighted for each month in the tables.
Table Irradiation data for Los Angeles, California: Winter
Tilt Angle January Wh/m2/day February Wh/m2/day March Wh/m2/day
0̊ 2800 3600 4800

5̊ 3068 3848 4995
10 ̊ 3318 4074 5160
15 ̊ 3548 4276 5294
20 ̊ 3756 4451 5396
25 ̊ 3940 4599 5465
30 ̊ 4100 4719 5500
35 ̊ 4234 4809 5502
40 ̊ 4341 4868 5469
45 ̊ 4420 4898 5403
50 ̊ 4471 4896 5304
55 ̊ 4493 4864 5172
60 ̊ 4486 4801 5009
65 ̊ 4450 4708 4816
70 ̊ 4385 4585 4594
75 ̊ 4292 4434 4345
80 ̊ 4171 4256 4071
85 ̊ 4025 4052 3774
90 ̊ 3852 3823 3457
Table Irradiation data for Los Angeles, California: Spring

Tilt Angle April Wh/m2/day May Wh/m2/day June Wh/m2/day
0̊ 6100 6400 6600

5̊ 6202 6394 6545
10 ̊ 6268 6356 6459
15 ̊ 6296 6284 6342
20 ̊ 6287 6178 6193
25 ̊ 6240 6040 6013
30 ̊ 6155 5869 5804
35 ̊ 6033 5668 5567
40 ̊ 5876 5438 5303
45 ̊ 5683 5180 5015
50 ̊ 5458 4896 4705
55 ̊ 5201 4590 4376
60 ̊ 4914 4263 4030
65 ̊ 4601 3919 3672
70 ̊ 4262 3561 3305
75 ̊ 3903 3193 2934
80 ̊ 3524 2819 2563
85 ̊ 3131 2444 2201
90 ̊ 2727 2076 1857
Table Irradiation data for Los Angeles, California: Summer
Tilt Angle July Wh/m2/Day August Wh/m2/day September Wh/m2/day
0̊ 7100 6500 5300

5̊ 7057 6547 5448
10 ̊ 6977 6557 5564
15 ̊ 6862 6529 5647
20 ̊ 6710 6464 5695
25 ̊ 6522 6361 5709
30 ̊ 6300 6221 5687
35 ̊ 6045 6046 5632
40 ̊ 5758 5836 5542
45 ̊ 5443 5593 5419
50 ̊ 5102 5319 5263
55 ̊ 4737 5016 5076
60 ̊ 4352 4687 4859
65 ̊ 3951 4335 4614
70 ̊ 3539 3963 4343
75 ̊ 3119 3574 4047
80 ̊ 2698 3172 3729
85 ̊ 2282 2763 3392
90 ̊ 1883 2350 3039
Table Irradiation data for Los Angeles, California: Autumn

Tilt Angle October Wh/m2/day November Wh/m2/day December Wh/m2/day Annual monthly
average
Wh/m2/day
0̊ 4200 3200 2600 4933
5̊ 4436 3477 2869 5074
10 ̊ 4646 3734 3121 5186
15 ̊ 4828 3967 3355 5269
20 ̊ 4980 4176 3567 5321
25 ̊ 5101 4359 3758 5342
30 ̊ 5190 4514 3925 5332
35 ̊ 5247 4641 4066 5291
40 ̊ 5270 4737 4182 5218
45 ̊ 5261 4804 4271 5116
50 ̊ 5219 4839 4332 4984
55 ̊ 5144 4843 4365 4823
60 ̊ 5036 4815 4370 4635
65 ̊ 4898 4757 4346 4422
70 ̊ 4729 4668 4294 4186
75 ̊ 4531 4549 4215 3928
80 ̊ 4306 4401 4108 3652
85 ̊ 4055 4225 3974 3360
90 ̊ 3780 4022 3816 3057
ii) With the tilt angle set at the optimal value of 25°,
Ps = 0.3 × 5342 = 1,603 Wh / m 2 / day
1500
The total area = 1500 ft 2 = = 139 m 2
10.76
kWh received = days × area × irradiation = 365 × 139 × 1603 × 10 −3 = 81.3 × 10 3 kWh
5.21. For a PV module given below (Table 5.52), write a MATLAB simulation testbed
using the Gauss–Seidel iterative approximation toestimate the module parameters .
TABLE 5.52 Data for Problem 5.21.

(Isc) 3.87 A
(Voc) 42.1 V
(VMPP) 33.7 V
(IMPP) 3.56 A
(nc) 72
Solutions
Let the known and unknown quantities be represented with the following variables:
Datasheet values
Isc a1 Short‐circuit current
Voc a2 Open circuit voltage
Vmpp a3 Voltage at MPP

Impp a4 Current at MPP
ns a5 Number of cells in series in a module

Unknown parameters
Iph x1 Photo‐generated current
Io x2 Dark saturation current
Vt x3 Junction voltage
Rs x4 Series resistance
Rsh x5 Parallel resistance
Rsho x6 Effective resistance at short circuit
Output quantities of the PV source

I y1 Output current
V y2 Output voltage
P y3 Output power
The Gauss-Seidel method is an iterative method, by which transcendental equations can be
solved by expressing the equations in the following form,
( )
x k +1 = f x k (Sol.5.1)
where x is the unknown variable whose value is to be determined and k is the kth iteration. The
iterations are repeated until the solution reaches below an acceptable tolerance.
The relationship between the voltage and current of PV is given by (5.26) in the text.
The data sheet provides three remarkable points: open circuit voltage, short circuit current and the
maximum power point (MPP). By substituting these points in (5.26), we get the equations (5.29)
through (5.33) given in the text.
Expressing these equations in the form of (Sol.5.1), the following algorithm is followed to
estimate the parameters of the PV:
Fig. Algorithm for estimating the parameters of PV from Gauss Seidel method. [Abir
Chatterjee, Ali Keyhani, Dhruv Kapoor, "Identification of Photovoltaic Source Models",
IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, Vol. 26, No. 3, Sep. 2011. pp. 883 – 889]
The f1(x),…………f5(x) can be expressed in residual from as
The initial values of x1,….x5 can initialized to zero. The Gauss-Seidel is an iterative
approximation that increment the variable x by Xnew = Xold + Δx until residual is
approximately equal to zero and all five equations for a value of x1 through x5 are
satisfied. The derivation of f1(x) through f5(x) is given in reference below.
[Abir Chatterjee, Ali Keyhani, Dhruv Kapoor, "Identification of Photovoltaic Source

Models", IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, Vol. 26, No. 3, Sep. 2011. pp. 883 –
889]
The Matlab program for determining the parameters of single diode model of PV is given
below:
a1 = 3.87;
a2 = 42.1;
a3 = 33.7;
a4 = 3.56;
a5 = 72;
k = 1.3806503e-23;
Tstc = 298;
q = 1.60217646e-19;
convergentSolution = 0;
i = 1;
tolerance = 1e-6;
x4 = 0;
x5 = 0;
while((i< 1000000) && (convergentSolution == 0))

x3 = (a3+a4*x4-a2)/log(-(a4*x5-a1*x5+a3+a4*x4-a1*x4)/(a1*x5-
a2+a1*x4))/a5;
x4 = (-a3+a2+log(a5*x3*(a4*x5+a4*x4-a3)/(-a4*a1*x5*x4+a4*a2*x4-
a4*a1*x4^2+a3*x5*a1-a2*a3+a3*a1*x4))*a5*x3)/a4;
x5 = (a5*x3*x5+exp((a1*x4-a2)/a5/x3)*a1*x5*x4-exp((a1*x4-
a2)/a5/x3)*a2*x4+exp((a1*x4-
a2)/a5/x3)*a1*x4^2+x4*a5*x3)/(exp((a1*x4-a2)/a5/x3)*a1*x5-
exp((a1*x4-a2)/a5/x3)*a2+exp((a1*x4-a2)/a5/x3)*a1*x4+a5*x3);
ifi ~= 1
if (norm(x5 - x5Previous) < tolerance) && (norm(x4 - x4Previous) <
tolerance) && (norm(x3 - x3Previous) < tolerance)
convergentSolution = 1;
end
end
x3Previous = x3;
x4Previous = x4;
x5Previous = x5;
i = i + 1;
end
ifconvergentSolution == 0
disp('Convergent solution not found')
else
x2 = (a1 - (a2 - a1*x4)/x5) * exp(-1*a2/(a5*x3));
x1 = x2 * exp(a2/(a5*x3)) + a2/x5;
A = x3 * q / (k * Tstc);
x = [x1; x2; A; x4; x5]
end
Table below gives lists the parameters estimated from the above program.
Parameters Values
Iph 3.87
Io 0.322 mA
A 1.398
Rs 0.473 Ω
Rsh 1.367 kΩ
CHAPTER 6
MICROGRID WIND ENERGY SYSTEMS

Notes to Instructors: Additional Problems
Please note that Problems D.1 and D.2 are based on Appendix D, Wind Power.
Additional Problems
D.1 The Rayleigh distribution functions for different mean wind speeds are shown in
Solution Figure D.1.1. The curve moves to the right for greater mean wind speeds (also
greater values of the shape parameter (a), which means more days have high winds—
hence, potentially more wind energy revenue.
Solution Figure D.1.1 Rayleigh Distribution Functions for Three Different Mean Wind
Speeds.
Solution Figure D.1.2 Rayleigh Wind Speed Frequency Distribution Functions for Two
Sites Each Having the Same Average Wind Speeds.
The wind speed frequency distributions shown in Solution Figure D.1.2 are obtained
from wind speed data for a year of 10-minute means for two sites with similar average
wind speed.
i) Compute the mechanical power generated for an hour of operation assuming

v = 12 m / s and the air density is 1.2 kg/m3.
Solution
i) A MATLAB code has been written to solve the problem. The steps followed are
1. The values of v and ρ assigned.

2. f (v ) is defined.
∞
∫ f (v).v .dv is done using a trapezoidal rule where the differential

3
3. The integration
0
areas are considered to be small trapezoids. The area of each trapezoid is added to
get the integration over the entire range.
∞
4. VRMS = ∫ f (v).v .dv
3
3 is solved.
0
1
5. PT ,max = .ρ .VRMS is solved.
3
4
6. E = PT ,max × 24 × 365 is solved.
MATLAB Code:
clc;
vbar=12;
rho=1.2; % density of air
a=vbar/0.9;
v=0:1:50;
fv=2*v/14.77.*exp(-(v/14.77).^2); % f(v) is defined;
plot(v,fv);
grid on;
xlabel('v in m/s');
ylabel('f(v)');
% Integration using trapezoidal rule
I=0;
for v=0:50
fv_vt3=2*v/14.77.*exp(-(v/14.77).^2).*v.^3; % f(v)*v^3
fvp1_vp1t3=2*(v+1)/14.77.*exp(-((v+1)/14.77).^2).*(v+1).^3; % f(v+1)*(v+1)^3
I=I+(fv_vt3+fvp1_vp1t3)/2;
end
Vrms=I^(1/3)
PtMax=0.25*rho*Vrms^3
E=PtMax*365*24
Solution Figure D.1.3 depicts the wind speed data for Problem D.1.
f(v) versus v
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
f(v)
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
v in m/s
Solution Figure D.1.3 Wind Speed Data for Problem D.1.
∞
VRMS = 3 ∫ f (v ).v 3 .dv = 39.84 m / s
0
1
.ρ .V RMS = 18.975 kW / m 2
3
PT ,max =
4
E = PT , max × 24 × 365 = 166.22 MWh / m 2 / yr
D.2. Assuming the annual wind speed data for a site are given in Solution Figure D.2.1
with an annual mean speed of , estimate the average annual power and
energy density for that site.
Solution Figure D.2.1 Wind Speed Data for Problem D.2.
Solution
To find the average annual power and energy density, the RMC speed needs to be
calculated .The annual average wind speed is given as
Assuming a Rayleigh distribution with a shape parameter a equal to
the Rayleigh distribution function which fits the wind data is
where f is expressed in relative frequency. The RMC wind speed is then found by
evaluating the following integral using trapezoidal numerical integration
Hence,
The wind power density which can be captured by the wind turbine assuming maximum
theoretical rotor power coefficient cp = 0.5 and air density ρ = 1.225 kg/m3 is
and the site estimated annual energy yield per square meter of the turbine rotor swept
area is
6.1 Consider a wind microgrid given by Figure 6.45. The system has a local load rated
100 kVA at a power factor rated 0.8 lagging.
Figure 6.45 The Schematic of Problem 6.1
The three-phase transformer is rated 11 kV/0.44 kV; 300 kVA; X = 0.06 p.u. The
induction generator is rated as 440 V, 60 Hz, three-phase, eight-pole; stator resistance of
0.08 ohm/phase; rotor referred resistance in the stator side of 0.07 Ω/phase, stator
reactance of 0.2 Ω/phase; rotor referred reactance of X2 0.1 Ω/phase. Compute the
following:
i) Compute the p.u equivalent model based on kVA base of 300 kVA and 440 V
ii) The shaft mechanical power if the shaft speed is at 1200 rpm
iii) The amount of power injected into the local utility
iv) The flow of reactive power between the grid and the local microgrid
v) How much reactive power must be placed at the local grid to have unity power factor
at the local power grid?
Solutions
Because the base chosen is that of the transformer, its p.u values remain unchanged.
2
V 440
i) The base impedance of the induction machine: Z b = b = = 0.645 Ω
Sb 300 × 10 3
Rs 0.08
The p.u value of stator resistance = R s ,pu = = = 0.124 p.u Ω
Z b 0.645
'
' R 0.07
The p.u value of rotor resistance referred to primary = R r ,pu = r = = 0.109 p.u Ω
Z b 0.645
Xs 0 .2
The p.u value of stator reactance = X s ,pu = = = 0.310 p.u Ω
Z b 0.645
'
' X 0.1
The p.u value of rotor resistance referred to primary = X r ,pu = r = = 0.155 p.u Ω
Z b 0.645
S load 100
The p.u load = S pu = = = 0.333∠ cos −1 0.8 = 0.333∠36.87 o p.u kVA
Sb 300
The p.u transformer impedance = Z trans ,pu = j0.06 p.u Ω
Solution Figure 6.1.1 Per Unit Model for power flow studies of Problem 6.1
j X tran R1 j X1 R2 j X2
+ Igen Imotor +
Vgrid load Q Eback
P
- -
Tem TL
Fig. Per unit model for power flow studies with the back emf represented by a voltage
source
120f 120 × 60
ii) Synchronous speed = N s = = = 900 rpm
P 8
N s − N 900 − 1200
Slip = s = = = −0.33
Ns 900
The supply voltage = 440 V = 1 p.u
VA b 300 × 10 3
The base current = I b = = = 393.65 A
3 × Vb 3 × 440
( '
) (
p.u impedance = Z p.u = R s ,pu + R r ,pu / s + j X tran ,pu + X s ,pu + X r ,pu
'
)
= (0.124 − 0.109 / 0.33) + j(0.06 + 0.31 + 0.155) = 0.56∠111.45° p.u Ω
Let the voltage at the utility bus be selected to be the reference 1∠0° p.u V
Vgrid ,p.u 1∠0°

The p.u current in motor convention = I motor ,p.u = =
Z p .u 0.56∠111.45 o
= 1.79∠ − 111.45o p.u A
With generator convention, the direction of current is reversed:
I gen ,p.u = − I motor ,p.u = 1.79∠(180 − 111.45) = 1.79∠68.55° p.u A

o
Back emf in p.u = E back ,p.u = I motor ,p.u .R r ,p.u

(1 − s )
s
= 1.79∠ − 111.45° × 0.109 ×

(1 + 0.333) = 0.78∠68.55° p.u V
− 0.333
It is found that the back emf, Eback is in phase with the current Imotor. That is because this
voltage is over the resistance R r
(1 − s ) . Since slip is negative, the power from this
s
resistance is negative. In other words, power is generated. Now, since the voltage and
current are in phase, the power is completely active without any reactive component. The
reactive power required by the transformer and the stator and rotor reactances comes
from the grid.
*
The complex power flowing from the back emf towards the grid = E back ,p.u .I gen ,p.u
= 0.78∠68.55 × (1.79∠68.55°) = 1.40 + j0 p.u kVA

*
The power from the back emf of the generator is only active power and does not have any
reactive component.
*
The complex power flow from the grid towards the generator = Vgrid ,p.u .I motor ,p.u
= 1∠0 × (1.79∠ − 111.45) = −0.65 + j1.67 p.u kVA

*
Therefore, the generator consumes 1.67 p.u kVar from the grid while supplying 0.65 p.u
kW of power.
Fig. Phasor Diagram for induction generator
The current in generator convention = I gen = I b × I p.u . = 393 .65 × 1.79∠68.55°
= 705∠68.55° A
*
The complex power injected by the generator = S gen ,p.u = Vgen ,p.u .I gen ,p.u
= 1∠0 × (1.79∠68.55) = 1∠0 × (1.79∠ − 68.55) = 0.65 − j1.67 p.u kVA

*
The power in absolute values = S b × S gen ,p.u = 300 × (0.65 − j1.67 ) = 196 − j500 kVA
Algebraically, we find that the reactive power is negative. That indicates that the flow of
reactive power is from the grid towards the induction generator.
Therefore active power injected from the generator = 196 kW
Therefore, the reactive power drawn by the generator = 500 kVar
( )
The copper loss = I 2 R s + R r = 705 2 × (0.08 + 0.07 ) = 75 kW
'
The shaft mechanical power input (neglecting the mechanical and iron losses) =
Power injected + the copper losses = 196 + 75 = 271 kW
iii) The speed of the machine is above the synchronous speed. Therefore, the machine
generates active power.
The power generated by the machine = 196 kW
The power consumed by the local load = 100,000 × 0.8 = 80 kW
Power factor angle of the load = cos −1 0.8 = 36.87°
Because there are no loss components in the transformer, the power supplied to the utility
is the balance of the power produced by the generator and the power consumed by the
load = 196 − 80 = 116 kW.
iv) The reactive power supplied by the utility is the sum of the reactive powers of the
load, the transformer, and the generator = 100 sin (36.87 ) + 500
= 560 kVar
v) Since the microgrid consumes reactive power, a reactive power source of 560
kVar should be placed at the terminals of the microgrid to obtain unity power
factor for microgrid of wind generator.
6.2 The microgrid of Figure 6.46 is supplied by an induction generator. The system has a
local load rated 100 kVA at a power factor rated 0.8 lagging. The three-phase transformer
is rated 11 kV/0.44 kV; 300 kVA, and reactance of 6%. The induction machine rated at
440 V, 60 Hz, three-phase, eight-pole; 500 kVA, 440V, 60 Hz; stator resistance of 0.1
Ω/phase; rotor referred resistance in the stator side of 0.1 Ω/phase, stator reactance of 0.8
Ω/phase; rotor referred reactance of 0.4 Ω/phase. Compute the following:
i) Compute the per unit power flow model and short circuit model based on a base of 500
kVA and 440 V
ii) If the speed of the induction generator is 1000 rpm, what is the rotor frequency?
iii) The flow of active and reactive power between the microgrid and the local power grid
Figure 6.46 The System of Problem 6.2.
i) Sb = 500 kVA, Vb = 440 V on the LV side of the transformer

2
V 440 2
The base impedance of the induction machine: Z b = b = = 0.387 Ω
VA b 500 × 10 3
Rs 0 .1
The p.u value of stator resistance = R s ,pu = = = 0.258 p.u Ω
Z b 0.387
The p.u value of rotor resistance referred to primary =

'
' Rr 0.1
R r ,pu = = = 0.258 p.u Ω
Z b 0.387
Xs 0 .8
The p.u value of stator reactance = X s , pu = = = 2.07 p.u Ω
Z b 0.387
'
' Xr 0.4
The p.u value of rotor resistance referred to primary= X r ,pu = = = 1.03 p.u Ω
Z b 0.387
2
S b ,new ⎛ Vb ,old ⎞
The new p.u value of the transformer reactance = X pu ,new = X pu ,old . .⎜ ⎟
S b ,old ⎜⎝ Vb ,new ⎟
⎠
2
500 × 10 3 ⎛ 440 ⎞
= 0.06 × ×⎜ ⎟ = 0.1 p.u Ω
300 × 10 3 ⎝ 440 ⎠
S load 100
The p.u load = S pu = = = 0.2∠ cos −1 0.8 = 0.2∠36.87 o p.u kVA
Sb 500
It is assumed that the local utility has a p.u reactance of Xutility
The p.u model for short circuit studies will include the Thevenin’s equivalent impedance
of the utility however, the model for power flow studies, it will not be accounted for.
Solution Figure 6.2.1 Per Unit Model for the short circuit studies of Problem 6.2.
Solution Figure Per Unit Model for the power flow studies of Problem 6.2.
120f 120 × 60
ii) Synchronous speed = N s = = = 900 rpm
P 8
N s − N 900 − 1000
Slip = s = = = −0.111
Ns 900
The rotor voltage frequency = s.f = 0.111× 60 = 6.67 Hz

iii) The supply voltage = 440 V = 1 p.u
VA b 500 × 10 3
The base current = I b = = = 656 A
3 × Vb 3 × 440
( '
) (
p.u impedance = Z p.u = R s ,pu + R r ,pu / s + j X trans,pu + X s ,pu + X r ,pu
'
)
= (0.258 − 0.258 / 0.111) + j(0.1 + 2.07 + 1.03) = 3.81∠123° p.u Ω
Vp.u 1
The p.u current in motor convention = I motor ,pu = = = 0.26∠ − 123°
Z p .u 3.81∠123°
With generator convention, the direction of current is reversed:
I gen ,p.u = − I motor ,p.u = 0.26∠(180 − 123) = 0.26∠57° p.u A

o
Back emf in p.u current = E back ,p.u = I motor .R r ,p.u

(1 − s )
s
= 0.26∠ − 123° × 0.258 ×

(1 + 0.111) == 0.67∠57°
− 0.111
It is found that the back emf, Eback is in phase with the current Imotor. That is because this
voltage is over the resistance R r
(1 − s ) . Since slip is negative, the power from this
s
resistance is negative. In other words, power is generated. Now, since the voltage and
current are in phase, the power is completely active without any reactive component. The
reactive power required by the transformer and the stator and rotor reactances comes
from the grid.
*
The complex power flowing from the back emf towards the grid = E back ,p.u .I gen ,p.u
= 0.26∠57 × (0.67∠57°) = 0.17 + j0 p.u kVA

*
The power from the back emf of the generator is only active power and does not have any
reactive component.
*
The complex power flow from the grid towards the generator = Vgrid ,p.u .I motor ,p.u
= 1∠0 × (0.26∠ − 123) = −0.142 + j0.218 p.u kVA

*
Therefore, the generator consumes 0.218 p.u kVar while supplying 0.142 p.u kW of
power.
Fig. Phasor Diagram for induction generator
The absolute value of current in motor convention = I motor = I b × I motor , p.u
= 656 × 0.26∠ − 123° = 170.6∠ − 123°A
With generator convention, the current is reversed I gen = 170.6∠(180 − 123)
= 170.6∠57° A
*
The complex power injected by the generator = S gen ,p.u = Vgrid ,p.u .I gen ,p.u
= 1∠0 × (0.26∠57 ) = 0.142 − j0.218 p.u kVA

*
The power in absolute values = S b × S gen ,p.u = 500 × (0.142 − j0.218) = 71 − j109 kVA
Algebraically, we find that the reactive power is negative. That indicates that the flow of
reactive power is from the grid towards the induction generator.
Therefore active power injected by the generator = 71 kW
Therefore, the reactive power drawn by the generator = 109 kVar
The power consumed by the local load = 100,000 × 0.8 = 80 kW
The power factor angle of the load = cos −1 0.8 = 36.87°

Therefore, the power supplied from the utility = 80 − 71 = 9 kW
The reactive power supplied by the utility = 109 + 100 × sin 36.87 = 169 kVar
6.3 A six-pole wound rotor induction machine rated at 60 Hz, 380 V, 160 kVA. The
induction machine has a stator and referred rotor resistance of 0.8 Ω/phase and stator and
rotor reactance of 0.6 Ω/phase. The generator shaft speed is 1500 rpm. Determine how
much resistance the rotor circuit must have to operate the generator at 1800 rpm.
Solution
120f 120 × 60
Synchronous speed = N s = = = 1200 rpm
P 6
N s − N 1200 − 1500
Slip at 1500 rpm = s1500 = = = −0.25
Ns 1200
N s − N 1200 − 1800
Slip at 1800 rpm = s1800 = = = − 0 .5
Ns 1200
For the current to stay fixed at the same value, the effective impedance should remain the
'
same. Let R ext be the external resistance used to control speed.
(R s
'
+ R r / s1500 ) + (X
2
s + Xr )
' 2
= {R + (R
s r
' '
)
+ R ext / s1800 } + (X
2
s + Xr )
' 2
'
( '
)
R ext = s1800 × R r / s1500 − R r = −0.5 × 0.8 / (− 0.25) − 0.8 = 0.8 Ω
'
6.4 A 400 V, 3-phase Y-connected induction generator has the following data.
Z1 = (0.6 + j1.2 )Ω / phase
Z 2' = (0.5 + j1.3)Ω / phase
The generator is connected to a local power grid. Perform the following:
i) The maximum active power that the generator can supply.

ii) The reactive power flow between the induction generator and the local power
grid.
Solutions
From (6.60), the stator current =
V1 V1
I1' = =
Z1 + Z 2 ⎛ ⎞
2
R '2
⎜⎜ R 1 +
s
(
⎟⎟ + X1 + X '2 )2
⎝ ⎠
400
The phase voltage = V1 = = 231 V
3
231
I1' =
2
⎛ 0 .5 ⎞
⎟ + (1.2 + 1.3)
2
⎜ 0 .6 +
⎝ s ⎠
From (6.55), the power supplied by the grid =
1− s ' ' 2
Pem = PAG − I '2 R '2 = (1 − s )PAG = R 2 I 2 = function (s )
2
To find the slip for maximum power, the derivative of Pgrid is found and equated to zero:
dPgrid
=0
ds
− R 1R '2 ± (R 1R ' 2 )2 − [R 1 2 − (X1 + X1 )2 ]R 2 2
⇒s=
R 1 − (X 1 + X 1 )
2 2
− 0.6 × 0.5 ± (0.6 × 0.5)2 − [0.6 2 − (1.2 + 1.3)2 ]× 0.6 2

s= = −0.2015 or 0.3036
0.6 2 − (1.2 + 1.3)
2
For generator operation, s is negative.
Therefore, s = -0.2015
Writing Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) for the circuit, the current in motor convention,
Vgrid
Im =
R 1 + R 2 ' / s + j(X 1 + X 2 ')
400 / 3
= = 74∠ − 127°
0.6 − 0.5 / 0.2015 + j(1.2 + 1.3)
With current following the generator convention and flowing from an induction generator
to the grid, the current I G = 74∠(180 − 127 )° = 74∠53°.
The power flow at the grid terminal = S grid = 3Vgrid .I G * = 3 × 400 / 3 × (65∠53°)
*
= 3 × 400 / 3 × 65∠ − 53°

= 27 − j36 kVA
i) Therefore, the active power injected to the grid = 27 kW
ii) Therefore, the reactive power injected by the grid = 36 kVar
6.5 Design a 15 kW wind power generator that is supplied from a variable wind speed.
The designed system must provide 220 VAC, single-phase AC power. Compute the DC
bus voltage.
Solution
The system will consist of an inverter and a rectifier.
For the inverter from (3.4),
Vac,inv = M a .Vdc / 2
Vdc = 2 .Vac,inv / M a = 2 × 220 / 0.9 = 345.7 V , assuming Ma = 0.9
For the rectifier from (3.77),
Vdc = 3 2 .Vac / π
Vac = πVdc / 3 2 = 345.7 π / 3 2 = 256 V
Hence, the rectifier should be rated at DC voltage of 345 V and AC voltage of 256 V
The inverter should be rated at 345.7 V DC and 220 V AC, 15 kVA assuming unity
power factor.
Both the inverter and the rectifier should be rated at 15 kVA.
6.6 The same as Problem 6.5, except the wind generating system must provide three-
phase AC nominal voltage of 210 VAC . Compute the DC bus voltage.
Solution
For the three-phase inverter (from 3.83),
3 Vdc
Vac,L − L,inv = M a .
2 2
Assuming 0.8 modulation index,
2 2 2 2
⇒ Vdc = . Vac,L − L,inv = × × 210 = 428.66 V
Ma 3 0.8 3
Vdc = 3 2 .Vac / π
Vac = πVdc / 3 2 = 428.66π / 3 2 = 317 V
Hence, the rectifier should be rated at DC voltage of 429 V and AC voltage of 317 V
The inverter should be rated at 429 V DC and 210 V AC, 15 kVA assuming unity power
factor.
Both the inverter and the rectifier should be rated at 15 kVA.
6.7 Design a 2 MW wind systems using a variable speed system. The DC bus voltage is
at a nominal value of 600 VDC. The generators are located 5 miles from the local utility.
The utility voltage is three-phase AC rated at 34.5 kV.
TABLE 6.2 13.2–132 kV Class One Phase–Neutral Return Line Model.
Conductor DC Inductance Susceptance Current

Resistance (Ω/km) (S/km) Ratings
(Ω/km) XL YC
Magpie 1.646 j 0.755 j 1.45e-7 100 Amp
Squirrel 1.3677 j 0.78 j 6.9e-7 130 Amp
Gopher 1.0933 j 0.711 j 7.7e-7 150 Amp
The data for the transmission line are given in Table 6.2. The data for the transformers
are 460 V/13.2 kV 250 kVA 10% impedance and 13.2 kV–34.5 kV, 1 MVA 8.5%
impedance.
i) Give the one-line diagram

ii) Per unit model based on a rated wind generator
Solution
i) The DC voltage is 600 V. Therefore, the DC side of rectifier must be rated at 600
V.
Fig. The one line diagram
The utility voltage = 34.5 kV
The inverter voltage on the AC-side is chosen to be 460 V to match with the available
transformer rating.
For the three-phase inverter (from 3.83),
3 Vdc
Vac,L − L,inv = M a .
2 2
If the DC side of the inverter is rated at 600 V, the modulation index,
2 2 2 2
Ma = . Vac,L − L ,inv = × × 460 = 1.25
Vdc 3 600 3
Since the modulation index works out to be greater than 1, a boost converter must be
used to boost the voltage of the rectifier to a sufficient level for the inverter.
Let the modulation index of the inverter be chosen to be 0.9. Therefore, the DC side
2 2 2 2
voltage of the inverter = Vdc = . Vac,L − L,inv = × × 460 = 835 V
Ma 3 0.9 3
Let the inverters be rated at 1 MVA each.
total MVA 2
The number of inverters in parallel = = =2
MVA rating of each inverter 1
Therefore, each inverter should be rated at 835 V DC, 460 V AC, 1 MVA.
Let the boost converter be rated at 835 V DC on the output side and 600 V on the input
side.
Vin 600
The duty ratio of the boost converter = D = 1 − = 1− = 0.28
Vo 835
Let each boost converter be rated at 1 MW
total MW 2
The number of boost converters in parallel = = =2
MW rating of each converter 1
Therefore, each boost converter should be rated at 600 V on the input, 835 V on the
output, 1 MW of power.
Vdc = 3 2 .Vac / π
Vac = πVdc / 3 2 = 600π / 3 2 = 444 V
Therefore the rectifier should be rated 444 V AC and 600 V DC
Let each rectifier be rated at 1 MVA,

total MVA 2
The number of rectifiers in parallel = = =2
MVA rating of each inverter 1
S 2 × 10 6
The current rating = I rated = = = 87.48 A
3.VL 3 × 13.2 × 10 3
Hence, the conductor chosen is “Magpie.”
The value of impedance = Z = R + jX = 5 × (1.646 + j × 0.755) = 8.23 + j3.775 Ω
The value of admittance = Y = 5 × 1.45 × 10 −7 = 0.725 × 10 −6 S
The number of 250 kVA transformers connected in parallel =
total MVA 2
= = =8
MVA rating of each tran. 0.25
The number of 1 MVA transformers connected in parallel =
total MVA 2
= = =2
MVA rating of each trans. 1
ii) Let Sb = 2 MVA and Vb = 34.5 kV on the local power grid side.
The base voltage on LV side of 13.2 / 34.5 kV transformer
VLV 13.2
= VHV,b = × 34.5 = 13.2 kV
VHV 34.5
2
⎛ Vb,old ⎞ ⎛ S b,new ⎞
The per unit impedance of the transformer = Z b,old ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎜
⎜S
⎟
⎟
⎝ Vb,new ⎠ ⎝ b,old ⎠
2
⎛ 13.2 ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞
= j0.085 × ⎜ ⎟ × ⎜ ⎟ = 0.170 p.u Ω
⎝ 13.2 ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠
The base voltage on LV side of 0.46 / 13.2 kV transformer
VLV 0.46
= VHV,b = × 13.2 = 460 V
VHV 13.2
2
⎛ Vb,old ⎞ ⎛ S b,new ⎞
The per unit impedance of the transformer = Z b,old ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎜
⎜S
⎟
⎟
⎝ Vb,new ⎠ ⎝ b,old ⎠
2
⎛ 13.2 ⎞ ⎛ 2 ⎞
= j0.1 × ⎜ ⎟ ×⎜ ⎟ = 0.8 p.u Ω
⎝ 13.2 ⎠ ⎝ 0.25 ⎠
2
Vb 13.2 2
The base impedance on the transmission line = Z b = = = 87.12 Ω
Sb 2
The p.u impedance on the transmission line =
8.23 + j3.775
Z tran,p.u = = 0.094 + j0.043 p.u Ω
87.12
1
The base admittance on the transmission line = Yb = = 0.011 S
Zb
The p.u admittance on the transmission line =
0.725 × 10 −6
Ytran,p.u = = 65.9 × 10 −6 p.u S
0.011
VDC 835
The base voltage on DC side of inverter = VAC,b = × 460 = 835 V
VAC 460
VDC,rec 600
The base voltage on DC side of rectifier = VAC,inv,b = × 835 = 600 V
VDC,inv 835
Vgen 444
The base voltage on generator bus = VDC,b = × 600 = 444 V
VDC 600
Solution Figure 6.7.1 Per Unit model
6.8 A wound rotor six-pole 60 Hz induction generator has stator resistance of 1.1 Ω/phase
and rotor resistance of 0.8 Ω and runs at 1350 rpm. The prime mover torque remains
constant at all speeds. How much resistance must be inserted in the rotor circuit to change
the speed to 1800 rpm? Neglect the motor leakage reactance, X1 and X2.
Solution
The air-gap power from (6.55 and 6.60) is given by:
2 R '2 R' V12

Pg = 3I '2 =3 2 2
s s ⎛ R '2 ⎞
⎜⎜ R 1 +
s ⎠
(
⎟⎟ + X 1 + X '2 )
2
Pg
R '2 V12
Torque = =3
ωs ωs s ⎛ R '2 ⎞
2
⎜⎜ R 1 +
s ⎠
(
⎟⎟ + X1 + X '2 ) 2
R '2
For torque to remain same, must remain constant.
s
120f 120 × 60
Synchronous speed = N s = = = 1200 rpm
P 6
N s − N 1200 − 1800
Slip at 1500 rpm = s1800 = = = −0.5
Ns 1200
N s − N 1200 − 1350
Slip at 1500 rpm = s1350 = = = −0.125
Ns 1200
'
Let R insert be the external inserted resistance
R '2 R ' + R insert

'
= 2
− 0.125 − 0.5
0 .5
'
R insert = R '2 − R '2 = 4(0.8) − 0.8 = 2.4 Ω
0.125
6.9 Consider a three-phase Y-wound rotor connected induction generator rated 220 V, 60
Hz, 16 hp, eight-pole with the following parameters:
R1 = 1 Ω/phase and X1 = 1.6 Ω/phase
R2’ = 0.36 Ω/phase and X2=1.8 Ω/phase
The generator is connected to the local power grid.
Write a MATLAB simulation testbed to plot slip and speed as a function of machine
torque and various external inserted resistance in the rotor circuit. Make the plot for a
value of external resistance of 0.0, 0.4, 0.8, and 1.2 Ω.
Solution
Program Steps:
1. The values of supply voltage, the stator and rotor resistances and reactances are
assigned
2. The supply frequency is defined and the synchronous speed is calculated.
3. The value of external resistance is varied from zero to 1 in the steps of the 0.5
calculation
4. The speed of the machine is varied from zero to the synchronous speed
5. The plot is made for the different values of Rext.
MATLAB Program:
%TORQUE vs SPEED
clc; clear all;
v1=220/sqrt(3);
f=60;
P=8;
r1=1;
x1=1.6;
r2d=.36;
x2d=1.8; % The electrical quantities are defined
ws=120*f/P;
Tmax=-(3/2/ws)*v1^2/(r1+sqrt(r1^2+(x1+x2d)^2))
Tmax_gen=-(3/2/ws)*v1^2/(r1-sqrt(r1^2+(x1+x2d)^2))
w=0:1:2*ws;
for r_ext=0:0.4:1.2 % the value of external resistance is varied
Tstart=-(3/ws)*((r2d+r_ext)/1)*v1^2/((r1+(r2d+r_ext)/1)^2+(x1+x2d)^2)
smax=(r2d+r_ext)/sqrt(r1^2+(x1+x2d)^2)
for j = 1:length(w)
s(j)=(ws-w(j))/ws;
Tem(j)=-(3/ws)*((r2d+r_ext)/s(j))*v1^2/((r1+(r2d+r_ext)/s(j))^2+(x1+x2d)^2);
end
plot(w,Tem,'k','linewidth',2)
hold on;
end
grid on;
xlabel('Speed')
ylabel('Electromagnetic Torque')
axis([0 2*ws 1.1*Tmax 1.1*Tmax_gen])
gtext('R_e_x_t=0')
gtext('R_e_x_t^,=0.4')
gtext('R_e_x_t^,^,=0.8')
gtext('R_e_x_t^,^,^,=1.2')
Solution Figure 6.9.1 depicts the plot of the torque versus the speed of the induction
motor.
Rext=0 R,ext=0.4 R,,ext=0.8 R,,,

ext
=1.2
10
6
Electromagnetic Torque
-2
-4
-6
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800

Speed
Solution Figure 6.9.1 The plot of the Torque Versus Speed of the Induction Motor,
The results are tabulated in Solution Table 6.9.1.
Solution Table 6.9.1 Variation of starting torque and slip at maximum torque with
external resistance
External Starting Torque Slip at Maximum Maximum Torque or

Resistance Torque Breaking Torque (in N-
(in N-m) m)
(Ω)
0 -1.44 0.10
0.4 -2.79 0.21 -5.92 (Motor)
0.8 -3.84 0.33 10.56 (Generator)
1.2 -4.63 0.44

CHAPTER 7
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS OF POWER GRIDS AND
MICROGRIDS
7.1 A three-phase generator rated 440 V, 20 kVA is connected through one cable with
impedance of 1+j0.012 Ω to a motor load rated 440 V, 15 kVA, 0.9 p.f. lagging. Assume
the load voltage is set at 5% above its rated value. Perform the following:
i) Give three-phase circuit if the load is Y connected
ii) Give the three-phase circuit if the load in Δ connected
iii) Give a one-line diagram
iv) Compute the generator voltage
Solutions
i)
ii)
iii)
Solution Figure 7.1.1The One-Line Diagram of Problem 7.1.
iv) For both the Y and Δ connections:
.
√ √ .
. . . . .
√
. . °
7.2 A three-phase generator rated 440 V, 20 kVA is connected through one cable with
impedance of 1+j0.012 Ω to a Δ-connected motor load rated 440 V, 10 kVA, 0.9 p.f.
lagging. Assume the generator voltage is controlled at its rated voltage and its phase
angle is used as the reference angle. Perform the following:
i) What is the number of unknown variables?
ii) How many equations are needed to solve for bus voltage? Give the expressions.
iii) Compute the load bus voltage
Solutions
Let Sb = 20 kVA, Vb = 440 V

2
V
Z b = b = 9.68 Ω
Sb
Z cable 1 + j 0.012
Z p .u ,cable = = = 0.1033 + j 0.0012 p.u Ω
Zb 9.68
−1
Load power factor angle = θ = cos 0.9 = 25.84°
10 × 0.9
Load active power = Pp .u ,load = 20
= 0.45 p.u
10 × sin 25.84
Load reactive power = Q p .u ,load = 20
= 0.218 p.u
Fig. One-line diagram for problem 7.2
Solution Figure 7.2.2. Per unit injection model for power flow studies for problem 7.2
i) The number of unknowns is two: the bus voltage and its angle at load bus 2 assuming
the generator bus 1 is a swing bus.
(V1 − V2 ) y12 − I1 = 0
where y12 = 1/ z1-2
* *
⎛S ⎞ ⎛S ⎞
I1 = ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ , I 2 = ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
⎝ V1 ⎠ ⎝ V2 ⎠
y12 v1 − y12 v 2 = I1
The above can be written as,
⎡ Y11 Y12 ⎤ ⎡ V1 ⎤ ⎡ I1 ⎤
⎢Y . =
⎣ 21 Y22 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣V2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣− I 2 ⎥⎦
where Y11 = y12 , Y12 = − y12 , Y21 = − y12 , Y22 = y12

The matrix equation represents the bus admittance matrix, which is also known as the
YBus model for Problem7.2.
ii) The YBus matrix is described as
I Bus = YBus .VBus
If the system has n buses, IBus is a vector of n ×1 current injection, VBus is a voltage vector
of n ×1 and YBus is a matrix of n × n .
For Problem 7.2, we have two buses. Therefore, the YBus is complex matrix with
dimension of 2 × 2
Generally, for a power grid with n buses, for each bus k, we have
*
S k = Vk I k k = 1, 2
where Ik is the current injection into the power grid at bus k. Therefore, from the row k of
the YBus matrix, we have
2
I k = ∑ Ykj Vj
j=1
Substituting, we have
*
⎛ 2 ⎞
S k = Vk ⎜⎜ ∑ Ykj Vj ⎟⎟ k = 1, 2
⎝ j=1 ⎠
Where Sk is the net injection.
For each bus, k, we have a complex equation. Therefore, we have two nonlinear complex
equations.
⎧ 2
*⎫
P k = Re ⎨ V k ∑ Y kj V j ⎬
*
⎩ j =1 ⎭
⎧ 2
*⎫
Q k = Im⎨Vk ∑ Ykj Vj ⎬
*
⎩ j=1 ⎭
where Vj = Vj (cos θ j + j sin θ j )
Vk = Vk (cos θ k + j sin θ k )
For Problem 7.2, N=2, we have two complex nonlinear equations or four nonlinear
equations in real domain. However, because the generator bus voltage magnitude is given
and it is used as a reference with a phase angle of zero, we have two nonlinear equations
in real domain.
iii) In Problem 7.2 (See Solution Figure 7.2.2), we have the feeder impedance, z1-2, and
load, S2. To find the bus load voltage, we need to solve the two nonlinear equations for
V2, and θ2. After calculating the bus voltages, we can calculate the complex power (S1 =
P1 + jQ1) injected by the local utility feeder.
The Gauss-Seidel method formulation in real domain is given in problem, 7.13. In the
complex domain the steps are as follow:
The calculated real and imaginary power injections at each bus are as follows
⎧ 2
* ⎫
= Re ⎨V k ∑ Y kj V j ⎬
*
Pk (calculated )
⎩ j =1 ⎭
⎧ 2 * *⎫
Qk (calculated ) = Im⎨Vk ∑ Ykj V j ⎬
⎩ j =1 ⎭
After calculating the real and imaginary powers, the mismatches are calculated as
follows:
ΔP = Pk ( scheduled ) − Pk ,(calculated )
ΔQ = Qk ( scheduled ) − Qk ,(calculated )
After, the power flow problem converges and bus voltages are known, we can calculate
the power losses using the power flow balance equation as given below. We use the load
bus voltage and swing bus voltage to calculate the line flow.
S loss = ∑ S gen − ∑ S load = S1 + S 2
S1−2 = V1 .I 1*−2 = V1 .[y1−2 .(V1 − V2 ) + y sh ,1−2 .V1 ] = V1 .[− Y12 .(V1 − V2 ) + y sh ,1−2 .V1 ]
* *
*
( * *
)
= −V1 .Y12 . V1 − V2 + V1 . y sh ,1− 2
2 *
The Matlab program for Gauss Seidel YBus method to calculate load bus voltage and
power losses and line flow is given below:
clc; clear all;
tolerance=1e-5;
PV=0; %no. of PV buses
Vb=440; %base voltage

VAb=20e+3; %base volt-amp
Zb=Vb^2/VAb; %base impedance
Yb=1/Zb; %base admittance
% Scheduled active and reactive powers

P_sch = [0 -10e3/VAb*sin(acos(0.9))]';
Q_sch = [0 P_sch(2)*tan(acos(0.9))]';
%% Admittance matrix formation
% line data
line_data = [
1 2 1 0.012 0];
N = max(max(line_data(:,1:2)));
Y_BUS = zeros(N,N);
% assemble admittance matrix
for line = 1:size(line_data,1)
i = line_data(line,1);
j = line_data(line,2);
Z = (line_data(line,3) + 1j*line_data(line,4))/Zb;
Y_shunt = 1j*line_data(line,5)/Yb;
Y_BUS(i,i) = Y_BUS(i,i) + 1/Z + Y_shunt;

Y_BUS(j,j) = Y_BUS(j,j) + 1/Z + Y_shunt;
Y_BUS(i,j) = Y_BUS(i,j) - 1/Z;
Y_BUS(j,i) = Y_BUS(j,i) - 1/Z;
end
%% Power flow
V=ones(N,1);
theta=zeros(N,1);
V_cplx = V .* exp(1j*theta);
iteration=0;
while (iteration <= 1000)
iteration=iteration+1;
for m=2:N
VY=0;
for n=1:N
if m~=n
VY=VY+Y_BUS(m,n)*V_cplx(n);
end
end
Vm = ((P_sch(m)-1j*Q_sch(m))/conj(V_cplx(m))-VY)/Y_BUS(m,m);
theta(m)=angle(Vm); % for P-V and P-Q buses
if ( m >= 2+PV ) % for P-Q buses only
V(m)=abs(Vm);
end
end
V_cplx = V .* exp(1j*theta);
S_calc = V_cplx .* conj(Y_BUS*V_cplx);
P_calc = real(S_calc);
Q_calc = imag(S_calc);
mismatch=[P_sch(2:N)-P_calc(2:N); Q_sch(2+PV:N)-Q_calc(2+PV:N)];
if (norm(mismatch,'inf') < tolerance)

break;
end
end
%% output solution data

%Bus quantities
S_loss = 0;
for i = 1:N
fprintf(1, 'Bus %d:\n', i);
fprintf(1, ' Voltage = %f p.u., %.1f deg.\n', ...
abs(V_cplx(i)), angle(V_cplx(i))*180/pi);
fprintf(1, ' Injected P = %f p.u.\n', P_calc(i))
if i > 1
fprintf(1, ' Scheduled P = %f p.u.\n', P_sch(i));
end
fprintf(1, ' Injected Q = %f p.u.\n', Q_calc(i))
if i > PV+1
fprintf(1, ' Scheduled Q = %f p.u.\n', Q_sch(i));
end
%Calculating the power loss
S_loss = S_loss + S_calc(i);
end
P_loss = real(S_loss);
Q_loss = imag(S_loss);
%Line quantities
fprintf(1, '\nPower flow from:\n');
I_line = (V_cplx(i)-V_cplx(j))*(-Y_BUS(i,j));
Y_shunt = 1j*line_data(line,5)/Yb;
Shunt_power_line = -abs(V_cplx(i))^2*Y_shunt;
S_line = V_cplx(i)*conj(I_line) + Shunt_power_line;
P_line = real(S_line);
Q_line = imag(S_line);
fprintf(1, 'bus %d to bus %d\n', i, j);
fprintf(1, ' P = %.4f, Q = %.4f\n', P_line, Q_line);
end
%Total loss
fprintf(1, '\nThe total active power loss = %f\nThe total reactive
power loss = %f\n'...
, P_loss, Q_loss);
SOLUTION TABLE 7.2.1 Bus voltages using Gauss-Seidel YBus method for problem
7.2
S b = 20 kVA , Vb = 440V
Number of iterations is 3
Bus Volts Angle Generation Load ΔP ΔQ

#
(p.u) (Degrees) MW MVar MW MVar
(p.u) (p.u) (p.u) (p.u)
1 1.000 0.0 0.224 0.106 0 0 0 0
2 0.977 0.6 0 0 0.218 0.106 0.416×10−5 0.005×10−5
Calculation of losses
I = YBus .V
G = Re[YBus ] , B = Im[YBus ]
YBus = G+j B Matrix
Using the YBus algorithm, we can calculate YBus model.
zi − j = ri − j + jxi − j
z1−2 = r1−2 + jx1−2 = 0.1033+ j 0.0012 p.u Ω
1 1 ri− j − jxi− j ri− j − xi− j

yi− j = = = 2 = + j
zi− j ri− j + jxi− j ri− j + xi− j 2 ri− j 2 + xi− j 2 2
ri− j + xi− j
2
Now we formulate
⎡Y Y ⎤
YBus = ⎢ 11 12 ⎥ = [G] + j[B]
⎣Y21 Y22 ⎦
Y1−1 = Y2−2 = y1−2
Y1−2 = Y2−1 = − y1−2
For the YBus we have,
⎡ 9.68 − 9.68⎤ ⎡− 0.12 0.12 ⎤

G=⎢ ⎥ , B = ⎢ 0.12 − 0.12⎥
⎣− 9.68 9.68 ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎡ I1 ⎤ ⎧⎡ 9.68 − 9.68⎤ ⎡− 0.12 0.12 ⎤⎫⎡ 1∠0° ⎤ ⎡0.24∠ − 25.2°⎤

⎢I ⎥ = ⎨⎢− 9.68 9.68 ⎥ + j⎢ ⎥⎬⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎩⎣ ⎦ ⎣ 0.12 − 0.12⎦⎭⎣0.977∠0.6°⎦ ⎣ 0.24∠154.8° ⎦
*
Sk = Vk .I k
S1 = V1 .I1 = 1∠0 × (0.24∠ − 25.2) = 0.2243 + j0.10564 p.u kVA

* *
S2 = V2 .I 2 = 0.977∠0.6 × (0.24∠154.8) = −0.2179 − j0.10555 p.u kVA

* *
2
S loss = ∑ S k = (0.2243 + j 0.10564) + (− 0.2179 − j 0.10556) = 0.0064 + j 0.00008
n =1
Line flow:
The line follow can be calculated as follows

*
( * *
) 2
S1− 2 = −V1 .Y12 . V1 − V2 + V1 . y sh ,1− 2
*
= 1∠0 × (9.68 + j 0.12 )× (1∠0 − 0.977∠ − 0.6 ) + 12 × 0 = 0.224 + j 0.106
SOLUTION TABLE 7.2.2 The Power Flow through the feeder for problem 7.2.
Ploss (p.u) = 0.0064, Qloss (p.u) =

0.00008
From To MW Flow MVar Flow

Bus Bus (p.u) (p.u)
# #
1 2 0.224 0.106
The power supplied by bus 1, the swing bus is equal to the total load minus the total
generation by all other busses plus the losses.
P1 swing bus = PL ,2 − PG ,2 + Ploss = 0.218 − 0 + 0.006 = 0.224
Q1 swing bus = Q L ,2 − QG ,2 + Qloss = 0.106 − 0 + 0.00008 = 0.106
The bus voltage of the swing bus is 1∠0 and the p.u power is P1 = 0.224 p.u and Q1 is
0.106 p.u supplied from the generator.
7.3 The radial feeder of Fig. 7.24 is connected to a local utility rated at 11.3 kV
distribution. Assume power base of 10 kVA and voltage base of 11.3 kV. Perform the
following:
i) Compute the per unit model
ii) Write the number of equations that are needed to solve for the bus load
voltages
iii) Use the Gauss-Seidel method and compute the bus voltages
iv) Compute the power at bus 1. Assume the power mismatch of 0.00001 per unit.
v) Compute the total active and reactive power losses

Figure 7.24The Radial Feeder for Problem 7.3.
Solutions
i) , Vb = 11.3 kV
, . , . . . .
.
, . . . . . .
.
, . . . . . .
Power flow injection model for problem 7.3
Per Unit model
ii) We have two load buses, therefore, we need to solve two complex nonlinear equations
or four nonlinear equations in real domain as discussed in problem 7.2
iii) We use the Gauss-Seidel program given in solution 7.2. The YBus model is computed
using YBus algorithm as given in problem 7.2. However, in this problem we have two load
buses
YBus = G + jB
zi − j = ri − j + jxi − j
For example,
z1−2 = r1−2 + jx1−2 = 0.0033+ j 0.0012 p.u Ω
1 1 ri− j − jxi− j ri− j − xi− j

yi− j = = = 2 = + j
zi− j ri− j + jxi− j ri− j + xi− j 2 ri− j 2 + xi− j 2 2
ri− j + xi− j
2
Now we formulate
⎡Y11 Y12 Y13 ⎤

YBus = ⎢⎢Y21 Y22 Y23 ⎥⎥ = [G] + j[B]
⎢⎣Y31 Y32 Y33 ⎥⎦
Y1−1 = y1−2 , Y2− 2 = y1− 2 + y 2−3 , Y3−3 = y 2−3
Y1−2 = Y2−1 = − y1−2 , Y2−3 = Y3−2 = −y2−3
Y1−3 = Y3−1 = 0
Where G and B are given below
⎡ 212 − 212 0 ⎤
G = ⎢− 212 423 − 212⎥⎥
⎢
⎢⎣ 0 − 212 212 ⎥⎦
⎡− 795 795 0 ⎤
B = ⎢⎢ 795 − 1590 795 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ 0 795 − 795⎥⎦
Using the program in solution 7.2, we solve the two complex nonlinear equations using
the Gauss-Seidel YBus method.
SOLUTION TABLE 7.3.1 Bus Voltages using Gauss-Seidel YBus method for problem
7.3
S b = 10 kVA , Vb = 11.3 kV
Number of iterations is 33

#
(p.u) (p.u) (p.u) (p.u)
1 1.000 0.0 1.231 0.668 0 0 0 0
2 0.999 -0.1 0 0 0.720 0.349 0.79 × 10 −5 0.49 × 10 −5
3 0.999 -0.1 0 0 0.510 0.316 0.56 × 10 −5 0.27 × 10 −5
Complex power from bus i to bus j:
[
S i − j = Vi .I i*− j = Vi . y i − j .(Vi − V j ) + y sh ,i − jVi ]
*
[
= Vi . − Yij .(Vi − V j ) + y sh ,i − jV j ]
*
*
( * *
) 2
= −Vi .Yij . Vi − V j + Vi . y sh ,i − j
*
SOLUTION TABLE 7.3.2 ThePower Flow through the feeders for problem 7.3
Ploss (p.u) = 0.001, Qloss (p.u) = 0.003
From To MW Flow MVarFlow

Bus Bus (p.u) (p.u)
# #
1 2 1.231 0.668
2 3 0.510 0.317
iv) The bus voltage of the swing bus is 1∠0 and the p.u power supplied from the grid is
3 3
P1 swing bus = ∑ PL ,i − ∑ PG ,i + Ploss = (0.720 + 0.510 ) − (0 + 0 ) + 0.0007 = 1.231
i=2 i =2
3 3
Q1 swing bus = ∑ Q L ,i − ∑ QG ,i + Qloss = (0.349 + 0.316 ) − (0 + 0 ) + 0.003 = 0.668
i =2 i =2
v) S loss = ∑ S gen − ∑ S load = S1 + S 2 + S 3
The active and reactive power losses are:

3 3
Ploss = ∑ PG ,i − ∑ PL ,i = 0.0005
i =1 i =1
3 3
Qloss = ∑ QG ,i − ∑ Q L ,i = 0.0018
i =1 i =1
7.4 The radial feeder of Fig. 7.24 is connected to a local power grid rated at 11.3 kV
distribution. Assume the base voltage of 15 kVA and a voltage base of 11.3 kV. Perform
the following:
i) Compute the per unit model
ii) Write the number of equations that are needed to solve for the bus load
voltages
iii) Compute the Y bus matrix
iv) Compute the matrix B′and B′′
v) Compute the bus voltages. Assume the power mismatch of 0.00001 per unit.
vi) Compute the power at bus 1
vii) Compute the total active and reactive power losses
Solutions
i) Sb = 15 kVA, Vb = 11.3 kV
, ,
, . , . . . .
.
, . . . . . .
.
, . . . . . .
Power flow Per unit injection model for problem 7.4
ii) We have to solve two nonlinear complex equations, one complex equation for each
load bus. The number of nonlinear equations in real domain is equal to four.
iii) Using the YBus algorithm of problem 7.2, we can compute the YBus model as
YBus = G + jB
Where G and B are given below:
Y1−1 = y1−2 , Y2− 2 = y1− 2 + y 2−3 , Y3−3 = y 2−3
Y1−2 = Y2−1 = − y1−2 , Y2−3 = Y3−2 = −y2−3
Y1−3 = Y3−1 = 0
YBus = G + jB
iv) The matrix is the imaginary part of YBus and matrix is formulated same as YBus
except the resistances and line charging are ignored in the formulation. In this problem,
we do not have line charging.
1 1 1
1 1
matrix is the imaginary part of YBus give above, Since bus 1 is swing bus and its
voltage (magnitude and angle) is given, first row and first column are not needed in
and martrix for bus voltage calculation.
v) To calculate the bus voltages, fast decoupled load flow (FDLF) is used
The steps for FDLF are given below:
Step 1. Newton-Raphson
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ Δθ ⎤
⎡ ΔP ⎤ ⎢ H N ⎥⎢
⎢ ΔQ ⎥ = − ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ΔV ⎥⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎣⎢ J L ⎥⎦ ⎣ V ⎦
Where:
Δθ = θ0 - θnew
ΔV = V0 - Vnew
ΔP = PSch – PCal
ΔQ = QSch – QCal
⎡ ⎤
H N⎥
J=⎢ is Jacobian Matrix
⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢J L ⎥⎦
5
Sk =Pk + j Qk = VkIk*= Vk ∑ (Ykm Vm )*
m =1
If Ykm = Gkm + j Qkm

5
Pk = Vk ∑ Vm (G km cos θ km + B km sin θ km )
m =1
5
Q k = Vk ∑ Vm (G km sin θ km − B km cos θ km )
m =1
If we assume J = 0, N = 0, then we have will have decoupled Newton-Raphson method.
[ΔP] = [H] Δθ
[ΔQ] = [L] [ΔV/V]
∂Pk
= H km = Vk Vm (G km sin θ km − B km cos θ km ) m≠k
∂δ m
H kk = −B kk V m2 − Q k
L kk = −B kk V m2 + Q k
The angle θ12 is very small for well define system, then we will have
H km = −Vk V m B km m ≠ k
If Θ k << B kk V 2 m
H kk = − Bkk V m2
∂Q k 5 5 5
L kk = = −2Vk B kk − ∑ Vm Ykm = −2Vk B kk − ∑ [Vm (G km sin δ km − B km cos δ km )] ≈ −2Vk B kk + Vk ∑ B km
∂Vk m =1 m =1 m =1
5
= −Vk (2BSii + ∑ B km ) = Vk B kk
''
m =1
∂Q k ''
L km = = −Vk Ykm ≈ Vk B km = Vk B km
∂Vm
[ΔP] = [V B’ V] [Δθ]
[ΔQ] = [V B’’ V] [ΔV/V]
Where B’ = [YBus] is obtained by formulating YBus when resistance of the transmission

lines and line changing are neglected.
B’’ = Img [YBus] including resistance and reactance for YBus calculation.
The above formulation is called fast decoupled load flow.
Solution Algorithms:
At the end of calculating the voltages of each bus in an iteration, the active and reactive
power injections at each bus are calculated using the formulas:
Pk = Vk ∑ V j (Gkj cos θ kj + Bkj sin θ kj )

N
j =1
Qk = Vk ∑ V j (Gkj sin θ kj − Bkj cos θ kj )

N
j =1
where Ykj = G kj + jB kj , θ kj = θ k − θ j
Now, the mismatch of power is calculated for each load bus by using the following:
The fast decoupled load flow given above is coded in Matlab for computing bus voltages
and line flows and power losses. The Matlab code is given below. The code also
computes the line flows and the power loss after the solution converges. All the
calculations are done in real domain including the calculations for line flows and power
losses.
[
S i − j = Vi .I i*− j = Vi . y i − j .(Vi − V j ) + y sh ,i − jVi ]
*
[
= Vi . − Yij .(Vi − V j ) + y sh ,i − jV j ]
*
Separating the real and imaginary parts of YBus
YBus = G + jB
YBus ,ij = Gij + jBij
Separating the real and imaginary parts of the voltage,
Vi = Vi (cos θ i − j sin θ i )
Substituting in the equation of line flow,
[
Pij = Vi − Vi .Gij + V j {Gij cos(θi − θ j ) + Bij sin(θi − θ j )} ]
Qij = V [V .{B
i i ij − y sh ,ij }− V j {Bij cos(θi − θ j ) − Gij sin(θi − θ j )} ]
%% Power Flow: FDLF
clc; clear all;
tolerance=1e-5;
PV = 0; %no. of PV buses
Vb=11.3e3; %base voltage

VAb=15e+3; %base volt-amp

P_sch = [0 -8e+3*0.9 -6e+3*0.85]'/VAb;
Q_sch = [0 P_sch(2)*tan(acos(0.9)) P_sch(3)*tan(acos(0.85))]';
% line data
line_data = [
1 2 4 15 0
2 3 4 15 0];
G = zeros(N,N);
B = zeros(N,N);
Bd = zeros(N,N);

r = line_data(line,3)/Zb;
x = line_data(line,4)/Zb;
y_shunt = line_data(line,5)/Yb;
G(i,i) = G(i,i) + r/(r^2 + x^2);

B(i,i) = B(i,i) - x/(r^2 + x^2) + y_shunt;
G(j,j) = G(j,j) + r/(r^2 + x^2);
B(j,j) = B(j,j) - x/(r^2 + x^2) + y_shunt;
G(i,j) = G(i,j) - r/(r^2 + x^2);
B(i,j) = B(i,j) + x/(r^2 + x^2);
G(j,i) = G(j,i) - r/(r^2 + x^2);
B(j,i) = B(j,i) + x/(r^2 + x^2);
Bd(i,i) = Bd(i,i) - 1/x;
Bd(j,j) = Bd(j,j) - 1/x;
Bd(i,j) = Bd(i,j) + 1/x;
Bd(j,i) = Bd(j,i) + 1/x;
end
%% Power flow
% allocate storage the matrix B

Bd = Bd(2:N,2:N);
Bdd = B(2+PV:N,2+PV:N);
% initial values
V = ones(N,1);
theta = zeros(N,1);
P_calc = zeros(N,1);
Q_calc = zeros(N,1);
for k = 1:N
for m = 1:N
P_calc(k) = P_calc(k)...
+ V(k)*V(m)*(G(k,m)*cos(theta(k) - theta(m)) +
B(k,m)*sin(theta(k) - theta(m)));
Q_calc(k) = Q_calc(k)...
+ V(k)*V(m)*(G(k,m)*sin(theta(k) - theta(m)) -
B(k,m)*cos(theta(k) - theta(m)));
end
end
mismatch_P = [P_sch(2:N)-P_calc(2:N)];
mismatch_Q = [Q_sch(2+PV:N)-Q_calc(2+PV:N)];
iteration=0;
% FDLF iteration
while (iteration < 1000)
correction_theta = -Bd\mismatch_P;
correction_V = -Bdd\mismatch_Q;
theta(2:N) = theta(2:N) + correction_theta(1:(N-1));
V(PV+2:N) = V(PV+2:N) .* (1+correction_V(1:(N-1)-PV));
% calculate mismatch and stop iterating

% if the solution has converged
for k = 1:N
for m = 1:N
end
end
mismatch = [mismatch_P; mismatch_Q];
if (norm(mismatch,'inf') < 1e-5)

break;
end
end

%Bus quantities
P_loss = 0;
Q_loss = 0;
for i = 1:N
V(i), theta(i)*180/pi);
if i > 1
end
if i > PV+1
end
P_loss = P_loss + P_calc(i);
Q_loss = Q_loss + Q_calc(i);
end
%Line quantities
Y_shunt = line_data(line,5)/Yb;
P_line = V(i)*(V(i)*-G(i,j) - V(j)*(-G(i,j)*cos(theta(i)-theta(j))
- B(i,j)*sin(theta(i)-theta(j))));
Q_line = V(i)*(V(i)*(B(i,j) - Y_shunt) + V(j)*(-
B(i,j)*cos(theta(i)-theta(j)) + G(i,j)*sin(theta(i)-theta(j))));
end
%Total loss
, P_loss, Q_loss);
iteration
mismatch
SOLUTION TABLE 7.4.1 Bus voltage using FDLF for problem 7.4
S b = 15 kVA , Vb = 11.3 kV
Number of iterations = 8

#
(p.u) (p.u) (p.u) (p.u)
1 1.000 0.0 0.821 0.445 0 0 0 0
2 0.999 -0.1 0 0 0.480 0.232 0.78 × 10 −5 0.55 × 10 −5
3 0.999 -0.1 0 0 0.340 0.211 0.55 × 10 −5 0.36 × 10 −5
SOLUTION TABLE 7.4.2Power flow through the feeders lines for problem 7.4
Ploss (p.u) = 0.0005, Qloss (p.u) = 0.0018

Bus Bus (p.u) (p.u)
# #
1 2 0.821 0.445
2 3 0.340 0.211
vi)
The active and reactive power from the swing bus:
3 3
P1 swing bus = ∑ PL ,i − ∑ PG ,i + Ploss = (0.480 + 0.340 ) − (0 + 0 ) + 0.0005 = 0.821
i=2 i=2
3 3
Q1 swing bus = ∑ Q L ,i − ∑ QG ,i + Qloss = (0.232 + 0.211) − (0 + 0 ) + 0.0018 = 0.445
i =2 i =2
The bus voltage of the swing bus is 1∠0 and the p.u power is
S1 = 0.821 + j 0.445 .
vii)
3 3
Ploss = ∑ PG ,i − ∑ PL ,i = 0.0005
i =1 i =1
3 3
Qloss = ∑ QG ,i − ∑ Q L ,i = 0.0018
i =1 i =1
Ploss (p.u) = 0.0005, Qloss (p.u) = 0.0018
7.5 For the power grid of Fig.7.25 perform the following:
i) Compute the bus admittance and bus impedance model for power flow studies
ii) Add a parallel line between bus 1 and bus 2 with the same impedance and
compute the bus impedance model
iii) What is the driving point impedance of bus 1 before and after adding the line?
iv) Remove the shunt element to ground and compute the bus admittance and the
bus impedance model
Figure 7.25 The Power Grid for Problem 7.5.
Solutions
Fig. Per unit injection model for power flow studies for problem 7.5
i) Using the procedure of problem 7.2, the YBus model can be formulated as
follow:
YBus = G +jB
However, in this problem, we have assumed a DC case and reactances are

zero and therefore, B = 0
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
Note that ZBus model can be computed from YBus model since the bus 1 has an impedance
to the reference bus (ground). This ZBus model is used for power flow studies.
The above power flow problem is solved using Gauss-Seidel ZBus method. The flowchart
is given below:
Gauss
Since problem 7.5 has only real quantities, the complex power S is replaced by active
power P and the conjugates are neglected. The Gauss-Seidel code in MATLAB is given
below with only real quantities.
At the end of each iteration, the calculated active power injection at each bus are found
out using:
N
Pk (calculated ) = I k ∑ Z kj I j
j =1
The mismatch is given by:
After the power flow has converged, the effect of the fictitious resistance is removed by
subtracting the current and power flowing into it from the swing bus.
2
N V1
P1 (calculated ) = I 1 ∑ Y1 j I j −
j =1 R fic
Where Rfic is the fictitious resistance
In the program, the power flow in the lines and the total power loss is also calculated.
⎡Vi − V j ⎤
Pij = Vi .I ij = Vi ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ rij ⎥⎦
1
Gij = − , therefore,
For only resistive circuits, rij
Pij = Vi (V j − Vi )Gij
4 4
Ploss = ∑ PG ,i − ∑ PL ,i
i =1 i =1
%% Gauss-Seidel Zbus method only real quantities

clc; clear all;
tolerance = 1e-5;
P_sch=[1 -.5 -0.5 -1]';
R_fic = 0.01;
% line data
line_data = [
1 2 0.01;
1 4 0.01;
2 3 0.02;
3 4 0.03];
Y_BUS = zeros(N,N);
r = line_data(line,3);
Y_BUS(i,i) = Y_BUS(i,i) + 1/r;

Y_BUS(j,j) = Y_BUS(j,j) + 1/r;
Y_BUS(i,j) = Y_BUS(i,j) - 1/r;
Y_BUS(j,i) = Y_BUS(j,i) - 1/r;
end
Y_BUS(1,1) = Y_BUS(1,1) + 1/R_fic;

Z_BUS = inv(Y_BUS);
I = zeros(N,1);
V = ones(N,1);
iteration=0;
VZ=0;
for n=2:N
VZ=VZ+Z_BUS(1,n)*I(n);
end
I(1)=(V(1)-VZ)/Z_BUS(1,1);
for m=2:N
V(m)=Z_BUS(m,:)*I;
I(m)=P_sch(m)/V(m);
end
P_calc = Z_BUS*I .* I;
mismatch=[P_sch(2:N)-P_calc(2:N)];
if (norm(mismatch,'inf') < tolerance)
break;
end
end
%Bus quantities
P_loss = V'*I - V(1)^2/R_fic;
P_calc(1)= P_calc(1)-V(1)^2/R_fic;
for i = 1:N
fprintf(1, ' Voltage = %f p.u.\n', ...
V(i));
if i > 1
end
end
%Line quantities
P_line = V(i)*(V(i)-V(j))*(-Y_BUS(i,j));
fprintf(1, ' P = %.4f\n', P_line);
end
%Total loss
fprintf(1, '\nThe total active power loss = %f\n\n', P_loss);
iteration
mismatch
SOLUTION TABLE 7.5.1 Bus voltage using Gauss-Seidel ZBus method for problem 7.5
part (i)
Iterations = 3
Bus Volts Angle Generation Load ΔP

#
(p.u) (Degrees) MW (p.u) MW (p.u)
1 1.000 0.0 2.024 0 0
2 0.991 0.0 0 0.5 0.02 × 10 −5
3 0.984 0.0 0 0.5 0.05 × 10 −5
4 0.988 0.0 0 1 0.18 × 10 −5
4 4
Ploss = ∑ PG ,i − ∑ PL ,i = (2.024 + 0 + 0 + 0 ) − (0 − 0.5 − 0.5 − 1) = 0.024
i =1 i =1
SOLUTION TABLE 7.5.2 Power flow through the lines for problem 7.5 part (i)
Ploss (p.u) = 0.024
From To MW Flow
Bus Bus (p.u)
# #
1 2 0.867
1 4 1.157
2 3 0.360
3 4 -0.143
ii) Adding a parallel line with same impedance will have the following changes
1 1 1 1 1 1
YBus ,11 = + + , YBus ,22 = + , YBus ,12 = YBus ,21 = −
r1− 2 / 2 r1− 4 r1−0 r1− 2 / 2 r2−3 r1− 2 / 2
YBus = G + jB
B = 0 because there is no reactive element
The rest of the elements of G will remain unchanged.
400 200 0 100

200 250 50 50
0 50 83 33
100 0 33 133
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
Solving the power flow problem by adding a parallel line between bus 1 and 2 using
Gauss-Seidel ZBus method of programming given in part (i)
SOLUTION TABLE 7.5.3 Bus voltage using Gauss-Seidel ZBus method for problem 7.5
part (ii)
Iterations = 3
Bus Volts Angle Generation Load ΔP

#
(p.u) (Degrees) MW (p.u) MW (p.u)
1 1.000 0.0 2.020 0 0
2 0.995 0.0 0 0.5 0.02 × 10 −5
3 0.986 0.0 0 0.5 0.03 × 10 −5

4 0.989 0.0 0 1 0.13 × 10 −5
4 4
Ploss = ∑ PG ,i − ∑ PL ,i = (2.020 + 0 + 0 + 0 ) − (0 − 0.5 − 0.5 − 1) = 0.020
i =1 i =1
SOLUTION TABLE 7.5.4 Power flow through the lines for problem 7.5 part (ii)
Ploss (p.u) = 0.020
From To MW Flow
Bus Bus (p.u)
# #
1 2 0.931
1 2 0.931
1 4 1.089
2 3 0.427
3 4 -0.077
It is seen that the power loss has decreased when another parallel line is added. This is
because the effective resistance for the path of the current has decreased. It is also seen
that the voltages of the buses have gone up. By adding a parallel line between buses 1 and
2, the impedance between the two buses is halved and voltage drop is reduced.
iii) The driving point impedance before adding the line = Z(1,1) from part (i) = 0.01 p.u
Ω.
The driving point impedance after adding the line = Z(1,1) from part (ii) = 0.01 p.u Ω.
This is due to the fact that the injection model of power grid only has one tie to ground at
bus 1. However, the power flow solution will show the effect of adding a line to the
network as can be seen from the solution using Z bus model. It is seen that only the first
row and the first column remains unchanged but the other rows and columns change.
1 1
iv) YBus ,11 = +
r1− 2 r1− 4 ,
YBus = G + jB
B = 0 because there is no reactive element
The other elements of G remain unchanged.
The impedance matrix does not exist without the shunt element.
7.6 Consider the power grid depicted in Fig. 7.26.
Assume the following data:
a. The transformers connected to the PV generating station are rated at 460 V Y

grounded/13.2kVΔ, have 10% reactance and 8 MVA capacity. The transformer
connected to the power grid is 13.2 kV/63 kV, 8 MVA, 10% reactance.
b. Assume the bus 5 load is 1.5 MW,0.85 p.f. lagging, the bus 6 load is 1.2 MW,
0.9p.f. lagging, the bus 7 load is 2.4 MW, 0.9 p.f. leading, the bus 4 load is 1.5
MW,0.85p.f. lagging, and the bus 8 load is 1.3 MW, 0.95 p.f. lagging.
c. Assume PV generating station 1 is rated at 0.95MW and PV generating station 2

is rated at 3.5 MW.
d. The transmission line has a resistance of 0.0685 Ω/mile, reactance of 0.40

Ω/mile and half of line charging admittance (Y′/2) of 11 × 10 −6 Ω-1/mile. The line
4–7 is 4 miles, 4–8 is 2 miles, 5–6 is 4 miles, 5–7 is 1 mile, 6–7 is 3 miles, and
6–8 is 5 miles long.
i) Find the per unit YBus matrix
ii) Write a MATLAB program and compute the load bus voltages using FDLF
iii) If line 6–7 is out of service, compute the power flow through each transformer
iv) If 500 kWis added to bus 5, compute the bus load voltages
Solutions
Solution Figure 7.6.1ThePer Unit Model of the YBusMatrix.

. on the transmission line side
, ,
The p.u. impedance of PV transformers is , , , .
, ,
.
.
.
, ,
The p.u. impedance of utility transformers is , , ,
, ,
.
. .
.
Line impedances in p.u:
. . , .
Z4-7,p.u = . . . , .
. .
. . , .
Z4-8,p.u = . . . , .
. .
. . , .
Z5-6,p.u = . . . , .
. .
. . , .
Z5-7,p.u = . . . , .
. .
. . , .
Z6-7,p.u = . . . , .
. .
. . , .
Z6-8,p.u = . . . , .
. .
i) YBus = G + jB
The first 3 buses have only transformers connected to them which has only
reactance and no resistive elements. Therefore, the first 3 rows and columns of
the real part of YBus, G are all zeros. Using the algorithm for YBus matrix
formation given in solution 7.2,
. . .
. . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . .
ii) The Matlab program to calculate the voltages using FDLF method is given in
solution 7.4. However, YBUS matrix given as above and Psch = [0 0.095 0.35 -
0.15 -0.15 -0.12 -0.24 -0.13]’; and Qsch = [0 0 0 -0.093 -0.093 -0.0581 0.1162
-0.0427]’;
The calculations are based on the generator buses as PV buses; the results are given in
Solution Table 7.6.1.
SOLUTION TABLE 7.6.1Bus voltages using FDLF for problem 7.6 part (ii)
S b = 10 MVA , Vb = 13.2 kV on the transmission line

#
(p.u) (p.u) (p.u) (p.u)
1 1.000 0.0 0.346 0.079 0 0 0 0
2 1.000 -2.3 0.095 0.059 0 0 0.0015 0

×10−5
3 1.000 -0.0 0.35 0.062 0 0 0.0031 0

×10−5
4 0.991 -2.5 0 0 0.15 0.093 0.0869 0.2854

×10−5 ×10−5
5 0.993 -3.0 0 0 0.15 0.093 0.0089 0.1491

×10−5 ×10−5
6 0.993 -2.6 0 0 0.12 0.058 0.1418 0.3117

×10−5 ×10−5
7 0.994 -3.1 0 0 0.24 -0.116 0.0705 0.5811

×10−5 ×10−5
8 0.990 -2.8 0 0 0.13 0.042 0.1545 0.2265

×10−5 ×10−5
iii) If line 6-7 is out of service, the new YBus from the algorithm in solution 7.2 is:
YBus = G + jB
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
SOLUTION TABLE 7.6.2 Bus voltages using FDLF method for problem 7.6 part (iii)

#
(p.u) (p.u) (p.u) (p.u)
1 1.000 0.0 0.346 0.079 0 0 0 0
2 1.000 -2.4 0.095 0.059 0 0 0.0021 0

×10−5
3 1.000 0.3 0.35 0.065 0 0 0.0036 0

×10−5
4 0.991 -2.5 0 0 0.15 0.093 0.1057 0.2933

×10−5 ×10−5
5 0.993 -3.1 0 0 0.15 0.093 0.0510 0.1452

×10−5 ×10−5
6 0.993 -2.2 0 0 0.12 0.058 0.0867 0.2247

×10−5 ×10−5
7 0.994 -3.3 0 0 0.24 -0.116 0.0679 0.5168

×10−5 ×10−5
8 0.989 -2.7 0 0 0.13 0.042 0.1585 0.2313

×10−5 ×10−5
iv) Adding 500 kW to bus 5, the voltages are calculated again using the following
scheduled active power:
P_sch = [0 0.095 0.35 -0.15 -0.15 -0.12 -0.24 -0.13]';
Solving the power flow problem by FDLF using the program given in solution 7.4
SOLUTION TABLE 7.6.3 Bus voltages using FDLF method for problem 7.6 part (iv)

#
(p.u) (p.u) (p.u) (p.u)
1 1.000 0.0 0.346 0.079 0 0 0 0
2 1.000 -2.3 0.095 0.056 0 0 0.0015 0

×10−5
3 1.000 0.0 0.35 0.062 0 0 0.0031 0

×10−5
4 0.991 -2.5 0 0 0.15 0.093 0.0869 0.2854

×10−5 ×10−5
5 0.993 -3.0 0 0 0.15 0.093 0.0089 0.1491

×10−5 ×10−5
6 0.993 -2.6 0 0 0.12 0.058 0.1418 0.3117

×10−5 ×10−5
7 0.994 -3.1 0 0 0.24 -0.116 0.0705 0.5811

×10−5 ×10−5
8 0.990 -2.8 0 0 0.13 0.043 0.1545 0.2265

×10−5 ×10−5
7.7 Consider a power grid where the system is modeled as
IBus = YBus.VBus
n
For each bus k we I k = ∑ Ykm Vm and where m is the number of buses and Ykm is the
m =1
element of the YBus matrix. For each bus k, we can also write:
*
Pk + jQ k = Vk I k
wherePk and Qk are real and reactive power is entering node k (* is a complex conjugate
andj = −1 )
Let
n
Pk + jQk = Vk ∑ Ykm Vm
* *
m =1
fk
Vk = Vkejθk= ek + j f k;θk = tan −1
ek
B km
Ykm = Ykmejαkm= Gkm + j Bkm;αkm = tan −1
G km
n
Using the above in Pk + jQ k = Vk ∑ Ykm Vm
* *
m =1
n
obtain Pk + jQ k = Vk e jθ k
∑Y
m =1
km e − jα km Vm e − jθm
Then using Taylorseries expansion, express the power flow problem as

n n
ΔVm
ΔPk = ∑ H km Δθ m + ∑ N km
m =1 m =1 Vm
n n
ΔVm
ΔQ k = ∑ J km Δθ m + ∑ L km
m =1 m =1 Vm
And in compact form as

⎡ ∂P ∂P ⎤
V ⎥ ⎡ Δθ ⎤
⎡ ⎤ ⎢ ∂θ
Δ P ∂V ⎥.⎢
⎢ ΔQ ⎥ = ⎢ ΔV ⎥⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎢ ∂Q ∂Q ⎥ ⎢
⎢⎣ ∂θ V ⎣V ⎦
∂V ⎥⎦
Show that for m = k, we have
∂Pk 2
H kk = = −Q k − Vk B kk
∂θ k
∂Q k 2
J kk = = Pk − Vk G kk
∂θ k
Solution
∂Pk ∂Q ⎛ n
⎞
+ j k = Vk e jθk (− jYkk e − jα kk Vk e − jθk ) + j ⎜ Vk e jθk ∑ Ykm e − jα km Vm e − jθk ⎟
∂θ k ∂θ k ⎝ m =1 ⎠
= − jVk e θk Ykk e − α km Vk e − θk + j(Pk + jQ k )

j j j
= − j(Vk e jθk )(Vk e − jθk )Ykk e − jαkm + j (Pk + jQ k )
2
= − jVk (G kk − jB kk ) + j ( Pk + jQ k )
2 2
= ( −Q k − Vk B kk ) + j( Pk − Vk G kk )
∂Pk 2
H kk = = −Q k − Vk B kk
∂θ k
∂Q k 2
∂θ k
7.8 For the system given in Problem 7.7 show that for m=k, we have the following
expressions
∂Pk 2
N kk = Vk = Pk + Vk Gkk
∂Vk
∂Qk 2
Lkk = Vk = Qk − Vk Bkk
∂Vk
Solution
First, we need to take the partial derivative of the equation
n
Pk + j Q k = Vk e jθk ∑ Ykm e − jα km Vm e − jθk
m =1
∂Pk ∂Q k n
Vk = Vk e k (Ykk e kk e k ) + Vk e k ∑ Ykm e km Vm e k
2 jθ − jα − jθ jθ jα − jθ
Vk + j
∂Vk ∂Vk m =1
= Vk Ykk e − jα kk + Pk + jQ k = Vk (G kk − jB kk ) + Pk + jQ k
2 2
2 2
= Pk + Vk G kk + j(Q k − Vk B kk )
For m = k
Separating the real and imaginary components,
∂Pk 2
∂Vk
∂Qk 2
∂Vk
Thus, we have calculated (general equations) the diagonal elements of the Jacobian
matrix.
7.9 Consider the Problem 7.7, first let
Im = am + j bm = YkmVm
andYkmVm = (Gkm + j Bkm) (em + j f m)
YkmVm = (Gkm em– Bkmf m) + j (Bkm em + Gkmf m)
then using the following:
am = (Gkm em– Bkmf m)

bm = (Bkm em + Gkmf m)
derive the following expressions:
∂Pk
H km = = a mfk − bmek
∂θ m
∂Q k
J km = = −a m e k − b m f k
∂θ m
Solution
We need to take the derivative of the following equation

n
Pk + jQ k = Vk e jθk ∑ Ykm e − jα km Vm e − jθm
m =1
∂Pk ∂Q k
+j = − jVk e jθk Ykm e − jαkm Vm e − jθm
∂θ m ∂θ m
( )(
= − j Vk e jθk . Ykm e jα km Vm e jθm )
*
= − jVm .I m
*
= – j (ek + jfk) (am– j bm)
= (amf k–bmek) – j (amek + bm f k)
Separating the real and imaginary components,
∂Pk
H km = = a m f k − bm e k
∂θ m
∂Qk
J km = = − a m e k − bm f k
∂θ m
7.10 For Problems 7.7 and 7.8 show that form≠ k, we have the following off-diagonal
elements for theJacobian matrix:
∂Pk
N km = V m = a m e k + bm f k
∂Vm
∂Qk
Lkm = V m = a m f k − bm e k
∂Vm
Solution
n
m =1
∂Pk ∂Q k
Vm + j Vm = Vk e jθ k Ykm e − jα km Vm e − jθ m
∂Vm ∂Vm
( )(
= Vk e jθk . Ykm e − jα km Vm e − jθm )
( )(
= Vk e jθk . Ykm e jα km Vm e jθm )
*
= (ek + j f k) (am– j bm) = (amek + bm f k) + j (amf k–bmek)
∂Pk
∂Vm
∂Qk
∂Vm
7.11 For Problem 7.7 show that the off-diagonal elements of the Jacobian matrix for m≠
k are:
H km = Lkm = a m f k − bm ek ⎫
⎬Off − Diagonal Elements of Jacobian Matrix
N km = − J km = a m ek + bm f k ⎭
And diagonal elements of the Jacobian matrix for m = kare:
H kk = −Qk − Bkk Vk ⎫
2
2
⎪
Lkk = Qk − Bkk Vk ⎪
2 ⎬ Diagonal Elements of Jacobian Matrix
N kk = Pk + Gkk Vk ⎪
2 ⎪
J kk = Pk − Gkk Vk ⎭
Solution
n
m =1
∂Pk ∂Q
+ j k = − jVk e jθk Ykm e − jαkm Vm e − jθm
∂θ m ∂θ m
( )(
= − j Vk e jθk . Ykm e jαkm Vm e jθm ) *
= – j (ek+ j f k) (am– j bm)
= (amf k– bmek) – j (amek + bm f k)
∂Pk
H km = = a m f k − bm e k
∂θ m
∂Qk
J km = = − a m e k − bm f k
∂θ m
∂Pk ∂Q k
Vm + j Vm = Vk e jθ k Ykm e − jα km Vm e − jθ m
∂Vm ∂Vm
( )(
= Vk e jθk . Ykm e − jα km Vm e − jθm )
( )(
= Vk e jθk . Ykm e jα km Vm e jθm ) *
= (ek + j f k) (am– j bm) = (amek + bm f k) + j (amf k–bmek)
∂Pk
∂Vm
∂Qk
∂Vm
Therefore,
H km = Lkm = a m f k − bm ek ⎫
⎬
N km = − J km = a m e k + bm f k ⎭
n
Pk + j Q k = Vk e jθk ∑ Ykm e − jα km Vm e − jθm
m =1
∂Pk ∂Q k n
Vk = Vk e k (Ykk e kk e k ) + Vk e k ∑ Ykm e km Vm e m
2 jθ − jα − jθ jθ − jα − jθ
Vk + j
∂Vk ∂Vk m =1
= Vk Ykk e − jα kk + Pk + jQ k = Vk (G kk − jB kk ) + Pk + jQ k
2 2
2 2
= Pk + Vk G kk + j(Q k − Vk B kk )
andform = k
∂Pk 2
∂Vk
∂Qk 2
∂Vk
∂Pk ∂Q k n
+j = Vk e jθk (− jYkk e − jα km Vk e − jθk ) + jVk e jθk ∑ Ykm e − jα km Vm e − jθm
∂θ k ∂θ k m =1
= − jVk e jθk Ykk e − jα km Vk e − jθk + j(Pk + jQ k )
= − j(Vk e jθk )(Vk e − jθk )Ykk e − jαkm + j(Pk + jQ k )
2
= j( Pk + jQ k ) − jVk (G kk − jB kk )
2 2
= ( −Q k − Vk B kk ) + j( Pk − Vk G kk )
∂Pk 2
H kk = = −Qk − Vk Bkk
∂θ k
∂Q k 2
∂θ k
Therefore,
H kk = −Qk − Bkk Vk ⎫
2
2
⎪
Lkk = Qk − Bkk Vk ⎪
2 ⎬
N kk = Pk + Gkk Vk ⎪
2 ⎪
J kk = Pk − Gkk Vk ⎭
7.12 For Problem 7.7 compute the Pk ( Calculated) and Q k ( Calculated ) for each bus k as expressed
below.
n
Pk = ∑ [ek (em Gkm − f m Bkm ) + f k (em Bkm + f m Gkm )]
m =1
n
Qk = ∑ [ f k (ek Gkm − f m Bkm ) − ek (em Bkm + f m Gkm )]
m =1
wherevk = ek + j f k;Ykm* = Gkm– j Bkm; Vm* = em– jf m
Solution
n n
Pk + jQ k = Vk ∑ I m = Vk ∑ Ykm Vm
* * *
m =1 m =1
Let vk = ek + j f k;Ykm* = Gkm– j Bkm; Vm* = em– j f m
then
n
Pk + jQk = (ek + jf k )∑ (Gkm − jBkm )(em − jf m )
m =1
n
Pk + jQk = (ek + jf k )∑ (em Gkm − f m Bkm ) − j (em Bkm + f m Gkm )
m =1
n
= ∑{(ek + jf k )[(em Gkm − f m Bkm ) − j (em Bkm + f m Gkm )]}
m =1
n
= ∑{ek (em Gkm − f m Bkm ) − jek (em Bkm + f m Gkm ) + jf k (ek Gkm − f m Bkm ) + f k (em Bkm + f m Gkm )}
m =1
Therefore, equating the real and imaginary parts of both sides,Pk and Qk are:
n
Pk = ∑ [ek (em Gkm − f m Bkm ) + f k (em Bkm + f m Gkm )]
m =1
n
Qk = ∑ [ f k (ek Gkm − f m Bkm ) − ek (em Bkm + f m Gkm )]
m =1
7.13. Assume that the power balance equation for a power system network can be written
as
S = P + j Q = [V]T .[I * ]T= [V]T .[Y.V]*

Where S is the complex power injection vector; P is the real power injection vector; Q is
the reactive power injection vector; I is the current injection vector; V is the bus voltage
vector, and Ykj = Gkj + j Bkj is the system admittance matrix.
Assume that in a polar coordinate system, the complex voltage can be written as
Vk = Vk (cosθk + j sin θk)
Show that the calculated real and reactive powers can be expressed as
n
Pk( Calculated ) = Vk ∑ Vj ( G kj cos θ kj + B kj sin θ kj )
j=1
n
Q k( Calculated ) = Vk ∑ Vj ( G kj sin θ kj − B kj cos θ kj )
j=1
Whereθkj≅θk– θj
And in the Cartesian coordinate system the calculated real and reactive powers
can be expressed as
n n
Pk ( Calculated ) = e k ∑ ( G kj e j − B kj f j ) + f j ∑ ( G kj f j + B km e j )
j=1 j=1
n n
Q k ( Calculated ) = f k ∑ ( G kj e j − B kj f j ) − e k ∑ ( G kj f j + B kj e j )
j=1 j=1
wherethe bus voltage is given by
Vk = ek + j fk
Solution
n
For each bus k,wehave I k = ∑ Ykj Vj
j=1
wheren is the number of buses and Ykm is an element of the YBus matrix. For each bus k,
we can also write:
*
Pk + jQ k = V k I k
wherePk, and Qk are the real and reactive power entering node k (* is a complex conjugate
and j = −1 )
Let
n
Pk + jQ k = Vk ∑ Ykj Vj
* *
j=1
fk
vk = Vkejθk= ek + j f k;θk = tan -1
ek
B kj
Ykm = Ykmejαkj= Gkj + j Bkj;αkj = tan -1
G kj
n
* *
Using the above in Pk + jQ k = Vk ∑ Ykj Vj
j=1
n
Pk + jQ k = Vk e jθk ∑ Ykj e
− jα kj − jθ j
Vj e
j=1
= Vk ∑ (G kj − jB kj ).Vj (cos θ kj + j sin θ kj )

n n
= Vk ∑ Ykj e
− jα kj jθ kj
Vj e
j=1 j=1
n n
= Vk ∑ Vj ( G kj cos θ kj + B kj sin θ kj ) + jVk ∑ Vj ( G kj sin θ kj − B kj cos θ kj )
j=1 j=1
Therefore,
n
Pk ( Calculates ) = Vk ∑ Vj ( G kj cos θ kj + B kj sin θ kj )
j=1
n
Q k( Calculates ) = Vk ∑ Vj ( G kj sin θ kj − B kj cos θ kj )
j=1
By including Vk = ek + jfk and Y kj = Gkj + jBkjin the equations below:
n
Pk + jQ k = Vk ∑ Ykj Vj
* *
j=1
= (e k + f k )∑ (G kj + jB kj ) (e j + jf j ) = (e k + f k )∑ (G kj − jB kj )(e j − jf j )
n n
* *
j=1 j=1
and by expanding the above and separating the real and imaginary parts, we have
Pk( Calculates ) = e k ∑ (G kj e j − B kj f j ) + f k ∑ (G kj f j + B kj e j )
n n
j=1 j=1
Q k ( Calculates ) = f k ∑ (G kj e j − B kj f j ) − e k ∑ (G kj f j + B kj e j )
n n
j=1 j=1
For Gauss-Seidel iterations in Cartesian coordinates, the real and imaginary parts of the
voltage at each bus are iteratively computed until the mismatch of the power at each bus
is below an accepted level. The derivation is as given below:
I k = ∑ (G kj + jB kj )(
. e j + jf j )
n
j=1
*
⎛ Pk ,Sch + jQ k ,Sch ⎞
⎟⎟ = ∑ (G kj + jB kj )(
. e j + jf j )
n
⎜⎜
⎝ e k + jf k ⎠ j=1
(Pk ,Sch − jQ k ,Sch ).(e k + jf k )

= ∑ (G kj .e j − B kj .f j ) + j∑ (B kj .e j + G kj .f j )
n n
2 2
ek + fk j=1 j=1
(e 2 2
)
+ f k .(Pk ,Sch + jQ k ,Sch ) ⎡ n
( )
n
(B kj .e j + G kj .f j )⎤⎥
e k + jf k = k
2
Pk ,Sch + Q k ,Sch
2 ⎢ ∑ G .e
kj j − B .f
kj j + j∑
⎣ j=1 j=1 ⎦
ek + fk
2 2
⎧ ⎫
⎨Pk ,Sch ∑ (G kj .e j − B kj .f j ) − Q k ,Sch ∑ (B kj .e j + G kj .f j )⎬
n n
e k + jf k = 2 2
Pk ,Sch + Q k ,Sch ⎩ j=1 j=1 ⎭
ek + fk
2 2
⎧ ⎫
⎨Q k ,Sch ∑ (G kj .e j − B kj .f j ) + Pk ,Sch ∑ (B kj .e j + G kj .f j )⎬
n n
+j 2 2
Separating out the real and imaginary parts,
e (kold ) + f k(old )
2 2
⎧ ⎫
( ) k ,Sch ∑ (B kj .e j + G kj .f j )⎬
n n
e (knew ) = 2 2 ⎨ k ,Sch ∑ kj j
P G .e − B .f
kj j − Q
e (kold ) + f k(old )
2 2
⎧ ⎫
⎨Q k ,Sch ∑ (G kj .e j − B kj .f j ) + Pk ,Sch ∑ (B kj .e j + G kj .f j )⎬
n n
( new )
fk = 2 2
Now, that the real and imaginary parts have been separated, the Gauss-Seidel program in
solution 7.2 can be written in real domain without dealing with complex numbers. The
algorithm in real domain is as follows:
e (kold) + f k(old) ⎧
2 2
( ) (Bkj .e j + G kj .f j )⎫⎬
n n
e (knew ) = 2
Pk ,Sch + Q k ,Sch ⎩
2 ⎨ Pk ,Sch ∑ G kj .e j − B kj .f j − Q k ,Sch ∑
j=1 j=1 ⎭
e (kold) + f k(old) ⎧
2 2
( ) (Bkj .e j + G kj .f j )⎫⎬
n n
f k(new ) = 2
Pk ,Sch + Q k ,Sch ⎩
2 ⎨Q k ,Sch ∑ G kj .e j − B kj .f j + Pk ,Sch ∑
j=1 j=1 ⎭
After each iteration, the following formulas are used to calculated the active and reactive
powers injected at each bus:
n n
Pk( Calculates ) = e k ∑ ( G kj e j − B kj f j ) + f k ∑ ( G kj f j + B kj e j )
j=1 j=1
n n
Q k( Calculates ) = f k ∑ ( G kj e j − B kj f j ) − e k ∑ ( G kj f j + B kj e j )
j=1 j=1
Then for each load bus the power mismatch is calculated using the following formulas:
7.14 Consider the feeder given in Fig. 7.27

Figure 7.27 The Feeder of Problem 7.14.
System data: V1= 1∠0; Z25 = 5 + j 10 Ω; Z34 = 2 + j 8 Ω; Z23 = 5.41 + j 3.34 Ω;S2 = 3
MVA, p.f. = 0.75 lagging; S3 = 3 MVA, p.f. = 0.8 lagging; S4 = 4 MVA, p.f. = 0.9
lagging;S5 = 2 MVA, p.f. = 0.9 lagging; T1; 63/20 kV, 10% reactance, 20 MVA; T2 is the
same as T1
i) Calculate the per unit equivalent circuit model. Use Sb equal to MVA rating of
transformer T1.
ii) Let V1=V1∠0, VK = VRK + j VIK, K = 2, 3, 4, 5. Develop an equation in a Cartesian

coordinate for VRK = f (VRK, VIK), ΔPK and ΔQK, K = 2, 3, 4, 5 for each bus. Use an
iterative Gauss-Seidel approximation technique and compute bus voltages and
system losses. Use five iterations and assume initial voltages are VK= 1∠0, K = 1,
2, 3, 4, 5. Put your results in table.
iii) Compute the YBus, B′ and B′′ matrices and the use the fast decoupled load flow
technique to compute bus voltages. Make a table and compare your results with
(ii) above. Use five iterations.
iv) Use the FDLF technique and compute bus voltages after correcting the power
factor of each bus to unity. Make a table and compare your results with (iii)
above.
Solutions
i) Calculate the per unit equivalent circuit model. Use Sb equal to an MVA rating of
transformer T1 (= 20 MVA), assuming voltage base of 20 kV on the LV side of
T1:
S2(p.u) = 3/20 = 0.15 p.u; p.f. = 0.75 lagging
S3(p.u) = 3/20 = 0.15 p.u; p.f. = 0.8 lagging
S4(p.u) = 4/20 = 0.2 p.u; p.f. = 0.9 lagging
S5(p.u) = 2/20 = 0.1 p.u; p.f. = 0.9 lagging
The per unit values of the impedance are
Zb = Vb 2/ Sb = (20 kV) 2/ (20 MVA) = 20 Ω
Z25 = 5 + j 10, Z25p.u = (5 + j 10)/20 = 0.25 + j 0.5 p.u
Z34 = 2 + j 8 ,Z34p.u = (2 + j 8)/20 = 0.1 + j 0.4 p.u
Z23 = 5.41 + j 3.34, Z23p.u = (5.41 + j 3.34)/20 = 0.27 + j 0.167 p.u
T1: j 10% = j 0.1 p.u
Fig.The per unit injection model for power flow studies for problem 7.14
ii) The results using the Gauss-Seidel YBus method(given is solution 7.2) for solving the
load flow problem are obtained by simulations in MATLAB using Psch = [0 -0.15 -0.15 -
0.2 -0.1]’; Qsch = [0 -0.132 -0.113 -0.097 -0.048]’;
SOLUTION TABLE 7.14.1For problem 7.14 part (ii) using Gauss-Seidel YBus Method
Sb = 20 MVA, Vb = 20 kV on the LV side of transformer
Iterations V1 V2 V3 V4 V5
#
1 1∠0 0.994∠-0.3 0.965∠-0.5 0.944∠-4.3 0.952∠-2.3
2 1∠0 0.989∠-0.8 0.922∠-1.9 0.901∠-5.0 0.941∠-2.6
3 1∠0 0.989∠-0.8 0.922∠-1.9 0.901∠-5.0 0.941∠-2.6
4 1∠0 0.986∠-1.4 0.873∠-2.4 0.827∠-7.3 0.934∠-3.6
5 1∠0 0.983∠-1.6 0.858∠-2.2 0.799∠-8.1 0.931∠-3.8
37 1∠0 0.974∠-2.0 0.801∠-1.5 0.712∠-8.6 0.920∠-4.5
SOLUTION TABLE 7.14.2 Power mismatch for problem 7.14 part (ii) with Gauss-
Seidel YBus Method
Iteration misma Bus 1 Bus 2 Bus 3 Bus 4 Bus 5

# tch
1 ΔP 0 0.21 0.22 0.05 0.02
ΔQ 0 0.08 0.09 0.09 0.01
2 ΔP 0 0.17 0.07 0.09 0.02
ΔQ 0 0.02 0.08 0.08 0.001
3 ΔP 0 0.07 0.10 0.02 0.01
ΔQ 0 0.04 0.07 0.06 0.001

4 ΔP 0 0.09 0.03 0.04 0.006
ΔQ 0 0.02 0.06 0.05 0.001
5 ΔP 0 0.04 0.04 0.01 0.006
ΔQ 0 0.03 0.05 0.03 0.002
37 ΔP 0 0.74 × 10 −5 0.47 × 10 −5 0.11 × 10 −5 0.11 × 10 −5
ΔQ 0 0.98 × 10 −5 0.98 × 10 −5 0.67 × 10 −5 0.05 × 10 −5
The problem converges after 37 iterations.
In the table for the voltages, the actual line voltages are the per unit in the table multiplied
by the base voltage (20kV), and the losses multiplied by 20 MVA (base power).

5 5
Ploss = ∑ PG ,i − ∑ PL ,i = 0.0938
i =1 i =1
5 5
Qloss = ∑ QG ,i − ∑ Q L ,i = 0.13366
i =1 i =1
SOLUTION TABLE 7.14.3Power flow through the transmission lines for problem 7.14
part (ii) after the solution converged using Gauss-Seidel YBus Method
Ploss (p.u) = 0.0938, Qloss (p.u) =

0.13366

Bus Bus (p.u) (p.u)
# #
1 2 0.694 0.524
2 5 0.104 0.056
2 3 0.440 0.298
3 4 0.210 0.136
iii)
The YBus of the system using algorithm in solution 7.2 is YBus = G + jB
⎡0 0 0 0 0 ⎤
⎢0 3.4789 − 2.6789 0 − 0.8⎥⎥
⎢
G = ⎢0 − 2.6789 3.2671 − 0.5882 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢0 0 − 0.5882 0.5882 0 ⎥
⎢⎣0 − 0.8 0 0 0.8 ⎥⎦
⎡− 20 20 0 0 0 ⎤
⎢ 20 − 23.2569 1.6569 0 1.6 ⎥⎥
⎢
B=⎢ 0 1.6569 − 4.0099 2.3529 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 0 2.3529 − 2.3529 0 ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 1.6 0 0 − 1.6⎥⎦
The matrix is the imaginary part of YBus and matrix is formulated same as YBus
we do not have line charging. matrix is the imaginary part of YBus give above, Since
bus 1 is swing bus and its voltage (magnitude and angle) is given, first row and first
column are not needed in and martrix for bus voltage calculation.
⎡− 27.988 5.988 0 2.000 ⎤

⎢ 5.988 − 8.488 2.500 0 ⎥⎥
B =
' ⎢
⎢ 0 2.500 − 2.500 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 2.000 0 0 − 2.000⎦
⎡− 23.25 1.65 0 1.6 ⎤

⎢ 1.65 −4 2.35 0 ⎥⎥
B =
'' ⎢
⎢ 0 2.35 − 2.35 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 1.6 0 0 − 1.6⎦
Using the FDLF algorithm and program given in solution 7.4, and Psch = [0 -0.15 -0.15 -
0.2 -0.1]’; Qsch = [0 -0.132 -0.113 -0.097 -0.048]’; and YBus, B’ and B’’ as given above,
SOLUTION TABLE 7.14.4 Bus Voltages for problem 7.14 part (iii) using FDLF.
Iteration V1 V2 V3 V4 V5
#
1 1∠0 0.981∠-1.7 0.854∠-5.1 0.813∠-9.7 0.950∠-4.6
2 1∠0 0.976∠-1.9 0.720∠-5.2 0.650∠-11.2 0.918∠-4.9
3 1∠0 0.971∠-2.1 0.682∠-2.8 0.596∠-10.9 0.911∠-4.6
4 1∠0 0.971∠-2.3 0.732∠-0.5 0.632∠-10.0 0.916∠-4.6
5 1∠0 0.972∠-2.2 0.802∠-0.5 0.697∠-8.6 0.919∠-4.6
42 1∠0 0.974∠-2.0 0.801∠-1.5 0.713∠-8.6 0.920∠-4.5
SOLUTION TABLE 7.14.5 Power Mismatch for problem 7.14 part (iii) with FDLF
Iteration misma Bus 1 Bus 2 Bus 3 Bus 4 Bus 5

# tch
1 ΔP 0 0.08 0.06 0.05 0.003
ΔQ 0 0.15 0.12 0.06 0.04
2 ΔP 0 0.25 0.20 0.05 0.01
ΔQ 0 0.01 0.03 0.04 0.01
3 ΔP 0 0.21 0.20 0.04 0.01
ΔQ 0 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.004
4 ΔP 0 0.12 0.15 0.02 9.15 × 10 −7
ΔQ 0 0.06 0.07 0.03 0.003
5 ΔP 0 0.05 0.07 0.001 0.001
ΔQ 0 0.05 0.08 0.02 0.0005
42 ΔP 0 0.96 × 10 −5 0.87 × 10 −5 0.33 × 10 −5 0.003 × 10 −5
ΔQ 0 0.28 × 10 −5 0.44 × 10 −5 0.10 × 10 −5 0.001 × 10 −5

5 5
Ploss = ∑ PG ,i − ∑ PL ,i = 0.093866
i =1 i =1
5 5
Qloss = ∑ QG ,i − ∑ Q L ,i = 0.13367
i =1 i =1
SOLUTION TABLE 7.14.6ThePower Flow through the Transmission Lines for

problem 7.14 part (iii)
Ploss (p.u) = 0.093866, Qloss (p.u) =

0.13367

Bus Bus (p.u) (p.u)
# #
1 2 0.694 0.524
2 5 0.104 0.056
2 3 0.440 0.298
3 4 0.210 0.136
It is seen that with Gauss-Seidel YBus method, the problem converges with 37 iterations
while with FDLF, it takes 42 iterations.
iv) With unity power factor load,
P2 = 0.15 × 0.75 Q2 = 0
P2 = 0.15 × 0.8 Q3 = 0
P2 = 0.2 × 0.9 Q4 = 0
P5 = 0.1 × 0.9 Q5 = 0
SOLUTION TABLE7.14.7 Bus Voltage using FDLF method for problem 7.14 part (iv)


#
(p.u) (p.u) (p.u) (p.u)
1 1.000 0.0 0.652 0.076 0 0 0 0
2 0.997 -1.9 0 0 0.15 0 0.40 × 10 −5 0.37 × 10 −5
3 0.882 -5.4 0 0 0.15 0 0.50 × 10 −5 0.48 × 10 −5
4 0.853 -11.5 0 0 0.20 0 0.005 0.07 × 10 −5

× 10 −5
5 0.970 -4.8 0 0 0.10 0 0.001 0.001

× 10 −5 × 10 −5

5 5
Ploss = ∑ PG ,i − ∑ PL ,i = 0.052301
i =1 i =1
5 5
Qloss = ∑ QG ,i − ∑ Q L ,i = 0.076116
i =1 i =1
SOLUTION TABLE 7.14.8 The Power Flow through the Transmission Lines for
problem 7.14 part (iv)
Ploss (p.u) = 0.052301, Qloss (p.u) =

0.076116

Bus Bus (p.u) (p.u)
# #
1 2 0.652 0.076
2 5 0.103 0.005
2 3 0.400 0.049
3 4 0.206 0.022
It is seen with unity power factor, the bus voltages have a magnitude higher than that of
lagging power factor operation. Reactive power causes the voltage to drop and when the
load does not consume reactive power, voltage drop is very small.
7.15 Consider the five bus system below with the impedances in p.u given in the figure
7.28.
Figure 7.28 System for problem 7.15
Table 7.11 Five – Bus System: Bus Data (pu)
Bus Bus VN V θ PG PL QL
Name Type (kV) (p.u.) (rad) (MW) (MW) (Mvar)
Bus 1 PQ 138 1.0 - - 160 80
Bus 2 PQ 138 1.0 - - 200 100
Bus 3 PQ 138 1.0 - - 370 130
Bus 4 PV 1 1.05 - 500 - -
Bus 5 Swing 4 1.05 0.0 - - -
i) Calculate Y bus = Yi + jYr (internal Y bus) i.e. Compute Yi and Yr matrices
ii) Compute the Jacobian Matrix [H, N, J, L]

iii) Compute ΔP and ΔQ
iv) Solve the Newton-Raphson Power Flow for 5 bus system of Figure 7.28
Solutions
Fig. Per unit model of the system in problem 7.15
i) Assuming the voltage base of 138 kV on the transmission line and a power
base of 1000 MVA and the one line diagram in p.u, using the YBus algorithm
given in solution 7.2
YBus = G + jB
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
ii) The calculated injected active and reactive powers for each bus are given by:

N
j =1

N
j =1
The voltage of each bus is found out using Newton Raphson. After the solution has
converged, the power flow in lines and the power losses are calculated using the same
formula as given in solution 7.4.
The following MATLAB program is used to solve the power flow problem using
Newton-Raphson method:
%% Power Flow: Newton-Raphson
clc; clear all;
Vb = 1;
Sb = 1;
Zb = Vb^2/Sb;
Yb = 1/Zb;
PV=1; %no. of PV buses
tolerance=1e-5; %error tolerance

P_sch = [0 0.50 -.37 -.20 -.16]';
Q_sch = [0 0 -.13 -.10 -.08]';
% line data
line_data = [
2 4 0.00 0.10 0;
4 3 0.01 0.10 0;
3 1 0.00 0.10 0;
4 5 0.02 0.21 0;
3 5 0.03 0.33 0];
G = zeros(N,N);
B = zeros(N,N);

G(i,i) = G(i,i) + r/(r^2 + x^2);
G(j,j) = G(j,j) + r/(r^2 + x^2);
G(i,j) = G(i,j) - r/(r^2 + x^2);
B(i,j) = B(i,j) + x/(r^2 + x^2);
G(j,i) = G(j,i) - r/(r^2 + x^2);
B(j,i) = B(j,i) + x/(r^2 + x^2);
end
%% Power flow
% allocate storage for Jacobian

J11 = zeros(N-1,N-1); %dP/d th
J12 = zeros(N-1,N-1-PV); %V*dp/dv
J21 = zeros(N-1-PV,N-1); %dQ/d th
J22 = zeros(N-1-PV,N-1-PV); %V*dQ/dv
% initial values
V = [1.05 1.05 1 1 1]';
theta = zeros(N,1);
for k = 1:N
for m = 1:N
end
end
mismatch = [P_sch(2:N)-P_calc(2:N); Q_sch(2+PV:N)-Q_calc(2+PV:N)];
iteration=0;
% Newton-Raphson iteration
% calculate Jacobian
for k = 2:N
for m = 2:N
if (k == m)
J11(k-1,m-1) = -Q_calc(k) - V(k)^2*B(k,m);
if (k >= 2+PV)
J21(k-PV-1,m-1) = P_calc(k) - V(k)^2*G(k,m);
end
if (m >= 2+PV)
J12(k-1,m-PV-1) = P_calc(k) + V(k)^2*G(k,m);
end
if (k >= 2+PV && m >= 2+PV)

J22(k-PV-1,m-PV-1) = Q_calc(k) - V(k)^2*B(k,m);
end
else
em = V(m)*cos(theta(m));
fm = V(m)*sin(theta(m));
ek = V(k)*cos(theta(k));
fk = V(k)*sin(theta(k));
am = G(k,m)*em - B(k,m)*fm;
bm = B(k,m)*em + G(k,m)*fm;
J11(k-1,m-1) = am*fk - bm*ek;
if (k >= 2+PV)
J21(k-PV-1,m-1) = -am*ek - bm*fk;
end
if (m >= 2+PV)
J12(k-1,m-PV-1) = am*ek + bm*fk;
end
if (k >= 2+PV && m >= 2+PV)

J22(k-PV-1,m-PV-1) = am*fk - bm*ek;
end
end
end
end
% calculate correction
J = [J11, J12; J21, J22];
correction = J\mismatch;
theta(2:N) = theta(2:N) + correction(1:(N-1));
V(PV+2:N) = V(PV+2:N) .* (1+correction(N:2*(N-1)-PV));
for k = 1:N
for m = 1:N
end
end
mismatch = [P_sch(2:N)-P_calc(2:N); Q_sch(2+PV:N)-Q_calc(2+PV:N)];
break;
end
end
%Bus quantities
P_loss = 0;
Q_loss = 0;
for i = 1:N
if i > 1
end
if i > PV+1
end
end
%Line quantities
end
%Total loss
, P_loss, Q_loss);
iteration
Using the MATLAB program above, and using the results of problem 7.11, the Jacobian
matrix is computed for the first iteration:
⎡ 10.5 0 − 10.5 0 0 0 0 ⎤
⎢ 0 23.4 − 9.9 − 3.01 1.26 − 0.99 − 0.27 ⎥⎥
⎢
⎢− 10.5 − 9.9 25.12 − 4.72 − 0.99 1.44 − 0.45⎥
⎢ ⎥
J=⎢ 0 − 3 − 4.72 7.72 − 0.27 − 0.45 0.72 ⎥
⎢ 0 − 1.2 0.99 0.27 22.41 − 9.90 − 3.01⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 0.99 − 1.44 0.45 − 9.90 24.12 − 4.72⎥
⎢ 0 0.27 0.44 − 0.72 − 3.01 − 4.72 7.72 ⎥⎦
⎣
iii) After 3 iterations the Newton-Raphson method converges with tolerance of

10 −5
⎡0.0289⎤
⎢ 0.0711⎥
ΔP = 10 × ⎢
−8 ⎥
⎢0.1002⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0.0591⎦
⎡0.0497 ⎤
ΔQ = 10 × ⎢⎢0.1008 ⎥⎥
−8
⎢⎣0.0227 ⎥⎦
iv) Solving the power flow problem using above Newton Raphson method with MATLAB
program,
SOLUTION TABLE 7.15.1Bus voltage using Newton-Raphson method for problem

7.15
Bus no. Volts Angle Generation Load ΔP ΔQ
(pu) (deg) MW MVar MW MVar

(pu) (pu) (pu) (pu)
1 1.022 -1.7 0 0 0.1600 0.0800 0.06 0.02

× 10 −8 × 10 −8
2 1.035 -0.3 0 0 0.2000 0.1000 0.10 0.10

× 10 −8 × 10 −8
3 1.033 -1.2 0 0 0.3700 0.1300 0.07 0.05

× 10 −8 × 10 −8
4 (P-V) 1.050 2.3 0.5000 0.1734 0 0 0.03 0

× 10 −8
5 1.050 0.0 0.2307 0.1768 0 0 0 0
(swing)

5 5
Ploss = ∑ PG ,i − ∑ PL ,i = 0.000692
i =1 i =1
5 5
Qloss = ∑ QG ,i − ∑ Q L ,i = 0.040224
i =1 i =1
SOLUTION TABLE 7.15.2 Power flow through transmission lines for problem 7.15
Ploss (pu) = 0.000692, Qloss (pu) =

0.040224
From To MW flow MVar flow

Bus Bus (pu) (pu)
no. no.
4 2 0.500 0.173
2 3 0.171 -0.003
3 5 -0.230 -0.169
2 1 0.129 0.051
3 1 0.031 0.033
7.16 Consider the power grid given in Fig. 7.29.

Figure 7.29 System for problem 7.16
i) Bus 1 is Swing bus V1= 1∠0
ii) Bus 2 is P – V bus ⎜V2 ⎜= 1.05 and P2(Scheduled) = 0.9 p.u
iii) Bus 2 Q2 is assumed to be – 1≤ Q2≤2.
Compute:
i) The bus voltages using the decoupled Newton-Raphson method
Solutions
Fig. Per unit injection model for power flow studies of problem 7.16
YBus matrix is formulated using the algorithm in solution 7.2
YBus = G + jB
⎡ 2.18 − 0.83 − 1.35 0 ⎤

⎢− 0.83 3.57 − 1.56 − 1.17⎥
G=⎢ ⎥
⎢ − 1.35 − 1.56 2.91 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 − 1.17 0 1.18 ⎦
⎡− 11.17 3.11 8.10 0 ⎤

⎢ 3.11 − 12.80 4.45 5.29 ⎥⎥
B=⎢
⎢ 8.10 4.45 − 12.52 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 5.29 0 − 5.27⎦
The calculated injected active and reactive powers for each bus are given by:

N
j =1

N
j =1
The voltage of each bus is found out using decoupled Newton Raphson. After the
solution has converged, the power flow in lines and the power losses are calculated using
the same formula as given in solution 7.4.
The following MATLAB code is used to solve the power flow problem using decoupled
Newton-Raphson method:
%% Power Flow: decoupled Newton-Raphson
clc; clear all;
tolerance=1e-5;
PV = 1; %no. of PV buses
Vb=1; %base voltage

VAb=1; %base volt-amp

P_sch = [0 0.9 -0.6 -0.8]';
Q_sch = [0 0.89914 -0.2 -0.4]';
% line data
line_data = [
1 2 0.08 0.30 0;
1 3 0.02 0.12 0;
2 3 0.07 0.20 0;
2 4 0.03 0.18 0];
Yshunt = [0.045 0.072 0.02 0.02];
G = zeros(N,N);
B = zeros(N,N);

G(i,i) = G(i,i) + r/(r^2 + x^2);

G(j,j) = G(j,j) + r/(r^2 + x^2);
G(i,j) = G(i,j) - r/(r^2 + x^2);
B(i,j) = B(i,j) + x/(r^2 + x^2);
G(j,i) = G(j,i) - r/(r^2 + x^2);
B(j,i) = B(j,i) + x/(r^2 + x^2);
end
for i = 1:N
B(i,i) = B(i,i) + Yshunt(i);
end
%% Power flow
% Initialization of Voltages
V=ones(N,1);
V(1) = 1; % Swing bus voltage
V(2) = 1.05; % Initialization of P-V bus voltages
theta=zeros(N,1); % Initialization of bus voltage angles

for k = 1:N
for m = 1:N
end
end
% allocate storage for Jacobian

H = zeros(N-1,N-1); %dP/d th
L = zeros(N-1-PV,N-1-PV); %V*dQ/dv
% Decoupled Newton-Raphson iteration

iteration=0;
% calculate Jacobian
for k = 2:N
for m = 2:N
if (k == m)
H(k-1,m-1) = -Q_calc(k) - V(k)^2*B(k,m);
if (i >= 2+PV && m >= 2+PV)

L(k-PV-1,m-PV-1) = Q_calc(k) - V(k)^2*B(k,m);
end
else
em = V(m)*cos(theta(m));
fm = V(m)*sin(theta(m));
ek = V(k)*cos(theta(k));
fk = V(k)*sin(theta(k));
am = G(k,m)*em - B(k,m)*fm;
bm = B(k,m)*em + G(k,m)*fm;
H(k-1,m-1) = am*fk - bm*ek;
if (k >= 2+PV && m >= 2+PV)

L(k-PV-1,m-PV-1) = am*fk - bm*ek;
end
end
end
end
% calculate correction
correction_theta = H\mismatch_P;
correction_V = L\mismatch_Q;
theta(2:N) = theta(2:N) + correction_theta(1:(N-1));
V(PV+2:N) = V(PV+2:N) .* (1+correction_V(1:(N-1)-PV));
% calculate mismatch and stop iterating
% if the solution has converged
for k = 1:N
for m = 1:N
end
end
mismatch = [mismatch_P; mismatch_Q];

break;
end
end

%Bus quantities
P_loss = 0;
Q_loss = 0;
for i = 1:N
if i > 1
end
if i > PV+1
end
end
%Line quantities
end
%Total loss
, P_loss, Q_loss);
iteration
SOLUTION TABLE 7.16.1The voltages and power of each bus from decoupled
Newton-Raphson method for problem 7.16

no.
(pu) (pu) (pu) (pu)
1 1.000 0.0 0.5392 - 0 0 0 0

0.2496
2 1.050 -2.3 0.9000 0.8991 0 0 0.2632×10−5 0
3 0.995 -3.1 0 0 0.600 0.200 0.3845× 10−5 0.5151×10−6
4 0.942 -10.0 0 0 0.800 0.400 3.3307× 10−16 4.4409×10−16

4 4
Ploss = ∑ PG ,i − ∑ PL ,i = 0.0392
i =1 i =1
4 4
Qloss = ∑ QG ,i − ∑ Q L ,i = 0.0496
i =1 i =1
SOLUTION TABLE 7.16.2 Power flow through transmission lines and transformers for
problem 7.16
Ploss (p.u) = 0.0392, Qloss (p.u) = 0.0496

Bus Bus (p.u) (p.u)
no. no.
1 2 0.090 -0.188
1 3 0.450 -0.017
2 3 0.160 0.236
2 4 0.827 0.542
7.17 Consider the power grid given in Fig. 30
1 0.08 + j 0.24 3
0.02 + j 0.06
8
.1
j0
+
6
0.
2 All Values in per Unit
Figure 7.30 Power grid for problem 7.19
Consider bus 1 as swing bus with 1.05∠0, bus 2 as P – V with P2 = 0.20 and ⎜V2 ⎜= 0.96,
P3 and Q3 are -0.3 and -0.4, Compute:
i) B’, B’’ and YBus matrices.

ii) Compute fast decoupled load flow solution and line follow from bus k to bus m
and system losses.
Solutions
Fig.Per unit injection model for power flow studies for problem 7.17
i) The YBus matrix formulation algorithm from solution 7.2 is used.

YBus = G + jB
. .
. .
. . .
. .
. .
. . .
The matrix is the imaginary part of YBus and matrix is formulated same as YBus
we do not have line charging.
matrix is the imaginary part of YBus given above, Since bus 1 is swing bus and its
voltage (magnitude and angle) is given, first row and first column are not needed in
for the calculation of voltage angle. Since bus 1 is swing bus and bus 2 is a P-V bus, the
voltage magnitude is known for the first two buses, in the first two rows and columns
are eliminated and only the third bus is considered whose voltage magnitude is unknown.
′ . .
. .
′′
.
ii) The result after first iteration using FDLF program in solution 7.4, YBus as
above and Psch = [0 0.2 -0.3]’; Qsch = [0 0 -0.4]’;
SOLUTION TABLE 7.17.1Bus voltages using FDLF method for problem 7.17
After 1st iteration

no.
(p.u) (deg) MW MVar MW MVar
(p.u) (p.u) (p.u) (p.u)
1 1.00 0 0.222 2.162 0 0 0 0
2 0.9 2.3 0.167 -1.586 0 0 0.0332 0
3 0.867 -1.6 0 0 0.301 0.333 0.0015 0.0668

3 3
Ploss = ∑ PG ,i − ∑ PL ,i = 0.0876
i =1 i =1
3 3
Qloss = ∑ QG ,i − ∑ Q L ,i = 0.2431
i =1 i =1
SOLUTION TABLE 7.17.2 Power flow through transmission lines for problem 7.17
Ploss (pu) = 0.0876, Qloss (pu) = 0.2431

Bus Bus (p.u) (p.u)
no. no.
1 2 -0.0365 1.6908
1 3 0.2587 0.4713
2 3 0.0732 -0.0667
7.18 Consider the power system given in Figure 7.31. Assume the bus 1 has a gas turbine
generator. And it has a load of 1 p.u; the bus voltage is fixed at 1 p.u and it is the swing
bus. The bus 2 has a number of PV generators with total injected power of1.5 p.u into the
bus. The transmission data is given in per unit as specified. The bus three has a number
of loads with total connected load of 2.0 per unit. Perform the following by writing a
MATLAB simulation testbed. The maximum mismatch tolerance is 0.001. Perform the
following:
i) Compute the system YBus
ii) Use Gauss–Seidel Y bus and compute the bus 2 and 3 voltages
iii) Use Gauss–Seidel ZBus and compute the bus 2 and 3 voltages
iv) Use the Newton–Raphson method and compute the bus 2 and 3 voltages
v) Make a table and compare the above methods
vi) Determine the power provided by swing generator
vii) Determine the total power losses.
V1 = 1∠0 o
Figure 7.31 One line diagram of problem 7.18
Solutions
i) For Gauss-Seidel with YBus approach and Newton-Raphson methods,
The YBus formulation algorithm is given in solution 7.2.
YBus = G + jB
For only resistive elements, B = 0.
⎡ 14 −4 − 10 ⎤
⎢
G = ⎢−4 6.8571 − 2.8571⎥⎥
⎢⎣− 10 − 2.8571 12.8571 ⎥⎦
For Gauss-Seidel with ZBus approach, a fictitious shunt resistance of 0.01 is assumed.
⎡ 114 −4 − 10 ⎤
⎢
The new G, G = − 4 6.8571 − 2.8571⎥⎥
⎢
⎢⎣− 10 − 2.8571 12.8571 ⎥⎦
Using Psch = [0 1.5 -2.0]’; Qsch = [0 0 0]’;
ii) Gauss-Seidel YBus method: Using programs in solution 7.2
The program and algorithm is given in solution 7.2. All reactive (imaginary) components
are zero.
SOLUTION TABLE 7.18.1 Bus voltage using Gauss-Seidel YBus Method for problem
7.18 part (ii)

no.
(p.u) (p.u) (p.u) (p.u)
1 1.000 0.0 1.039 0 0 0 0 0
2 1.129 0.0 1.500 0 0 0 0.22 0

× 10−3
3 0.844 0.0 0 0 1.999 0 0.42 0

× 10−3
iii) Gauss-Seidel ZBus method algorithm and program is given in solution 7.5
SOLUTION TABLE 7.18.2 Bus voltage using Gauss-Seidel ZBus Method for problem
7.18 part (iii)

no.
(p.u) (p.u) (p.u) (p.u)
1 1.000 0.0 1.039 0 0 0 0 0
2 1.129 0.0 1.499 0 0 0 0.12 0

× 10−3
3 0.844 0.0 0 0 1.999 0 0.26 0

× 10−3
iv) Newton-Raphson method: using program in solution 7.15. All reactive (imaginary)
components are zero.
SOLUTION TABLE 7.18.2 Bus voltage using Newton-Raphson Method for problem
7.18 part (iv)

no.
(p.u) (p.u) (p.u) (p.u)
1 1.000 0.0 1.039 0 0 0 0 0
2 1.129 0.0 1.500 0 0 0 0.01 0

×10−9
3 0.844 0.0 0 0 2.000 0 0.29 0

×10−9
v)
Results obtained are tabulated below for comparison:
SOLUTION TABLE 7.18.4Bus voltages for problem 7.18 obtained from different
methods
Method V1 V2 V3 Iterations
Gauss – 1.000 1.129 0.844 8

Seidel Y Bus
Gauss – 1.000 1.129 0.845 6

Seidel Z Bus
Newton - 1.000 1.129 0.844 4

Raphson
It is seen that the result obtained from the three methods is same up to the third place
after decimal and the number of iterations is different.
vi) The power provided by the swing bus =
SOLUTION TABLE 7.18.5 Power from the swing bus for problem 7.18 using different
solution methods
Method P1
Gauss – 1.039
Seidel Y
Bus
Gauss – 1.038
Seidel Y
Bus
Newton - 1.040
Raphson
vii) Active total power loss are given by:

3 3
Ploss = ∑ PG ,i − ∑ PL ,i
i =1 i =1
SOLUTION TABLE 7.18.6 Power loss for problem 7.18 using different solution
methods
Method Line
Losses
Gauss – 0.540
Seidel Y
Bus
Gauss – 0.538
Seidel Y
Bus
Newton - 0.540
Raphson
7.19 Consider the power system given in Fig. 7.32.

Figure 7.32 Power grid of problem 7.19
Assume V1 = 1∠0 o p.u. (Swing Bus) . Also, assume transmission line impedances are
given in per unit on 440 V, 100 MVA base ( S b = 100 MVA for the entire system)
Assume generation and load schedules are as follows:
Bus 1:
Load # 1: 4 MVA, pf=0.85 (lagging)
Bus 2:
G2: 2 MW, pf=0.95 (lagging),
Load # 2: 4 MVA, pf=0.90 (leading)
Bus 3:
G3: 1 MW, pf=0.95 (leading),

Compute the bus voltages using decoupled Newton-Raphson and Gauss Seidel methods
Solutions
u.
j0
.1
p.
2
0
p.
.4
u.
Fig.Per unit injection model for problem 7.19 j0
Sb = 100 MVA
Using the YBus formulation algorithm in solution 7.2,
YBus = G + jB
G = 0 since there is no resistive element in the network.
⎡− 11.9 3.57 8.33 ⎤

⎢
B = ⎢ 3.57 − 6.07 2.50 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ 8.33 2.50 − 10.83⎥⎦
Using the program for decoupled Newton-Raphson method in solution 7.16 and the
above YBus and Psch = [0 -0.016 -0.0080]’; and Qsch = [0 0.0109 0.01120]’; given for this
problem we solve problem 7.19.
SOLUTION TABLE 7.19.1 Bus voltage using decoupled Newton-Raphson Method for
problem 7.19
Sb = 100 MVA, number of iterations = 3

no.
(p.u) (p.u) (p.u) (p.u)
1 1.000 0.0 0.064 -0.044 0.040 0.021 0 0
2 1.002 -0.2 0.020 -0.007 0.036 -0.174 0.0952 0.1051

× 10−6 × 10−6
3 1.002 -0.1 0.010 0.003 0.018 -0.087 0.0137 0.0387

× 10−6 × 10−6
3 3
Ploss = ∑ PG ,i − ∑ PL ,i = 0
i =1 i =1
The active power loss is zero since there is no resistive element in the network.
3 3
Qloss = ∑ QG ,i − ∑ Q L ,i = 0.00011
i =1 i =1
SOLUTION TABLE 7.19.2 Power flow through transmission lines using decoupled
Newton-Raphson method for problem 7.19
Ploss (pu) = 0.00, Qloss (pu) = 0.00011

Bus Bus (pu) (pu)
no. no.
1 2 0.012 -0.009
1 3 0.012 -0.014
2 3 -0.004 0.002
Using the MATLAB program in 7.2 with the above YBus and Psch = [0 -0.016 -0.0080]’;
and Qsch = [0 0.0109 0.01120]’;
SOLUTION TABLE 7.19.3 Bus voltages using Gauss-Seidel YBus Method for problem
7.19
Sb = 100 MVA, number of iterations = 7

no.
(pu) (pu) (pu) (pu)
1 1.000 0.0 0.064 -0.044 0.040 0.021 0 0
2 1.002 -0.2 0.020 -0.007 0.036 -0.174 0.1607 0.2118

×10−5 × 10−5
3 1.002 -0.8 0.010 0.003 0.018 -0.087 0.5617 0.3682

×10−5 ×10−5
3 3
Ploss = ∑ PG ,i − ∑ PL ,i = 0
i =1 i =1
The active power loss is zero since there is no resistive element in the network.
3 3
Qloss = ∑ QG ,i − ∑ Q L ,i = 0.00011
i =1 i =1
SOLUTION TABLE 7.19.4 Power flow through transmission lines using Gauss-Seidel
YBusMethod for problem 7.19
Ploss (pu) = 0.00, Qloss (pu) = 0.00011

Bus Bus (pu) (pu)
no. no.
1 2 0.012 -0.008
1 3 0.012 -0.013
2 3 -0.004 0.002
7.20 Consider the system of figure 7.33.
0.45 + j 0.45
1 3
0.08 + j 0.24
All Values in P.U Unit
Figure 7.33 The system for problem 7.20
Assume that generators internal reactance in are 0.8 p.u. Assuming the load voltage is
one P.U, compute the following:
i) YBus model for short circuit studies.

ii) ZBus model for short circuit studies
Solutions
Fig. Per unit model for short circuit studies

2
Vp.u 12
Z load = = = 1.11 + j1.11 p.u Ω
S p .u
*
(0.45 + j0.45)*
⎡ 0.0121 − j1.2863 − 0.0097 + j0.0290 − 0.0024 + j0.0073⎤
YBus = ⎢⎢− 0.0097 + j0.0290 0.0126 − j1.2799 − 0.0030 + j0.0009 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ − 0.0024 + j0.0073 − 0.0030 + j0.0009 0.4558 − j0.4586 ⎥⎦
⎡ 0.0071 + j0.7778 − 0.0056 + j0.0178 0.0041 + j0.0083 ⎤

Z Bus = ⎢⎢− 0.0056 + j0.0178 0.0074 + j0.7816 − 0.0017 + j0.0035⎥⎥
⎢⎣ 0.0041 + j0.0083 − 0.0017 + j0.0036 1.0903 + j1.0970 ⎥⎦
7.21 For the radial power system given below, compute the following:
Figure 7.34 System of problem 7.21
i) For the load of 500W, which bus should be considered as an infinite bus?
ii) For the load of 5 MW, which bus should be considered as an infinite bus?
Solutions
Let the Sb = 100 MVA and Vb be 345 kV on the utility side
Sb,new 100
XT1,p.u = X p.u,old = j0.1× = j0.1 p.u Ω
Sb,old 100
Sb,new 100
XT2,p.u = X p.u,old = j0.1× = j0.2 p.u Ω
Sb,old 50
Sb,new 100
XT2,p.u = X p.u,old = j0.05 × = j0.5 p.u Ω
Sb,old 10
S load 500
S load , p .u = = = 5 × 10 − 6 p.u Ω
Sb 100 × 10 6
Fig. Per unit model of the system for power flow studies
i) Let us assume that bus 2 is the infinite bus, then the problem reduces to a 2
bus system as given in the figure below:
Vp .u = 1∠ 0°
Fig. Per unit model with bus 2 as infinite bus
Using the YBus formulation algorithm in solution 7.2,
YBus = G + jB
⎡− 2 2 ⎤
B=⎢ ⎥
⎣ 2 − 2⎦
Using Gauss Seidel YBus method given in solution 7.2, to solve the power flow problem
with the program in solution 7.2 and YBus given as above and P_sch = [0 -5e-6]';Q_sch =
[0 0]';
SOLUTION TABLE 7.21.1 Bus voltages using Gauss-Seidel YBus method form
problem 7.21 part (i)
Sb = 100 MVA, Vb = 345 kV on the utility side

no.
(p.u) (p.u) (p.u) (p.u)
2 1.000 0.0 5 ×10−6 0 0 0 0 0

1 1.000 0.0 0 0 5 ×10−6 0 8.47 ×10−22 0.23 × 10−10
It is seen that the voltage at bus 1 does not drop from voltage at bus 2 for a load of 500 W
and therefore, bus 1 can be considered to be the infinite bus for a load of 500 W
ii) Let us assume that bus 3 is the infinite bus for a load of 5 MVA, then the
problem reduces to a 3 bus system as given below:
Vp.u = 1∠ 0°
Fig. Per unit model assuming bus 3 as infinite bus
YBus = G + jB
⎡− 5 5 0⎤
B = ⎢ 5 − 7 2 ⎥⎥
⎢
⎢⎣ 0 2 − 2⎥⎦
Sload 5 ×106
Sload,p.u = = = 5 ×10−2 p.u Ω
Sb 100×10 6
Using Gauss Seidel YBus method given in solution 7.2, to solve the power flow problem
with the program in solution 7.2 and YBus given as above and P_sch = [0 0 -5e-2]';Q_sch
= [0 0 0]';
SOLUTION TABLE 7.21.2 Bus voltages using Gauss-Seidel YBus method form
problem 7.21 part (ii)
Sb = 100 MVA, Vb = 345 kV on the utility side

no.
MW MVar MW MVar
(p.u) (deg) (p.u) (p.u) (p.u) (p.u)
3 1.000 0.0 0.05 0.002 0 0 0 0
2 0.999 -0.6 0 0 0 0 0.03 × 10−10 0.38 × 10−10
1 0.999 -2.0 0 0 0.050 0 0.46 × 10−10 0.01× 10−10
It is seen that the voltage at bus 2 and 1 drops from that of bus 3. Therefore, bus 3 is
considered to be infinite bus for a load of 5 MVA
7.22 Consider the microgrid power system given in Fig. 7.35
Figure 7.35 The system of problem 7.22
The transmission line impedances are given in per unit on 100 MVA base (Sb 100MVA
for the entire system.) The generation and load schedules are as follows:
Bus 1:
Load # 1: 4 MVA, pf=0.85 (lagging)
Bus 2:
G2: 2 MW, pf=0.95 (lagging), X=10%

Bus 3:
G3: 1 MW, pf=0.95 (leading), X=25%
i) Compute bus load voltages using FDLF power flow method.

ii) Compute the load impedance of each load
Solutions
u.
j0
.1
p.
2
0
p.
.4
u.
j0
The bus admittance matrix for power flow studies:
YBus = G + jB
⎡− 11.9 3.57 8.33 ⎤

⎢
B = ⎢ 3.57 − 6.07 2.50 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ 8.33 2.50 − 10.83⎥⎦
i) Using the FDLF program in solution 7.4 with the above YBus and Psch = [0 -
0.016 -0.0080]’; and Qsch = [0 0.0109 0.01120]’;
SOLUTION TABLE 7.22.1 Bus Voltages using FDLF Method for problem 7.22
S b = 100 MVA

no.
(pu) (pu) (pu) (pu)
1 1.000 0.0 0.064 -0.044 0.040 0.021 0 0
2 1.002 -0.2 0.020 -0.007 0.036 -0.174 0.3351 0.5007

× 10−6 × 10−6
3 1.001 -0.1 0.010 0.003 0.018 -0.087 0.0379 0.2131

× 10−6 × 10−6

3 3
Ploss = ∑ PG ,i − ∑ PL ,i = 0
i =1 i =1
The active power loss is zero because there is no resistive element in the network.
3 3
Qloss = ∑ QG ,i − ∑ Q L ,i = 0.00011
i =1 i =1
SOLUTION TABLE 7.22.2 Power flow through transmission lines using FDLF for
problem 7.22
Ploss (pu) = 0.00, Qloss (pu) = 0.00011

Bus Bus (pu) (pu)
no. no.
1 2 0.012 -0.009
1 3 0.012 -0.014
2 3 -0.004 0.002
ii) Assuming Sb = 100 MVA,
2
Vp.u 1.000000 2
Z load ,1 = = = 21.2500 + j13.1696 p.u Ω
S p. u
*
(0.04∠ cos −1
0.85 ) *
2
Vp.u 1.0024712
Z load , 2 = = = 22.6113 + j10.9512 p.u Ω
S p .u
*
(0.04∠ cos −1
0 .9 ) *
2
Vp.u 1.001675 2
Z load ,3 = = = 45.1509 + j21.8676 p.u Ω
S p .u
*
(0.02∠ cos −1
0 .9 )
*
CHAPTER 8
POWER GRID AND MICROGRID FAULT STUDIES
8.1 Consider a typical power system given in Fig. 8.53.All reactances are in p.u on a 100MVA
base.
Xth = 0.01 when the maximum number of generators is in service
Xth = 0.015 when the minimum number of generators is in service
Figure 8.53 A Typical Power Grid System
i) The SCC of the 415 V bus when all transformers are in service, but generator G1 is not in
service. Assume that the maximum number of generators are in service.
1
ii) The SCC of the 415 V bus when all the transformers and G1are in service. Assume one
generator is in service.
Solutions
The MVA base is given as S b = 100 MVA and 275 kV on the infinite bus bar
i) The equivalent circuit diagrams when generator G1 is out of service
Vb = 415 V
j 5.248
1
Zf = 0
Ground
(c)
2
Solution Figure 8.1.1(a)–(d) The Impedance Diagrams from problem 8.1 part (i)
1
I f = SCC =
Z th
1
SCC = = 0.1905 p.u
j 5.248
ii) The equivalent circuit diagrams for fault analysis when one of the generators is in
service:
3
Solution Figure 8.1.2(a)–(d) The Impedance Diagrams for problem 8.1 part (ii)
1
If =
Z th
1
SCC = = 0.1908 p.u
j 0.033 + j .207
8.2 Consider the power system given in Fig. 8.54.
Figure 8.54 The One-Line Diagram of Problem 8.2.
Generator A:
X″G(1) = 0.25, X″G(2) = 0.15, X″G(0) = 0.03 p.u
Generator B:
X″G(1) = 0.2, X″G(2) = 0.12, X″G(0) = 0.02 p.u
4
Transmission line C–D: Z1 = Z2 = j0.08, Z0 = j0.14 p.u
Transmission line D–E: Z1 = Z2 = j0.06, Z0 = j0.12 p.u
All values are given in per unit with an MVA base of 100.
Assume generator A is Y connected and ungrounded and generator B is Y connected and

grounded, compute the single line to ground fault at bus D and the fault current and actual phase
voltages (i.e., Va, Vb, Vc in p.u) of buses C, D, and E.
Solutions
Solution Figure 8.2.1TheThree-Phase Diagram and Single to Ground Fault at Bus D.
The equivalent circuit for a single line to ground fault at bus D is shown in Solution Fig. 8.2.2.
(a)The Positive Sequence Network.
5
(b)The Negative Sequence Network.
(c)The Zero Sequence Network.
(d) The Connection Diagram of Sequence Networks for a Single Line to Ground Fault at Bus D.
(e)The Simplified Circuit of Fig. 8.2.2(d).
Solution Figure 8.2.2 The Equivalent Circuit for a Single Line to Ground Fault at Bus D.
6
From the equivalent circuit,
V 1∠0 o
I = I+ = I+ = I0 = = = 2.56∠ − 90 o p.u A
Z D+ + Z D− + Z D0 j0.39
Therefore the fault current at bus D is given by:
⎡ I aD ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡ I 0 ⎤ ⎡7.68∠ − 90°⎤
⎢ I ⎥ = ⎢1 a 2 ⎢ ⎥
⎢ bD ⎥ ⎢ a ⎥⎥ ⎢ I + ⎥ = ⎢⎢ 0 ⎥
⎥
⎢⎣ I cD ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I − ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
Fault current contributions from bus C to D is given by:

0
I aCD = 0 p.u A
+ j 0.26
I aCD = 2.56∠ − 90 o × = 1.12∠ − 90 o p.u A
j 0.26 + j 0.33
− j 0.18
I aCD = 2.56∠ − 90 o × = 1.12∠ − 90 o p.u A
j 0.18 + j 0.23
The actual currents in the line C–D are as follows:
⎡ I aCD ⎤ ⎡ I CD
0
⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡0 ⎤ ⎡− j 2.24⎤
⎢ I ⎥ = [T ] ⎢ + ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ o⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ I CD ⎥ = ⎢1 a a ⎥ ⎢1.12∠ - 90 ⎥ = ⎢ j1.12 ⎥
2
⎢ bCD ⎥
⎢I − ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
s
⎢⎣ I cCD ⎥⎦ ⎢ ⎢ o⎥
2 ⎥ ⎣1.12 ∠ - 90 ⎦ ⎢⎣ j1.12 ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦ ⎣1 a a ⎦
CD
Fault current in the line E–D are as follows:
I 0aED = I = 2.56∠ - 90o p.u A
+ +
I aED = I - I aCD = 1.44∠ − 90° p.u A
− −
I aED = I - I aCD = 1.44∠ − 90° p.u A
The actual currents from bus E to D are given by:
⎡ I aED ⎤ ⎡ I ED
0
⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡2.56 ∠ - 90 o ⎤ ⎡- j5.44 ⎤
⎢ I ⎥ = [T ] ⎢ + ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ o⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ I ED ⎥ = 1 a a ⎥ ⎢1.44 ∠ - 90 ⎥ = ⎢- j1.12 ⎥
⎢ 2
⎢ bED ⎥
⎢I − ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
s
⎢⎣ I cED ⎥⎦ ⎢ ⎢ o⎥
2 ⎥ ⎣ 1.44 ∠ - 90 ⎦ ⎢⎣- j1.12 ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦ ⎣1 a a ⎦
ED
7
The sequence voltages at bus C are given by:
VC0 = 0 − jX A0 × I = − j 0.14 × 2.56∠ − 90o = −0.36 p.u V
VC+ = E − jX A+ × I aCD
+
= 1 − j 0.25 × 1.12∠ − 90o = 0.72 p.u V
VC− = 0 − jX A− × I aCD
−
= − j 0.15 × 1.12∠ − 90o = −0.17 p.u V
The actual voltages at bus C are given by:
⎡VaC ⎤ ⎡VC0 ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡- 0.36 ⎤ ⎡0.19 ⎤

⎢V ⎥ = [T ] ⎢ +⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ o⎥
⎢VC ⎥ = ⎢1 a a ⎥ ⎢ 0.72 ⎥ = ⎢1∠ - 129.48 ⎥
2
⎢ bC ⎥
⎢V − ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
s
⎢⎣VcC ⎥⎦ ⎢ 2⎥ ⎢ - 0.17 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1∠129.48 o ⎥⎦

⎣ ⎦ ⎣1 a a ⎦ ⎣
C
The sequence voltages at bus D are given by:
VD0 = 0 − jX D0 × I 0 = − j 0.14 × 2.56∠ − 90o = −0.36 p.u V
VD+ = E − jX D+ × I = 1 − j 0.15 × 2.56∠ − 90o = 0.62 p.u V
VD− = 0 − jX D− × I = − j 0.1× 2.56∠ − 90o = −0.26 p.u V
The actual voltages at bus D are given by:
⎡VaD ⎤ ⎡VD0 ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡- 0.36 ⎤ ⎡0 ⎤

⎢V ⎥ = [T ] ⎢ +⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ o⎥
⎢VD ⎥ = ⎢1 a a ⎥ ⎢ 0.62 ⎥ = ⎢0.93∠ - 125.4 ⎥
2
⎢ bD ⎥
⎢V − ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
s
⎢⎣VcD ⎥⎦ ⎢ 2⎥ ⎢ - 0.26 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0.93∠125.4 o ⎥⎦

⎣ ⎦ ⎣1 a a ⎦ ⎣
D
The sequence voltages at bus E are given by:
VE0 = 0 − jX B0 × I ED
0
= − j 0.02 × 2.56∠ − 90o = −0.05 p.u V
VE+ = E − jX B+ × I aED
+
= 1 − j 0.20 × 1.44∠ − 90o = 0.71 p.u V
VE− = 0 − jX B− × I aED
−
= − j 0.12 × 1.44∠ − 90o = −0.17 p.u V
8
The actual voltages at bus E are given by:
⎡VaE ⎤ ⎡VE0 ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡- 0.05 ⎤ ⎡0.49 ⎤

⎢V ⎥ = [T ] ⎢ +⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ o⎥
⎢VE ⎥ = ⎢1 a a ⎥ ⎢ 0.71 ⎥ = ⎢0.83∠ - 112.78 ⎥
2
⎢ bE ⎥
⎢V − ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
s
⎢⎣VcE ⎥⎦ ⎢ 2⎥ ⎢ - 0.17 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0.83∠112.78 o ⎥⎦

⎣ ⎦ ⎣1 a a ⎦ ⎣
E
8.3 Consider the power grid given in Fig. 8.55.
The sequence network data are
Generator: 20 kV, 100 MVA, 10% positive reactance, negative sequence reactance is equal to
positive sequence reactance, zero sequence reactance is equal to 8% based on the generator’s
rating.
Transmission line length: bus 1–2 = 50 km, reactance = 0.5 Ω/km
bus 2–3 = 100 km, reactance = 0.7 Ω/km
Transformer T1: 20 kV/138 kV, 8% reactance, 150 MVA
Transformer T2: 138kV / 13.8 kV, 10% reactance, 200 MVA
Transmission line sequence impedances: Z1 = Z2 = j0.06 p.u, Z0 = j0.12 in p.u on a 100 MVA
base.
9
Transformers’ sequence impedances: positive = negative = zero
Load: SLoad = 50 MVA, p.f. = 0.95 lagging.
Generator ground impedance = j0.01 p.u based on its rating
i) Compute the per unit model for positive, negative and zero sequence networks based on
100 MVA.
Solution
S b = 100 MVA , Vb = 20 kV on the generator side
VHV 138
Base voltage on HV side of T1 = Vb ,HV = Vb ,LV = × 20 = 138 kV
VLV 20
2
Vb 1382
Zb = = = 190 Ω
Sb 100
X G+ = X G− = 0.1 , X G0 = 0.08 p.u Ω
50 × 0.5
X 12+ = X 12− = = 0.13 p.u Ω
190
100 × 0.7
X 23+ = X 23− = = 0.37 p.u Ω
190
2
⎛V ⎞ S 2
⎛ 138 ⎞ 100
X +
T1 =X −
T1 =X 0
T1 = X old ⎜⎜ b ,old ⎟⎟ × b ,new = 0.08 × ⎜ ⎟ × = 0.053 p .u Ω
⎝ Vb ,new ⎠ S b ,old ⎝ 138 ⎠ 150
2
⎛V ⎞ S b ,new 2
⎛ 138 ⎞ 100
X +
T2 =X −
T2 =X 0
T2 = X old ⎜⎜ b ,old ⎟ ×
⎟ = 0.1 × ⎜ ⎟ × = 0.05 p .u Ω
⎝ Vb ,new ⎠ S b ,old ⎝ 138 ⎠ 200
50∠18.19°
Load S L = = 0.5∠18.19°
100
V pu2 12
ZL = = = 2∠18.19° = 1.9 + j 0.6245
S *pu 0.5∠ − 18.19°
10
Solution Figure 8.3.1(a) Zero Sequence Network for problem 8.3
Where XGr0, XGr,load0 is the reactance of the generator and load grounding reactances
respectively, Rload0, Xload0 are the zero sequence resistance and reactance of the load respectively.
Solution Figure 8.3.1(b) Positive Sequence Network for problem 8.3
Solution Figure 8.3.1(c) Negative Sequence Network for problem 8.3
8.4 For Problem 8.3, perform the following:
i) Compute the load voltage if the generator is set at 5% above its own rating.
ii) For a double line to ground fault at bus 3, find the fault currents flowing from bus 1 and
bus 2 to bus 3 (faulted bus) when the load is ignored.
11
Solutions
i) Calculating load flow using Newton Raphson method program given in solution 7.15
Solution Table 8.4.1 Load flow solution for problem 8.4 part i
S b = 100 MVA , Vb = 20 kV
on the generator side

no.
(p.u) (p.u) (p.u) (p.u)
0 1.05 0.0 0.475 0.031 0 0 0 0
1 1.048 -0.3 0 0 0 0 0.61 × 10−8 0.68 × 10−8
2 1.042 -1.1 0 0 0 0 0.29 × 10−8 0.57 × 10−8
3 1.027 -3.5 0 0 0 0 0.004 0.54 × 10−8

× 10−8
4 1.025 -3.8 0 0 0.475 0.156 0.97 × 10−8 0.02 × 10−8
Table 8.4.2 Power flow through transmission lines
Ploss (p.u) = 0.0000, Qloss (p.u) = 0.0359

Bus Bus (p.u) (p.u)
no. no.
0 1 0.4750 0.1920
1 2 0.4750 0.1889
2 3 0.4750 0.1811
3 4 0.4750 0.1591
12
ii) The equivalent circuit for the fault ignoring the load:
Solution Figure 8.4.1(a) The Equivalent Circuit for the Fault for problem 8.4
Solution Figure 8.4.1(b) The Simplified Circuit of Solution Figure 8.4.1(a)
Solution Figure 8.4.1(c) The Simplified Circuit of Figure 8.4.1(b)
The sequence currents for the fault at bus 3 are given by:
13
1
I + = I 1+− 2 = = − j1.431
j 0.653 + j 0.046
jX −
I 0 = I 30− 2 = − I × = j1.329
jX T0 2 + jX −
I − = I1−−2 = − I + I 20 = j 0.102
The fault current at bus 3 is given by:
⎡I a ⎤ ⎡ I 0 ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡ j1.329 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤
⎢ I ⎥ = [T ] ⎢ +⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ o⎥
⎢ I ⎥ = ⎢1 a a ⎥ ⎢- j1.431⎥ = ⎢2.40 ∠123.7 ⎥
2
⎢ b⎥
⎢ −⎥ ⎢ ⎥
s
⎢⎣ I c ⎥⎦ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ I ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎣ j0.102 ⎦ ⎣ 2.40 ∠56.3 ⎦
o
The sequence currents from bus 1 and 2 to the fault at bus 3 are given by:
1
I 1+− 2 = = − j1.431
j 0.653 + j 0.046
I 10− 2 = 0
I1−−2 = − I + I 20 = j 0.102
The actual currents from bus 1 and 2 to the fault at bus 3 are given by:
⎡I a ⎤ ⎡ I 10− 2 ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤ ⎡ 1.32∠ - 90 o ⎤
⎢ + ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ I ⎥ = [T ]
⎢ 1− 2 ⎥
I = ⎢1 a 2
a ⎥ ⎢- j1.431⎥ = ⎢1.48 ∠153.4 o ⎥
⎢ b⎥ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢I − ⎥ ⎢
s
⎢⎣ I c ⎥⎦ ⎢
⎢ j0.102 ⎥⎦ ⎣ 1.48 ∠26 ⎦o ⎥
⎣ 1− 2 ⎦ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎣
8.5 For Problem 8.3, perform the following:
i) Compute the single line to ground fault current at bus 2, but take the load into
consideration
ii) The same as part i, but assume the generator is not grounded
Solutions
14
50∠18.19°
Load S L = = 0.5∠18.19°
100
V pu2 12
ZL = = = 2∠18.19° = 1.9 + j 0.6245
S *pu 0.5∠ − 18.19°
i) The equivalent circuit for the fault:
Solution Figure 8.5.1(a) The Equivalent Circuit for single line to ground Fault for problem 8.5
part (i)
15
Solution Figure 8.5.1(b) The Simplified Circuit of Figure 8.5.1(a).
Solution Figure 8.5.1(c) The Simplified Circuit of Figure 8.5.1(b).
The sequence currents at bus 2 for single line to ground fault at bus 2 are given by:
1
I 20 = I 2+ = I 2− = I = = 3.63∠ − 79.1°
0.052 + j0.270
The actual fault currents are bus 2 are given by:
⎡ I a,1- 2 ⎤ ⎡ I 20 ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡3.63∠ − 79.1°⎤ ⎡10.89∠ − 79.1°⎤

⎢ ⎥ ⎢ +⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ I b,1- 2 ⎥ = [Ts ] ⎢ 2⎥
I = ⎢1 a 2
a ⎥ ⎢3.63∠ − 79.1°⎥ = ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢I ⎥ ⎢I − ⎥ ⎢3 63∠ − 79 1 ° ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎦
⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣
⎣ c,1- 2 ⎦ . . 0
The sequence currents from bus 1 and 3 to bus 2 are given by:
16
I 10- 2 = 0
I 30− 2 = I = 3.63∠ − 79.1°
1 + I × ( 1.9 + j1.0445 )
I 1+- 2 = = 4.44∠ − 54.33°
j 0.263 + 1.9 + j 0.0445
I 3+−2 = I − I 1+-2 = 1.90∠178.7°
1.9 + j1.0445
I 1−- 2 = I = 3.41∠ − 84.8°
1.9 + j1.0445 + j 0.263
I 3−−2 = I − I 1−-2 = 0.41∠ − 24.1°
The actual fault current from bus 1 to bus 2:
⎡ I a,1- 2 ⎤ ⎡ I 10- 2 ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤ ⎡7.57∠ - 67.52 ⎤

o
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ + ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ o ⎥
⎢ I b,1- 2 ⎥ = [Ts ] ⎢ I 1- 2 ⎥ = ⎢1 a a ⎥ ⎢4.44∠ − 54.33°⎥ = ⎢ 2.23∠136.90 ⎥
2
⎢I ⎥ ⎢I − ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 3.41∠ − 84.8° ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 5.62∠103.02 o ⎥⎦
⎣ c,1- 2 ⎦ ⎣ 1- 2 ⎦ ⎣1 a a ⎥⎦ ⎣
⎢ 2
The actual fault current contribution from bus 3 to bus 2:
⎡ I a,3- 2 ⎤ ⎡ I 30- 2 ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡3.63∠ − 79.1°⎤ ⎡7.58∠ - 67.52 o ⎤

⎢ ⎥ ⎢ + ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ I b,3- 2 ⎥ = [Ts ] ⎢ 3- 2 ⎥
I = ⎢1 a 2
a ⎥ ⎢ 1.90∠178.7° ⎥ = ⎢ 2.23∠136.90 o ⎥
⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢I ⎥ ⎢I − ⎥ ⎢ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ o ⎥
0.41∠ − 24.1°⎦ ⎣ 5.62∠103.02 ⎦
⎣ c,3- 2 ⎦ ⎣ 3- 2 ⎦ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎣
ii) When the generator is not grounded, the zero sequence equivalent circuit will change and
the single line to ground fault equivalent circuit will become:
17
Solution Figure 8.5.2(a) The Equivalent Circuit for single line to ground Fault for
problem 8.5 part (ii)
Since the generator is connected to bus 1 through a Y-Δ transformer, the zero sequence
circuit of the generator side is isolated from bus 2. Therefore, the fault currents remain
the same as in part (i) for a single line to ground fault.
Figure 8.56A One-Line Diagram for Problem 8.6.
The impedances of the transmission lines are given in the one-line diagram (Fig. 8.56).
18
The system data are:
PV generating station: 2 MW, 460 V AC; positive, negative, and zero sequence
impedances=10%
Gas turbine generating station: 10 MVA, 3.2 kV, 10% reactance Sequence impedance: negative
sequence = positive sequence, zero sequence = ½ positive sequence
Transformers’ sequence impedances: positive = negative = zero
Transformer T1: 10 MVA, 460 V/13.2 kV, 7% reactance
Transformer T2: 25 MVA, 13.2 kV/69 kV, 9% reactance
Transformer T3: 20 MVA, 13.2 kV/3.2 kV, 8% reactance
Loads: S4: 4 MW, p.f. = 0.9 lagging; S5: 8 MW, p.f. = 0.9 lagging; S6: 10 MVA, p.f. = 0.9
leading; S7: 5 MVA, p.f. = 0.85 lagging.
Local power grid: positive, negative, and zero sequence internal reactance = 10 Ω; negligible
internal resistance
i) Per unit impedance model for positive, negative, and zero sequences
ii) Ignore the loads and compute a single line to ground fault current at bus 4.
iii) Compute the load voltages; use the load impedance models and compute the single
line to ground fault current at bus 4.
Solutions
i) S b = 10 MVA , Vb = 13.2 kV on the transmission line side.
2
Vb 13.2 2
Zb = = = 17.424 Ω
Sb 10
+ − 0.5 + j5
Z 4 ,5 , p .u = Z 4 ,5 , p .u = = 0.0287 + j 0.2870 ,
17.424
0 0.0287 + j 0.2870
Z 4 ,5 , p .u = = 0.0144 + j 0.1435
2
19
+ 1 + j10
−
Z 4 ,6 , p .u = Z 4 ,6 , p .u = = 0.0574 + j 0.5739 ,
17.424
0 0.0574 + j 0.5739
Z 4 ,6 , p .u = = 0.0287 + j 0.2870
2
+ 0.3 + j 6
−
Z 5 ,6 , p .u = Z 5 ,6 , p .u = = 0.0712 + j 0.3444 ,
17.424
0 0.0712 + j 0.3444
Z 5 ,6 , p .u = = 0.0356 + j 0.1722
2
+ − j 20 0 j1.1478
Z 6 ,7 , p .u = Z 6 ,7 , p .u = = j1.1478 , Z 6 ,7 , p .u = = j 0.5739
17.424 2
+ − 0 j10
Z util , p .u = Z util , p .u = Z util , p .u = = j 0.5739
17.424
+ −
Z gas , p .u = Z gas , p .u = j 0.1
0 j 0 .1
Z gas , p .u = = j 0.05
2
+ − 10
Z PV , p .u = Z PV , p .u = 0.1 × = 0.5
2
0 0.5
Z PV , p .u = = 0.25
2
2
⎛ Vb ,old ⎞ S b ,new 2
⎛ 13.2 ⎞ 10
X +
=X −
=X 0
⎜
= X T 1old ⎜ ⎟ = 0.07 × ⎜ ⎟ × = 0.07
T 1,new T 1,new T 1,new ⎟ ⎝ 13.2 ⎠ 10
⎝ Vb ,new ⎠ S b ,old
2
⎛V ⎞ S 2
⎛ 13.2 ⎞ 10
X +
T 2 ,new =X −
T 2 ,new =X 0
T 2 ,new = X T 1old ⎜⎜ b ,old ⎟⎟ b ,new = 0.09 × ⎜ ⎟ × = 0.04
V S
⎝ b ,new ⎠ b ,old ⎝ 13.2 ⎠ 25
2
⎛ Vb ,old ⎞ S b ,new ⎛
2
13.2 ⎞ 10
X +
T 3 ,new =X −
T 3 ,new =X 0
T 3 ,new = X T 1old ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟ S = 0.08 × ⎜ ⎟ × = 0.04
⎝ Vb ,new ⎠ b ,old ⎝ 13.2 ⎠ 20
20
Solution Figure 8.6.1(a) The Positive Sequence Network for problem 8.6
Solution Figure 8.6.1(b) The Negative Sequence Network for problem 8.4
21
Solution Figure 8.6.1(c) The Zero Sequence Network for problem 8.6
ii) It is assumed that the voltage at bus 4 before the fault occurred was 1 p.u since it should be
within 5% of 1 p.u.
From the bus admittance matrix:
Z44+ =0.1340 + j0.2101
Z44- = 0.1340 + j0.2101
Z440 = 0.0192 + j0.7643
Fig. The equivalent circuit for single line to ground fault for problem 8.6
Since the PV sources have high internal resistance, the fault current contribution from the PVs is
neglected.
22
Therefore, the sequence currents for a single line to ground fault =
1 1
I +f = I −f = I 0f = = = 0.82∠ − 76.4°
Z +
44 + Z 44 + Z 44 (0.1340 + j 0.2101) + (0.1340 + j 0.2101) + (0.0192 + j 0.7643)
− 0
The actual fault currents are given by:
⎡ I a ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡ I 0 ⎤ ⎡2.46∠ − 76.4°⎤
⎢ I ⎥ = ⎢1 a 2 ⎢ ⎥
⎢ b⎥ ⎢ a ⎥⎥ ⎢ I + ⎥ = ⎢⎢ 0 ⎥
⎥
⎢⎣ I c ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I − ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
iii) The loads in p.u and the equivalent impedance of the loads are given as follows:
4∠ − cos −1 0.9 12
S4 = = 0.40 + j 0.19 , Z 4 = = 2.04 + j 0.96
10 × 0.9 (0.40 + j 0.19)*
8∠ cos −1 0.9 12
S5 = = 0.80 + j 0.38 , Z 5 = = 1.02 + j 0.48
10 × 0.9 (0.80 + j 0.38)*
10∠ − cos −1 0.9 12
S6 = = 0.90 − j 0.44 , Z 6 = = 0.90 − j 0.44
10 (0.90 − j 0.44)*
5∠ cos −1 0.85 12
S7 = = 0.43 + j 0.26 , Z 7 = = 1.70 + j1.03
10 (0.43 + j 0.26)*
With the load impedances included,
Z44+ =0.1363 + j0.1675
Z44- = 0.1363 + j0.1675
Z440 = 0.3025 + j0.3033
Since the PV sources have high internal resistance, the fault current contribution from the PVs is
neglected.
Therefore, the sequence currents for a single line to ground fault =
23
1 1
I +f = I −f = I 0f = = = 1.16∠ − 48°
Z +
44 + Z 44 + Z 44 (0.1363 + j 0.1675 ) + (0.1363 + j 0.1675 ) + (0.3025 + j 0.3033)
− 0
The actual fault currents are given by:
⎡ I a ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡ I 0 ⎤ ⎡3.48∠ − 48°⎤
⎢ I ⎥ = ⎢1 a 2 ⎢ ⎥
⎢ b⎥ ⎢ a ⎥⎥ ⎢ I + ⎥ = ⎢⎢ 0 ⎥
⎥
2 ⎢ −⎥
⎢⎣ I c ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a ⎥
a ⎦⎣I ⎦ ⎣ ⎢ 0 ⎥⎦
Figure 8.57A Microgrid of Distributed Generation Connected to a Local Network.
The system data are:
Local power grid SCC = 1600 MVA
PV-generating stations: ungrounded, approximate internal impedance (resistive only) = 50%

for positive, negative, and zero sequences, 100 MVA.
Transformers: 460 V Y-grounded/13.2 kV Δ, 10% reactance, 10 MVA
Local power grid transformer: 20 MVA, 63 kV / 13.2 kV, 7% reactance
24
Transmission line: resistance = 0.0685 Ω/mile, reactance = 0.40 Ω/mile, half of line charging
admittance (Y′/2) = 11 mS/mile. The length of Line 4–7 : 10 miles, 4–8 : 7 miles, 5–6 : 12
miles, 5–7 : 7 miles, 6–7 : 6 miles, 6–8 : 8 miles.
Transmission line sequence impedance: positive = negative; zero sequence = 2× positive

sequence impedance.
i) Per unit equivalent model for positive, negative, and zero sequence impedances
based on 20 MVA base
ii) For three phase fault on bus 4, compute the bus 4 SCC
Solutions
i) S b = 20 MVA , Vb = 460 V on PV generator side
13.2
The voltage base on transmission line side Vb = × 460 = 13.2 kV
460
The p.u. SCC of the utility is given by
SCC 1600
= = 80
Sb 20
Therefore, the internal p.u impedance of the utility is
+ − 1 1
Z util = Z util = Z util
0
= = = j 0.0125
SCC pu 80
The internal p.u impedance of the PV station at 20 MVA base is given by

2
VAb (new) ⎛ Vb (old ) ⎞
Z pu( new ) = Z pu( old ) × ×⎜ ⎟
VAb (old ) ⎜⎝ Vb (new) ⎟⎠
2
+ − 20 × 10 6 ⎛ 460 ⎞
Z =Z =Z 0
= 0.5 × ×⎜ ⎟ = 0.1
100 × 10 6 ⎝ 460 ⎠
PV PV PV
25
2
+ − 20 ⎛ 460 ⎞
Z tran = Z tran = Z tran
0
= 0.10 × ×⎜ ⎟ = 0.20
10 ⎝ 460 ⎠
The per unit impedances of the lines are given as follows:

2
V 13.2 2
Base impedance on the transmission line side = b = = 8.71 Ω
Sb 20
+ − 10(0.0685 + j 0.4 ) 10 × 11
Z 4−7 , p .u = Z 4 −7 , p .u = = 0.0786 + j 0.4592 , Y4−7 , p .u = = j 958
8.71 1 / 8.71
Z 4−7 , p .u = 2(0.0786 + j 0.4592) = 0.1572 + j 0.9184

0
+ − 7(0.0685 + j 0.4 ) 7 × 11
Z 4−8 , p .u = Z 4 −8 , p .u = = 0.0551 + j 0.3215 , Y4−8 , p .u = = j 671
8.71 1 / 8.71
Z 4−8 , p .u = 2(0.0551 + j 0.3215) = 0.1102 + j 0.6430

0
+ − 12(0.0685 + j 0.4 ) 12 × 11
Z 5−6 , p .u = Z 5−6 , p .u = = 0.0944 + j 0.5511 , Y5−6 , p .u = = j1150
8.71 1 / 8.71
Z 5−6 , p .u = 2(0.0944 + j 0.5511) = 0.1888 + j1.1022

0
+ − 7(0.0685 + j 0.4 ) 7 × 11
Z 5−7 , p .u = Z 5−7 , p .u = = 0.0551 + j 0.3215 , Y5−7 , p .u = = j 671
8.71 1 / 8.71
Z 5−7 , p .u = 2(0.0551 + j 0.3215) = 0.1102 + j 0.6430

0
+ − 6(0.0685 + j 0.4 ) 6 × 11
Z 6−7 , p .u = Z 6 −7 , p .u = = 0.0472 + j 0.2755 , Y6−7 , p .u = = j 575
8.71 1 / 8.71
Z 6−7 , p .u = 2(0.0472 + j 0.2755) = 0.0944 + 0.5510

0
+ − 8(0.0685 + j 0.4) 8 × 11
Z 6−8 , p .u = Z 6−8 , p .u = = 0.0629 + j 0.3674 , Y6−8 , p .u = = j 766
8.71 1 / 8.71
Z 6−8 , p .u = 2(0.0629 + j 0.3674) = 0.1258 + j 0.7348

0
26
Solution Figure 8.7.1 The Positive Sequence Network for problem 8.7
Solution Figure 8.7.2 The Negative Sequence Network for problem 8.7
27
Solution Figure 8.7.3 The Zero Sequence Network for problem 8.7
ii) From the ZBus matrix, the value of Z44+ = 0.0114+j0.1446
1 1
SCC puAC = +
= = 6.90
Z 44 0.0114 + j0.1446
The contribution to the fault current from the DC sources should be neglected because the
internal resistance of the PV is high.
8.8 For Problem 8.7, for a single line to ground fault on bus 1, compute the ground fault current.
The positive, negative and zero sequence network is given in Solution Fig. 8.7
From the bus admittance matrix,
Z11+ =0.00004+j0.01227
Z11- = 0.00004+j0.01227
Z110 = j0.0125
28
Fig. Equivalent circuit of single line to ground fault at bus 1 for problem 8.8
The sequence currents for fault at bus 1 are given by:
1 1
I +f = I −f = I 0f = = = 27∠ − 89.9°
Z + Z11 + Z11 (0.000004+ j0.01227) + (0.00004+ j0.01227) + j0.0125
+
11
− 0
The actual currents for fault at bus 1 are given by:
⎡ I a ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡ I 0 ⎤ ⎡81∠ − 89.9°⎤
⎢ I ⎥ = ⎢1 a 2 ⎢ ⎥
⎢ b⎥ ⎢ a ⎥⎥ ⎢ I + ⎥ = ⎢⎢ 0 ⎥
⎥
⎢⎣ I c ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I − ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
8.9 For Problem 8.7, to increase the security of the system two identical transformers are used at
each distribution network and at the interconnection to the local power grid. Compute the
SCC of bus 4.
Solution
From the impedance matrix, and equivalent circuits in solution 8.7,
Z44+ = 0.0054+ j0.0881
1 1
SCC pu ,AC = +
= = 11.3
Z 44 0.0054 + j0.0881
8.10 For Problem 8.7, assume that transformer T1 is grounded Y-Y. Compute the line to
ground fault current at bus 4.
Solution
29
The positive and negative sequence networks remain unaltered as in Problem 8.7. However, the
zero sequence network changes to as given below assuming Y-Y connection with grounding on
both sides:
Solution Figure 8.10.1 The Zero Sequence Network for problem 8.10
Z44+ =0.0114 +j 0.1446
Z44- = 0.0114 +j 0.1446
Z440 =j0.2125
Fig. Equivalent circuit for single line to grind fault for problem 8.10
Therefore, the sequence current for a single line to ground fault neglecting the contribution from
PV =
30
1 1
I +f = I −f = I 0f = = = 1.99∠ − 87.4°
Z + Z 44 + Z 44 (0.0114 + j 0.1446) + (0.0114 + j 0.1446) + j 0.2125
+
44
− 0
The actual fault currents for single line to ground fault at bus 4 are given by:
⎡ I a ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡ I 0 ⎤ ⎡5.97∠ − 87.4°⎤
⎢ I ⎥ = ⎢1 a 2 ⎢ ⎥
⎢ b⎥ ⎢ a ⎥⎥ ⎢ I + ⎥ = ⎢⎢ 0 ⎥
⎥
⎢⎣ I c ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I − ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
8.11 For Problem 8.7, assume that transformer T1 is grounded Y-Y. Compute the double line
to ground fault current at bus 4.
Solution
The sequence networks remain as they are given in solution 8.10. The fault current contribution
from PV is ignored as the impedance of the PV is high.
Z4‐4 +
I+
‐ Z4‐4 ‐ 0 Z4‐4 0
I I
Fig. Equivalent circuit for double line to ground fault at bus 4 for problem 8.11
Z44+ =0.0114 +j 0.1446
Z44- = 0.0114 +j 0.1446
Z440 =j0.2125
+ Z 40− 4 × Z 4−− 4
The equivalent impedance = Z eq = Z 4− 4 + 0 = 0.0154 + j 0.2308
Z 4− 4 + Z 4−− 4
The sequence currents are given by:
1 1
I+ = = = 4.32∠ − 86.2°
Z eq 0.0154 + j 0.2308
31
− + Z 40− 4
I = −I = 2.57∠95.65°
Z 40− 4 + Z 4−− 4
+ Z 4−− 4
I = −I
0
= 1.76∠91.15°
Z 40− 4 + Z 4−− 4
The actual fault currents for a double line to ground fault are given by:
⎡ I a ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤⎡I 0 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤
⎢ I ⎥ = ⎢1 a 2 ⎢ ⎥
⎢ b⎥ ⎢ a ⎥ ⎢ I ⎥ = ⎢6.38∠160.19°⎥⎥
⎥ + ⎢
⎢⎣ I c ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a a 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ I − ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 6.67∠27.73° ⎥⎦
32

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Chapter 1 Problems and Solution

Energy and Civilization

= 1055 W × 1 hour = 1 BTU

Number of hours in one year = 24 × 365 = 8760 h

From table 1.2, the simple operating margin =

Total CO2 in one year = 5.2560 × 10 × 2.0332 = 106.86 × 10 lb of CO 2

Total BTU = 5.2560 × 10 × 3.41 × 10 = 17.9230 × 10 BTU

1 kWh = 3.41 thousand BTU

Z j = 0.59625 × 10 -3 × 109 = 596,250 lb of CO 2 / billion BTU

Simple operating margin,

From table 1.2 and 1.3,

17.52 × 10 9 × 1.915 + 17.52 × 10 9 × 0.03306 + 17.52 × 10 9 × 0.2204

1 kWh = 3.41 thousand BTU

Total kWh in one year = 6000 × 10 × 8760 = 5.2560 × 10 kWh

Total BTU in one year = 5.2560 × 10 × 3.41 × 10 = 17.9230 × 10 BTU

Total CO2 in one year = 212,000 × 17.9230 × 10 13 / 10 9 = 37.997 × 10 9 lb of CO 2

Hours in one year = 24 × 365 = 8,760 h

1 kg = 2.2 lb. or 1 lb. = 0.45 kg

1.40 × 10 6 × 1000 + 1.75 × 10 6 × 950 + 1.84 × 10 6 × 920

The total cost of installation and running a PV farm for t years=

i) The power consumption by the loads on the feeder in watts

ii) The percentage of reduction in illumination by the feeders

The power carried at 20% reduced voltage = 600 × ⎜ ⎟ = 384 W

i) Compute the power consumption by the loads on the feeder in watts

The power carried at 20% reduced voltage = 720 × ⎜ ⎟ = 352.8 W

i) The power carried by the feeder at 120 V = 5 × 120 + 120 = 720 W

The power carried at 30% increased voltage = 720 × ⎜ ⎟ = 1,216.8 W

Total number of hours in one year = 24 × 365 = 8760

f oil = 0.1 × 10 6 barrels of oil

Q oil = 5.6 × 10 6 BTU / barrel of oil ,

= 0.263 × 10 −3 lb of CO 2 per BTU

Total kWh in one year = 210 × 10 × 8760 = 1.839 × 10 kWh

Total BTU in one year = 1.839 × 10 × 3.41 × 10 = 6.271 × 10 BTU

Total CO2 in one year = 0.263 × 10 −3 × 6.271 × 1012 = 1.649 × 10 9 lb of CO 2

1 1 0.01 1000 8 1 0.01 Open 480 ? ? ? ?

2 1 0.01 1000 8 1 0.01 200 0 480 ? ? ? ?

3 0.0 0.0026 Open 0 0 Open 1 ? ? ? ?

4 0.0 0.0026 Open 0 0 1 0 1 ? ? ? ?

5 0.0 0.0026 Open 0 0 0.707 1.87 ? 1 ? ? ?

6 0 0 100 0.1 0.01 106 1 0 1 ? ? ? ?

7 0 0 100 0.01 0.01 106 1.414 3.75 1 ? ? ? ?

8 0.3 1.33 Ope 3.45 0.15 0.56 7.35 0 127 ? ? ? ?

9 10 5.2 Ope 0 0 200 0.4 0 500 ? ? ? ?

10 0.1 2.54 Ope 1.57 6.24 98.5 0.178 0 240 ? ? ? ?

11 0.3 0.003 1 4.25 0.2 0.003 10 0 440 ? ? ? ?

12 0.3 0.003 0 4.25 0.2 0.003 1 0 380 ? ? ? ?

V2 = ZϕI ϕ = (900.95 + j 298.73)0.504∠ - 18.5407° = 478.91∠-0.19o V

(Vϕ − V1 )Y1 + (Vϕ − V2 )Y2 '+ Vϕ Yϕ = 0

(V2 − Vϕ )Y2 '+ V2 YL ' = 0

⎡Y1 + Y2 '+ Yϕ − Y2 ' ⎤ ⎡Vϕ ⎤ ⎡V1 Y1 ⎤

SOLUTION TABLE 2.1 The results for all cases.

1 480 478.91 0.505 0 0.48

-0.19o -18.5o -0.2o

2 480 473.82 2.85 2.37 0.48

-2.33o -5.32o -2.33o -1.26o

4 1 0.7 0.7 0.7 0

‐44.4o ‐44.4o ‐44.4o

‐21.9o ‐45o ‐45o

6 1 0.989 1 0.989 0.01

‐2.27o ‐3.76o ‐2.27o 0o

7 1 0.983 0.71 0.491 0.01

‐0.6o -60o ‐45.6o 0o

8 127 115.1 18.29 15.65 0

‐3.87o ‐33.4o ‐3.87o