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S210, 2003 0S Press ne 2003, 48 Lonnevile Power Administration: Secon 1 a Appendix E, ‘ctcal ets, of 1G EDDY - KNIGHT S0D-kV TRANSMISSION PROJECT, by T Dan Bracken for Boanvil Power Anniston, date Mach 200, itp/inwbpagovefwAcalyeeMMEPADocumentsnmoaia Eddy Knighi ‘Apoondxe Slocealfecsconbid 2a 6 AP Publishing: Reprosied om “Paperbasea uvacapactors mth exon rantubes-qaprene composts’ Jowral of Appl Pytes, Vol. 115, oe 16 Cl, Chang, X, Sun Brand, ‘Gh Sheaturn A Reaves, Man Kalan M. 2094) he peasant AP Planing 68 Mina Electonics: rom a paper unten rane Cana, Chit ‘Scions, Mina Electonics, manufacturer of metal detectors tps Inve conv hea OIAMETAL DETECTOR BASICS AND THEORY pa ‘0 Guardion News and Media Limited: © Giacan News ans Maca Lite, 2018 06 OP Publching: Exact fem an eres ate by Tem Fooman tt ‘ot meciebysiseb posted on 24 February 2084 a tp./nedieaeyaesueb. ‘rows/eteopmanisee, © [OP Publtng. Reproduced wth pam, [vig esr. 12 NASA: Ext orn tw NASA web, p/m rnata,goulortorssenntecmclgy/varbantstat. mi posted on 2 May 2008, “he aril has sce boon updated wha focus on warpeaive techy. 128 National Geograph Society: Bharat, Amaro, fr Crosing Pace, Recor Seting Bloons Land Of Baa Coast, or Natonal Geographic, Jan 31, 2015, [atens Geogrpne Paes, LLG, 2015 146 Amerean Instuteof Physi: ‘Guyer, Peer, cial maging Faces Shorlage of Key Raoactve Mata rode Sieco, Nov 2016. © Arutianiattut of Pyaes 2016 168 Taped Financial Centr Cor: Best nthe Werd Wed Dap, TAPE! 109 © Tape Francia Conte Corp. 2014 164 Amusing Panet Patan, Kaushik, Th 728Ton Tuned Mos Oumpeof Tape! 101 © Aubng Pane 2014174 Dunedin Academie ross From pages B87 ar page 29h Chapters) of Invedusig Voloaology ‘yr Dougal Jaa, SBN 078-1-9067-822-6,pubfened by Dunedin Acadomic Press (201) 200 Michel © Nel: Wich! O ell, 2078 The Unerse or KidsCONTENTS COURSE STRUCTURE iv ABOUT THIS BOOK vi PRACTICAL SKILLS viii ASSESSMENT OVERVIEW x TOPIC 5 2 TOPIC 6 26 TOPIC 7 72 TOPIC 8 116 TOPIC 9 132 TOPIC 10 150 TOPIC 11 168 MATHS SKILLS 204 PREPARING FOR YOUR EXAMS 210 SAMPLE EXAM ANSWERS 212 COMMAND WORDS 218 GLOSSARY 220 INDEX 224Desai TOPIC 5 FURTHER MECHANICS SA FURTHER MOMENTUM 1 ENERGY IN COLLISIONS 2 MORE COLLISIONS THINKING BIGGER: ASTEROIDS EXAM PRACTICE 5B CIRCULAR MOTION 1 CIRCULAR MOTION BASICS 2 CENTRIPETAL FORCE THINKING BIGGER: ARTIFICIAL GRAVITY EXAM PRACTICE 22 24 TOPIC 6 ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS GA ELECTRIC FIELDS 26 1 ELECTRIC FIELDS 28 2 RADIAL ELECTRIC FIELDS 33 3 COULOMB'S LAW 35 THINKING BIGGER: POWER LINE PROBLEMS 38 EXAM PRACTICE 40 6B CAPACITORS 42 1 CAPACITOR BASICS 44 2 CHARGING AND DISCHARGING CAPACITORS 46 3 CAPACITOR MATHEMATICS 49 THINKING BIGGER: ULTRACAPACITORS 52 EXAM PRACTICE 54 6C ELECTROMAGNETIC EFFECTS 56 1 MAGNETIC FIELDS 58 2 ELECTRIC MOTORS 60 3 MAGNETIC FORCES 62 4 GENERATING ELECTRICITY 65 THINKING BIGGER: ‘METAL DETECTIVES 68 EXAM PRACTICE 70 TOPIC 7 NUCLEAR AND PARTICLE PHYSICS 7APROBING MATTER = 72 1 ANUCLEAR ATOM 74 2 ELECTRONS FROM ATOMS 78 THINKING BIGGER: XENON-XENON 80 EXAM PRACTICE 82 7B PARTICLE ACCELERATORS AND DETECTORS 84 1 PARTICLE ACCELERATORS 86 2 PARTICLE DETECTORS 90 3 THE LARGE HADRON COLLIDER 93 THINKING BIGGER: MEDICAL PARTICLE ACCELERATORS: 96 EXAM PRACTICE 98 7C THE PARTICLE ZOO 100 1 PARTICLE INTERACTIONS 102 2 THE PARTICLE ZOO 104 3 PARTICLES AND FORCES 106 4 PARTICLE REACTIONS — 108 THINKING BIGGER: ANTI-MATTER MATTERS 112 EXAM PRACTICE 114Maced 0 TOPIC 8 THERMODYNAMICS 8A HEAT AND TEMPERATURE 116 1 HEAT AND TEMPERATURE 118 2 HEAT TRANSFER 120 3 INTERNAL ENERGY 123 4 IDEAL GAS BEHAVIOUR = 125 THINKING BIGGER: REACH FOR THE SKY! 128 EXAM PRACTICE 130 TOPIC 9 NUCLEAR DECAY 9A RADIOACTIVITY 132 1 NUCLEAR RADIATION 134 2 RATE OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY 138 3 FISSION AND FUSION 141 THINKING BIGGER: MEDICAL TRACERS 146 EXAM PRACTICE 148 TOPIC 10 OSCILLATIONS 10A OSCILLATIONS 1 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (SHM) 150 2 SHM MATHEMATICS 155 3 SHM ENERGY 157 4 RESONANCE AND DAMPING 159 THINKING BIGGER: TAIPEL 101 164 EXAM PRACTICE 166 TOPIC 11 ASTROPHYSICS AND COSMOLOGY 11A GRAVITATIONAL FIELDS 168 1 GRAVITATIONAL FORCES 170 2 GRAVITATIONAL FIELDS 172 THINKING BIGGER: MONITORING VOLCANOES 174 EXAM PRACTICE 176 11B SPACE 178 1 STARSHINE 180 2 STELLAR CLASSIFICATION 182 3 DISTANCES TO THE STARS 187 4 THE AGE OF THE UNIVERSE 192 5 THE FATE OF THE UNIVERSE 196 THINKING BIGGER: DARK ENERGY 200 EXAM PRACTICE 202 MATHS SKILLS 204 PREPARING FOR YOUR EXAMS 210 SAMPLE EXAM ANSWERS 212 COMMAND WORDS 218 GLOSSARY 220 INDEX 224DCU AC Ing ABOUT THIS BOOK This book is written for students following the Pearson Edexcel international Advanced Level (VAL) Physics specification. This book covers the second year of the International A Level course, ‘The book contains full coverage of IAL units (or exam papers) 4 and 5. Unit 4 in the specification has three topic areas; Unit 5 has four topic areas. The topics in this book, and their contents, fully match the specification. You can refer to the Assessment Overview on pages x-x for further information. Students can prepare for the written Practical Skills Paper (Unit 6) with the support of the IAL Physics Lab Book (see pages vill and ix ofthis book). Each Topic is divided into chapters and sections so that the content is presented in manageable chunks. Each section features a mix of learning and activities supported by features explained below. Leaming objective ‘Specification reference Exam hints ‘Worked examples Each chapter starts with | The exact specication Tips on how to answer exam-style quests and | These show you how to Ait of key earning references covered inthe {Quelance for exam preperation, melding how to | Work trough questions objectives Section ae ist, Fespord fo command words. Content whion you | and set out ealeuiatons. ‘donot nood to revisa for your exams i indicated by rad Exam Hint: Extra content bowes. 1 Th aming Ups ‘Subject vocabulary Checkpoint ese help you to focus your Key terms are highlighted in blue inthe {Questions atthe end ofeach section check ring and avold common eros text. Clear defniions are provided atthe Understanding of the key learning points. fn of each section for easy reference, Certain questions allow you to develop ‘and are abo colated Inthe glossary at ‘kl which wil be valuable for further the back of the book ‘Study and in the workolacePVA as Ts ‘You shoud be able to put every r stage of your leasing mn content, OU chapter by chay + Links to other areas of Physics = a include previous knowledge ‘hat sult on in the chaps, and areas of knowledge and pplication that you will cover ‘Maths Krowiadge requiod is detaled in ahandy checklist. f You nees to practise the maths You need, youcan use the Maths Skills reference atthe back of the Book ae a starting Canoe ay Thinking Bigg [tthe end of each top, there ‘San opportunity to read and viork with rea-ife researan sn sing about science. ‘The activites halp you to read authentic materia that's etevant to your couree, analyse how soorists ute, think enitiay and consider how diferent ‘Sspecte of your leering piece together ‘These Thinking Bigger action focus on key transferable skis which area Important basis for key academic qualiies, etait ‘Exam Practice xam-siye questions at the end of ‘each chapter are talored tothe Pearson exces speoliation to allow for practice and development of exam vrting technique. They also allow for practice responding tothe "command words" used in tho exame (ge the command words slossary a the back ofthis Book ‘The Preparing for your exams soction at the end ofthe book includes sample “answers for diferent question types, ‘Sih comments about the strengths and ‘Weaknesses of the anewrs aPeete PRACTICAL SKILLS Practical work is central to the study of physics. The second year of the Pearson Edexcel International Advanced Level (AL) Physics course includes eight Core Practicals that link theoretical knowledge and understanding to practical scenarios. ‘Your knowledge and understanding of practical skills and activities will be assessed in all examn papers for the IAL Physics qualification * Papers 4 and 5 will include questions based on practical activities, including novel scenaris. * Paper 6 will test your abilty to plan practical work, including risk management and selection of apparatus. In order to develop practical skills, you should carry out a range of practical experiments related to the topics covered in your course. Further suggestions in addition to the Core Practicals are included below. UC La ECL TOPICS P9 Investigate the relationship between UNIT 4 (TOPICS 5 T0 7) FURTHER MECHANICS the force exerted on an object andits STANT Uses Weta se ULE Gurens reves ol omens Possible further practicals include: + investigating the effect of mass, velocty and fadius of orbit on centripetal force (P10 Use ICT to analyse collisions between ‘small spheres + sing a coulomb mater to measure charge stored TorI¢6 (P11 Use an oscilloscope or data logger * using an electionic balance to measur the force ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC to display and analyse the potential Boneeen tan che Fes difference (p.d,) across a capacitor as it charges and discharges through a rosistor UNIT 5 (TOPICS 8 TO 11) ores cr? catateatemisorn accents — A ‘THERMODYNAMICS divider circuit as a thermostat Possible further practicals include: GP13 Determine the specific latent heat of a *-vestigatng the relationship between the volume eee and temperature of a fixed mass of gas + measuring the halt.ife of a radioactive materia ‘measuring gravitational field stength using CP14 investigate the relationship between asimple pendulum and measuring a spring pressure and volume of a gas at fixed. Constant from simple harmonic motion temperature Toric9 P15 Investigate the absorption of gamma NUCLEAR DECAY radiation by load ToPI¢ 10 P16 Determine the value of an unknown OSCILLATIONS ‘mass using the resonant frequencies of ‘the oscillation of known massesPractica Skills Practica sils boxes explain techniques o apparatus used inthe Core Practical, and falco etal useful skis and Knowledge gained in other related investigations. EMPL Ta ena Inthe Student Book, the ore Practical specication fand Lab Book references ‘ eupplod inthe relevant sections This Student Book is accomparied by 2 Lab Book, ‘hich Includes natrietions And writing frames for the Core Practiale for student to record thelr results and reflect onthe ‘work Practical eile checklsts, practice questons and answers fate also provided. ‘The Lab Book records can be Used-as preparation and revision for tho Practical Skis Papers.ASSESSMENT OVERVIEW The following tables give an overview of the assessment for the second year of the Pearson Edexcel International ‘Advanced Level course in Physics. You should study this information closely to help ensure that you are fully prepared for this course and know exactly what to expect in each part of the exam. More information about this qualification, and. about the question types in the different papers, can be found on page 210 of this book. PERCENTAGE | PERCENTAGE Cd aqis can cal ced FURTHER MECHANICS, FIELDS AND 40% 20% Thour January, June and October PARTICLES AS minutes Figs assessment: January 2020 Written exam paper Paper code WPHis/01 Externally set and marked by Pearson Edexcel Single tier of entry PERCENTAGE | PERCENTAGE Ca) jar Gar ce AVAILABILITY ‘THERMODYNAMICS, RADIATION, 40% 20% Lhour January, June and October ‘OSCILLATIONS AND COSMOLOGY 45 minutes Written exam paper Paper code wrHis“oL Extemally set and marked by Pearson Edexeel Single tier of entry PERCENTAGE | PERCENTAGE vay (ate (ari oS pC PRACTICAL SKILLS IN PHYSICS 20% 10% thot January, June and October 20 minutes First assessment: June 2020 First assessment: June 2020 Written exam paper Paper code WPHIG(O1 Externally set and marked by Pearson. Edexcel Single tier of entryCay ASSESSMENT OBJECTIVES AND WEIGHTINGS Pes ea aa) a Sa aa ‘Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of science 3436-29831 32.34 (a) Application of knowledge and understanding of sciencein 4-35-3336 4-36 Pa Familiar and unfamiliar contexts eae Peer Pats (b) Analysis and evaluation of scientific information ro make judgments and reach conclusions = Experimental skills in science, including analysis and evaluation ‘of data and methods 20 20 20 RELATIONSHIP OF ASSESSMENT OBJECTIVES TO UNITS BSS la aaa ee vrs mis ris 4558 vuire vrs as ass ° urs 0 ° 0 20 TOTALFOR TERNATIONAL ADVANCED SUBSOUARY 236 a on » BS aa (aaa [a wuts 3590 «BS80 228275 uur $590 gs90 sas 0 vuirs 0 0 0 10 vuira rans aay Beto 0 vu nes naa 0 ure ° ° ° 10 ‘TOTAL FOR INTERNATIONAL ADVANCED LEVEL, 284 34-98 414 a FtSU eS 5A FURTHER MOMENTUM Acceleration can be considered as a change in momentum per unit mass. It can often be more exciting than basic calculations such as calculating the changing speed of a car. Curling is a game which originated in Scotland. It is now an established sport which is popular in Canada and Japan. The sport uses the ideas of conservation of momentum and elastic collisions. Players deliberately collide the stones to deflect their opponents’ stones, and to ensure their own stone finishes in a winning position. Also, the friction with the ice causes a change in momentum to slow the stone to a stop. In this chapter, you will learn about the way forces can change the momentum of an object over time. The chapter will also cover how kinetic energy changes in different types of collisions, whilst momentum is conserved. All of this will be extended to events happening in two dimensions, so vector addition and the resolving of vectors will be revisited in order to make the necessary calculations. MATHS SKILLS FOR THIS CHAPTER + Use of trigonometric functions (eg. finding components of momentum v + Use of Pythagoras’ theorem (eg. finding velocity as a vector sum) + Changing the subject of an equation (e.g. rearranging the impulse equat + Substituting numerical values into algebraic equations (e.g. finding the velocity after a collision) + Visualising and representing 2D forms (e.g. drawing a 2D momentum diagram for a collisioWhat prior knowledge do | need? Aaa) Se eos What will I study in this chapter? eee eer cee Perens ern ‘The relationship between the force on an object cy SO acy SC SO) censored sere eg ae. od +The diference between an elastic and an inelastic acuta ao) prs te ceed eed re aes ‘The equation forthe kinetic energy of a non-elativsti particle, in terms ofits momentum Oa acid peer ee ees See ee perez See eee Gee eye RSieee ama ree ee ee Pajatnict irnentenr copii Carers rarr iy cer) enone arent TEMES cls oe field rr Coe INES5A 1 ENERGY IN COLLISIONS Rae road CEE res) See ty RTS NSS Explain the difference between elastic and inelastic collisions, I Make calculations based on the conservation of linear momentum to determine energy changes in collisions. IM Derive and use the equation for the kinetic energy of a non-relativistic particle. We have seen in Book 1, Chapter 1C that linear momentum is always conserved in any collision between objects, and this is responsible for Newton's third law of motion, We also learned that Newton's second law of motion expresses the concept that a force is equivalent to the rate of change of momentum. Book 1, Chapter 1A explained how forces can do work, which results in energy transfer So, does the kinetic energy change in a collision? 'A Damaging car uses energy. What can we say about the conservation of kinetic energy in car crash ELASTIC COLLISIONS Ina colision between one pool ball and another, the first one often stops completely and the second then moves away from the colision. As both pool balls have the same mass, the principle of conservation of momentum tells us thatthe velocity of the second ball must be identical tothe intial velocity of the frst. This means that the kinetic energy ofthis system of two bells before and after the collision must be the same. A collision in which kinetic energy is conserved is called an elastic collision. In general these are rare. A Newton's cradle is an example that is nearly perfect elastic (a tiny amount of energy is lost as heat and sound). A colision caused by non-contact forces, such as alpha particles being scattered by a nucleus (see Section 7A.1).is perecty elastic figB Nevton’ cradle maintain kinetic energy, ae wal at conserving momentum is colsios. INELASTIC COLLISIONS Ina crash between two bumper cars, the total momentum after the collision must be identical to the total momentum before the collision. However if we calculate the total kinetic energy before and after we find that the total is reduced by the collision. ‘Some of the kinetic energy is transferred into other forms such as heat and sound, A collision in which total kinetic energy is not conserved is called an inelastic collision. INELASTIC COLLISION EXAMPLE rm, = 300g —> fig The fur of inelastic calsons 1f you calculate the total momentum before and after the collision in fig C, you will see that it is conserved. However, what happens to the kinetic energy? Before cotton Eyy= Lemus? =} (300) «12 150) Eu=} mu} «(Q00)«5*- 3750) Total kinetic energy = 3900) Affercolision: mz? 3» (300) 42 2400) (200) « 2"« 604) ‘otal kinetic energy = 3000) Loss in kinetic energy = 900 J This is an inelastic collision ‘This ‘lost’ energy has been transferred to heat and sound energy. When you are deciding whether a collsion is elastic or inelastic, you ‘must only consider the conservation of kinetic energy. Total energy in all forms must always be conserved.Ee) OREO a Remy Gey Investigating elastic and inelastic collisions omy fig Crash iesing the elasticity ofcalisions ‘You can investigate elastic and inelastic collisions in the school laboratory. If you cause head-on collisions, and record the mass and. velocity of each trolley before and after the collisions, you then calculate the momentum at each stage. This should be conserved. You can aso then calculate kinetic energy before and after the calistons. Real cars are designed with crumple zones to absorb as ‘much kinetic energy as possible when they crash. Ths reduces the energy available to cause injury to the passengers, What isthe best design fora crumple zone on your experimental trolleys which will absorb kinetic energy? Safety Note: Carry and place heavy runways so they cannot al. Use end-stops to prevent the trolley falling off the ends ofthe runway, PARTICLE MOMENTUM We know thatthe formula for calculating kinetic energy is = bm and that the formal for momentum is p= mv We can combine these to get an equation tha give Kinetic energy in terms ofthe momentum and mass ‘This formula is particularly useful for calculations invalving the kinetic energy of subatomic particles travelling at non-relativistic speeds ~ that is, much slower than the speed of light. PARTICLE COLLISIONS In experiments to determine the nature of fundamental particles, physicists detect the mavements of many unknovm particles, The Large Hadron Collider experiment at CERN, underground near Geneva in Switzerland, produces 600 million particle interactions in its detector every second, The conservation of momentum allows the mass of these particles to be calculated, which helps to identify them, This can be done by colliding the particles produced in the ‘experiment with known particles in the detector For example, the detector registers an elastic colision with one of its neutrons which changes the neutron’s velocity from stationary to 34 * 10'ms™. The collision was ‘head-on’ with an unknown particle, which was intially moving at 10% of the speed of light, and leaves the collision in the opposite direction at 1.09 x 10?ms"!. What is the mass of the mystery particle? ‘The mass of a neutron is 1.67 x 10-7 kg, before fer ay = 30% 10? ms . = 100% 10'ms* v, ‘AL fig Discovering mystery panicles fom their momentum and colisons, Before colsion Prjcny= Mnynry* 3* 10" = Pre Afier collision: Pr str mn * Von) (Yo (gay X19 1") (167 110 x34 x 108) Pro nto = Maryury * 3 * 10? so (ayn x 1.09% 10°) + (167 #1027134 10") = Mapa ® 310? (161 «10°? «34 109) = (Maya 3* 10) = (apy 109 1°) 5.678% 107 = (Mgyaey* 3001 090) so 89 «107k, Morey = “30007 090 ~ ‘his is approximately 207 times the mass of an electron, and so this can be identified as a particle called a muon, which is known to have this mass. Creal An alpha particle consists of two protons and two neutrons Calculate the kinetic energy of an alpha particle which has a ‘momentum of 1.08 « 10°" kg ms {@)injoules (b)inelectzon volts (c) in Mev. (mass of neutron = mass of proton = 1.67 « 10°" kg) 2. bowling ball ravelling at § m=" strikes the only standing pin straight on. The pin flies backward at 7 ms", Calculate (a) the velocity ofthe bowling bal after the cllsion (6) the loss of kinetic energy i this calision. (mass of bowing ball = 6 35 kg: mass of pin = Ike) particle collision experiment, a mystery particle collides ‘witha stationary neutron and sets the neutron into motion with a velocity of 15 * 10°ms". The mystery panicle arrived at a velocity of 1% ofthe speed of light, and recoiled afte collision ‘with a velocity of75 x 10°ms" in the opposite direction. Calculate the mass of the mystery particle, and identify it. BYEM Ea ecr ead ‘elastic collision acolision in which total kinetic energy is conserved inelastic collision a collsion in which total kinetic energy isnot conserved 3p5A 2 MORE COLLISIONS Dee R/S 1 Apply the conservation of linear momentum to situations in two dimensions. Analyse collisions in two dimensions. I Calculate impulses and changes in momentum. So far, we have only considered the conservation of linear ‘momentum in one-dimensional collisions, where all objects move forwards and/or backwards along the same straight line. This is. an unusual situation, and we need to be able to work with more complex movements, Helpfully, momentum is conserved in each dimension separately So, we resolve vector movements entering a collision into components in each dimension and then calculate following the conservation of momentum in each dimension, After this, we can recombine component vectors to give us an overall vector after a collision. A real world example, asin fig B, will lustrate this best i laptop Gatalouger ‘A. AIBA teasuring how impulse changes the momentum ofa wokey In Book 1, Section 1€.1, we saw how you can investigate the change in momentum over time for a trolley that is subject toa constant accelerating force. Using the same apparatus, you could again record how differen forces acting over different time periods cause the trolley to accelerate to different velocities. From these results, you ‘an calculate the impulse applied in each case. As I= FAt= Ap = Amy, a graph of impulke on the y-axée against change in velocity on the x-axis should give a straight bes fit line through the origin. This straight line verifies the impulse equation, andthe gradient oft wil give the mass ofthe accelerating trolley and weights. Safety Note: Puta ‘atch box full of soft material under the hanging masses to stop them falling on to feet and use an end stop. 10 prevent the trolley falling off the runway. Sun ‘Make sure you have a good understanding ofthis practical as your ‘understanding ofthe experimental method may be assessed in your exams. Rae Caacad CENCE Lee Oe, aT) CP9LAB BOOK PAGE 36 P10 LAB BOOK PAGE 41 IMPULSE ‘The product of a force applied for a known time (F x Av) is known as the impulse, and this is equal to the change in momentum: impulse (Ns) = force (N) «time (s) change in momentum (kgs x At= Ap, ‘To stop something moving, we need to remove all of its momentum. This idea allows us to calculate the impulse needed to stop an object moving If we know how long a force is applied, ‘we could work out the size of that force. Preece What i the impulse needed to accelerate 2 1000 kg car from rest to ms? pemxy [At the stan, the cari at rest, so has no momentum. Therefore the change in mornenturn will qual its final momentum: ‘Ap = 1000 « 25 impulse =F x At= Ap T= 25000kgms? ifthe car needed to stop in 3.8 seconds, what force would the brakes need to apply? ‘Av the end, the caris at rest, so has no momentum. Therefore the Change in mornentum will equal ts initial momentum: Flemav mAv = 25 000kgms nav ara impulse 38 F = 6600N to 2 significant figures (5) COLLISION VECTORS ‘Momentum is a vector quantity. As with all vectors, we can resolve ‘momentum into a right-angle pair of vector components. And we ccan add components together in two dimensions to find an overall vector A spacecraft is moving through empty space at ms A meteoroid, travelling at 15ms~', comes ftom behind and at an angle of 45° to the line of movement of the rocket, crashes into the rocket and becomes embedded in It The rocket has a mass (of 350 kg and the meteorite mass is 20 kg. We can caleulate the velocity of the racker (fig B) after the collision,Ee) WUE ey rocket Before colsion: <¢=>—_- Bms" Parallel to rocket motion: Vparcoe = 1508-45" = 106ms") Prose Perpendicular to rocket motion: “isms Precare = 20*105=212kgms7 Praca ® 2800+ 212 3012kgms"! Vparcee = 158i 45" = 10.6ms Prsane = 20*106=212kgms? meteoroid Poser = 350% 0=0kgms* A. AEB A colison nti dimensions Proponscis = 0+21 After colision: Vector sum of momenta (fg C} Pomnacun™ 22K" Prue 301235" A. fiEC vector sum of total momentum into dimensions (012+ 2125) = 3019kems* Poss 3019 (ca * Mesas) (350 * 20) Angle of momentum (ie. direction of velocity) after collision: Prt =816ms7 0 = tnt (22) - 40° So, the spacecraft with embedded meteorite carries on at 8.16m sat an angle of 4.0° off the original direction of motion. m0 You can investigate two-dimensional collisions in the schoo! laboratory. We saw in Book 1, Section. 12 that by analysing video footage of an object's ‘movement, frame by frame, we can calculate any changes in velocity. With measurement scales in ‘wo dimensions, the components of velocity in ‘each dimension can be isolated, This means that separate calculations can be made in each ‘dimension, in order to very the conservation of ‘momentum in 20. Safety Note: Usea heavy stand and a clamp to secure the camera so that it cannot fll over. A. fig Video analysis of colsions in 20. 2kgms EXAM HINT Collision and momentum exam ‘questions often ask Show that “= In’show tha’ questions, you ‘muststate the equations you ‘use. Then substtue in values and calculate final answer that rounds to the approximate value inthe question, Give the answer to 1 significant igure more than ‘ven n the question to prove you have calculated it yoursel, and that it matches withthe ‘number in the question. For example, for the calculation ‘onthe left, an exam question ‘could be ‘Show that the total momentum after the collision is 43020kgms!! Qur calculations would show: momentum = 3019kgms" ‘We should then conclude the answer with Pes = 3019 = 3020 kgs" (3s) EXAM HINT ‘Make suite you have a good ‘understanding ofthis practical as your understanding of the ‘experimental method may be assessed in your exams.Pee eum ty Pacey DEEP SPACE COLLISION (On 4 July 2005, NASAs Deep Impact mission succeeded in crashing a spacecraft into a comet called Tempel { (fig E), For that mission, the impactor spacecraft had a mass of 370 kg compared vith the comet's mass of 7.2 x 10kg, so there would have been an insignificant change inthe comet’ trajectory. Deep Impact was purely intended to study the comets composition. However there isan asteroid named Apophis which has @ small chance of colliding with Earth in 2035, 2036, ‘or maybe 2037, and there have been some calls for a mission to crash a spacecraft into Apophis in ‘order to move it out of the crash line. The mass ofthis asteroid is 6.1 x 10" kg and itis travelling at 12.6kms~. thas been claimed that a collision by a 4000 kg impactor craft traveling at kms ‘could change the path ofthis asteroid enough to ensure it would not hit Earth. If this impactor A. fig The comes Temgel 1 vs hit by NASAS Dep im wipe collided with Apophis at right angles, we can caleulate the change in angle ofthe asteroid (fig F). efre fer 4. = 126kms" A. fig Could we hit an asteroid hard enough to save Eath fom Asteroid Impact Hazar? Before collision: Pas = Malls = 6:1 * 100s 126 10° = 7.69 101g ms? pecemegiay ede 10x64 1a 24a Wigme! sum panernee eke op pn = 24% 10s Forenxinaay ‘A. fig6 The vecorsum of momentum componentsateraserekmpac ‘The momentum of the combined object after the impactor embeds in the asteroid is the vector sum of the two initial momenta, which are at right angles to each other After colison Pos (769 «10"P (241077) 69 10"kgmst Pow | 76910" Mast ~ (61 10% +4109) = 126 ms" (3 significant figures) ‘There is no significant change in the magnitude of the asteroid’s velocity Is there a significant change inits direction? Angle of momentum after: 24x10) [BER TOT)= 1.79106" Although less than two microdegrees sounds lke an insignificantly small angle, this would represent ‘a change in position of nearly 30km as Apophis crosses the Earth’s orbit from one side of the Sun to the other This might be just enough to prevent a collision with Earth that would have a hundred times more energy than all the explosives used in the Second World War. DID You KNOW? ‘Archer fish catch insect prey by squirting water droplets into the air to knock the insects off leaves above the surface. Calculations of the mass and velocity of the water droplet, and its impact time, show that the impact {force can be ten times stronger than the insects grip on the lea.Ee) WUE ey eau 1.) Whats teimpute needed to topacarthathara momen of 22000"? 0) ecard appl afore of 620 Row long woul taketh car to sop? Inapoolshtthecuebalnaes mae of017g tmaveessscoms and nthe stony ice ITE esa nas tals themlestone dota Te lac a at nas O17 te aay a 4 ad ake endingup ine come pose. (2) Byesaing te components the kal met, nou what hippest thecal (b) Isthisan elastic or inelastic collision? 150m 155m 2 Catalate how at tempat spacer ng would ave oe avenge ater the Agopis ater trajectory by one dete, Comment nthe are. Forth experimental etup sown nfg sages te improvements tat cold bemadeinorder [ETE wxoron Toimproveheacray oft rexohed vectra woul be enable onthe vse sil BIaaroe ea ‘impulse force acting fora certain time causing a change in an objects momentum Impulse = Fx At5A THINKING BIGGER ASTEROIDS This poster from the Planetary Society explains the preparations n PUBLIC INFORMATION POSTER ’ DEFENDING EARTHEe) ae ee Bee) The poster was produced by the Planetary Society. It aims to explain the issues connected with a possible asteroid collision with the Earth 1 (a) Discuss the tone and level of vocabulary and level of scientitic detail in the poster. Who is the intended audience? (b) Discuss which of the images are the most useful to support the text, and which do not add so much 2 Explain which of the five sections on the poster explains the most scientific ideas. Why do you think this section has the mast scientific ideas? Beeson as Now we will lok at the physics in detail, Some of these questions will ink to topics elsewhere in this book so you may need to combine concepts from different areas of physics to work out the answers. 3 (a) Look at section 1. Find in the poster. What is a NEO? (0) Explain two ofthe difficulties in finding NEOs, 4. Consider an asteroid 1000km in diameter, with a structure of iron and rock. The overall density of such asteroids is about 2000kgm* (@) Estimate the volume ofthe asteroid. Why is your answer an estimate and not the exact answer? (b) Calculate an estimate forts mass (€) Imagine the asteroid travelled directly towards the Earth at 10 000ms"! and collided and embedded into the surface of the Earth, Calculate the change in speed of the Earth, The mass of the Earth is 5.97 x 10g. 5 A Planetary Society scientist suggests we try to blow the asteroid apart with a nuclear explosion (as in 4, Deflet} before it hits the Earth. fthe bomb can be set off 24 hours before collision wth the Earth, and can split the asteroid into two equal pieces, calculate the force that the nuclear explosion, lasting for 2 seconds, would need to apply to send the two parts off course enough to save the Earth. The Earth’ radius is 6400km. Wite a short talk for a member of the Planetary Society to give to a school age audience explaining the physics of the ‘kinetic impactor deflection method, This talk could be a part ofthe activities in 5. Coordinate and Educate. Ean Consider which sections of the poster describe science that has been tested the most. Which sections are well understood? Which need more research? ewer eee ten You may need to do some further research about the "Kinetic impactor idea. Concentrate on the conservation of momentum and the vector additions invohed,5A EXAM PRACTICE {Wote: In questions marked with an asterisk), marks wil be awarded {for your ably to siracture your answer logically showing how the pois that you make are related or folow on from each other} 1. An inelastic collision: ‘A. conserves momentum but not kinetic eneray B conserves momentum and kinetic energy need not conserve energy D_ need not conserve momentum i (Total for Question 1 = 1 mark) 2 A tennis ball travelling withthe momentum of 4.2kg ms" is hit by a tennis racquet. The force of 56.N from the racquet causes the tennis bal to travel back in the opposite direction with the ‘momentum of 58kgms“ How long isthe ballin contact with the racquet? A 00235 B 10s ¢ 018s D 565 0 (Total for Question 2 = 1 mark) 3 In order to calculate the kinetic enengy of a non-relativistic particle, we would need to know its: A mass only B_ mass and momentum acceleration and momentum D. velocity and acceleration iy (Total for Question 3 = 1 mark) 4 In an experiment to accelerate a trolley along a runway. a light gate measured the time the trolley took to pass through it There were five repeats of the same acceleration test and it took the following readings: 087 50.895, 065 5, 0.765, 0.775 Which of these isthe correct percentage error fr this set of time readings? A 012% B 0.15% © 15% D 30% tH) (Total for Question 4 = 1 mark) 5 A spacecraft called Deep Space |, mass 486kg, uses an ion-drive’ engine. This type of engine is designed to be used in deep space. ‘The following statement appeared in a website. ‘The ion propulsion system on Deep Space 1 expels 0.13 kg of xenon propellant each day. The xenon ions are expelled from the spacecraft ata speed of 30kms. The speed of the spacecraft is predicted to initaly increase by about 8ms" each day. Use a calculation to comment on the prediction made inthis statement. 4) (Total for Question 5 = 4 marks) 6 (a) Explain what is meant by the principle of conservation ‘of momentum, By} (©) The picture shows a toy car initially at rest with a piece of modeling clay attached to it. ‘A student carries out an experiment to find the speed of a pellet fired from an air rifle, The pellet is fired horizontally into the modelling cla. The pellet remains in the modelling day as the car moves forward, The motion of the car is filmed for analysis, ‘The car travels a distance of 69 cm before coming to rest aftera time of 135, 0) Show that the speed of the car immediately after being struck by the pellet was about 1 ms! fo {i State an assumption you made in order to apply the ‘equation you used fa (ii) Show thatthe speed of the pellet just before it collides with the caris about 120m"! ‘mass of car and modeling clay = 97.31 8 mass of pellet = 084g BI (6) The modelling clay is removed and is replaced by a metal plate of the same mass. The metal plate is fived to the back ‘of the car The experiment is repeated but this time the pellet bounces backwards. “4 Explain why the speed of the toy car will now be {greater than in the original experiment. Bl (i) The film of this experiment shows that the pellet ‘bounces back at an angle of 72° to the horizontal Explain wity the car would move even faster if the pellet bounced directly backwards at the same speed. aEe) (@) The student tests the result of the first experiment by firing a pellet into a pendulum with a bob made of ‘modelling clay: They calculate the energy transferred LLLLEGLLLL string retin ‘The student's data and calculations are shown: Daa: mass of pelle= 084g ‘mass of pendulum and pelle= 71.6 ‘change in vertical height of pendula 26cm Calculations: change in gravitational potential energy of pendulum ‘and pellet 716 x 10kg * 9.81 Nkg™ x 0.226m = 0.16) ‘therefore kinetic energy of pendulum and pellet immediately fier collion = 0.16) therefore kinetic energy of pellet immediately before colsion = 0.161 therefore speed of pellet before collision 195ms? ‘There are no mathematical errors but the student's answer for the speed is too small Explain which of the statements in the calculations are cortect and which are not 14) (Total for Question 6 = 16 marks) James Chadwick is credited with ‘discovering’ the neutron in 1932, Beryllium was bombarded with alpha parties, knocking ‘neutrons out of the beryllium atoms. Chadwick placed ‘various targets between the beryllium and a detector Hydrogen and nitrogen atoms were knacked out of the targets by the neutrons and the kinetic energies of these atoms were measured by the detector. (@) The maximum energy of a nitrogen atom was found to be 1.2MeV. ‘Show that the maximum velocity of the atom is about 4x ems" mass of nitrogen atom = 1, where v= 1.66 10° kg 13) ncaa or] (b) The mass of a neutron is Nw (where N is the relative ‘mass of the neutron) and ts initial velocity is x. The nitrogen atom, mass 14u, is initially stationary and is then knocked out of the target with a velocity y, by a collision with a neutron, ° Oo neuvon stationary nitrogen atom (i) Show that the velocity 2, of the neutron after the collision can be written as Nx- ly 8) N (i) The collision between this neutron and the nitrogen atom is elastic. What is meant by an elastic colision? a (ii), Explain why the kinetic energy &; of the nitrogen atom is given by Nua — 22) ey el {c) The two equations in (b) can be combined and z can be eliminated to give Nx Nei (The maximum velocity of hydrogen atoms displaced by neutrons in the same experiment was 3.0 x 10° ms", The mass of a hydrogen atom is 1u, Show thatthe relative mass N of the neutron is 1 (3) (i) This equation cannot be applied to all collisions in this experiment, Explain why. a (Total for Question 7 = 13 marks)Ms SU eS 5B CIRCULAR MOTION What i it that makes the swing carousel so much fun? How do the engineers who build it have confidence that it / will operate safely? The motion of objects in circles is very common in everyday life. We see the Moon orbiting the Earth, and the Earth orbiting the Sun, whilst the Earth itself is making us rotate in a circle every day. The mathematics of the forces causing this motion is simple, but applying this to real-life situations, of tension in the chains of a swing carousel, can often leave people feeling confused. fe the amount In this chapter, we will learn how simple trigonometry and basic mechanics can generate the mathematics that we need to be able to analyse and predict the circular motions of many things. This includes things from subatomic particles being accelerated in the Large Hadron Collider, to the routing of a spacecraft travelling to Mars. Indeed, very simple circular motion calculations on entire galaxies led scientists to the idea that there must be dark matter throughout the Universe. MATHS SKILLS FOR THIS CHAPTER + Use of trigonometric functions (e.g. in deriving the equations for centripetal acceleration) Ra + Use of an appropriate number of significant figures (e.g. calculating angular velocities of planets) + Use of small angle approximations (@.g. in deriving the equations for centripetal acceleration) + Changing the subject of an equation (e.g finding the time period of orbits from a known angular velocity) + Translating information between numerical and graphical forms (e.9. finding the square of the angular velocity to es plot a graph) + Determii analysis) ing the slope of a linear graph (e.g. finding the gradient of the line in a centripetal force experimentRae road PERE ICES) BME RU OTe ENC) Dee R/S Express angular displacement in radians and in degrees, and convert between these units. Define angular velocity, and make calculations using it. Define centripetal acceleration, and derive and use the equations for it In our study of wave phase in Book 1, Section 3B.1, we learned how angles can be measured in radians as well asin degrees, and how to convert between these two units. In this section, we will see how we can extend that to measure movements around a circle, GOING ROUND IN CIRCLES For an object moving in a circle, we often need to measure where itis around that circle. For example, to consider the relative postions of planets in thelr orbits at a particular time, we need to be able to state where each one is (ignoring, in this example, the fact that planetary orbits are not perfect circles). ‘Angles measured in degrees are used extensively in navigation to locate places. We alsa use them ta describe the difference between ‘moving from one scarting point to two possible destinations. This, is measuring angular displacement on the surface of the Earth. Each degree is subdivided into 60 ‘arcminutes' and each of those areminutes into 60 ‘areseconds’ A. figA Meastzing angesin depress When we are measuring rotation, we often use the alternative unit to measure angles ~ the radian. The circle itself defines this, Imagine an object moves around part of the circumference of circle, The angle through which it moves, measured in radians, is defined as the distance it travels, divided by its distance from the centre of the circle (the radius). If the radius of the circle were one metre then the distance the object travels around the circumference (also in metres) would be equal to the angle swept out in radians, length of are radius of arc one angle in radians) So, for a complete circle, in which the circumference is equal to 2ar, the angle swept out would be: radians ‘This means that the angle will be 1 radian (rad) if the distance snorted ardund the erce i the same as te ras jus over! of the distance around the circumference A. fig iwessuing anges radians, Angular displacement is the vector measurement of the angle through which something has moved, The standard convention is that anticlockwise rotation is a positive number and clockwise rotation is a negative number. Een Coe 0 a ad 5 ai 90 3n/4 135 7 180 Sx/4 25 anf 270 Tria 315 360 table A. Angles measured in dares and radiansCECA ‘DID You KNOW? (MILITARY ANGLES Many armies use a system for angle measurement in which a ‘complete circle is divided into 6400 ‘mils. This is an abbreviation {or milradian, They have rounded the numbers for easy use though, as there should be 6283 miliradians in a complete circle. The idea Is that at 1 kilometre distance, an angle of 1 mil would represent a distance of 1 metre. So, when aiming artillery fie, a horizontal adjustment of 1 mil in angle of fire should move to a target 1 metre sideways for every kilometre distance away. s=10 + for 1 mil angle at 1 km distance: $= 1000 x 0.001 = 1m RS 2 A. fige Measuring angles nmi ANGULAR VELOCITY ‘An object moving in a circle sweeps out a particular angle in a particular time, depending upon how fast itis moving. The rate at which the angular displacement changes is called the angular velocity, «. So, angular velocity is measured in rads“, and is defined mathematically by Ao ar If the object completes a full circle (2x radians) ina time period, T.then the angular velocity is given by: 2 ft af INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY Instead of thinking about the angular movement, let us consider the actual velocity of the moving object (sometimes called the i Ree GU Ec} 7 ‘instantaneous velocity’). We know that v= j and from the definition of the angle in radians 6 =, so that s= r8, Thus y= (ieee In fig D swe can see a geostationary satelite orbiting the Earth, What is its angular velocity? To find he angular velocity, remember that it completes an orbit at th revolves, o one fll circle every 24 hours (24 * 60 x 60) ~ 86400 27 10% ads A. fig How quickly does satliterotte through a cena angle? Ifthe radius ofthe Earth is 6400 km and the satellite in fig Dis in ‘orbit 35.600 km above the Earth’ surface, what isthe velocity of the satellite? From before, w = 7.27 x 10-Srad5" ud = (6400 + 35.600) « 10° «7.27 x 10 v= 2050ms CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION Velocity is @ vector, and so itis correctly described by both its magnitude and direction. An acceleration can change either of these, or both, An object moving in a circle may travel at 1 constant speed (and a constant angular velocity) but the direction it is moving in must constantly change. This means it is constantly accelerating. As this acceleration represents the cchanges in direction around the circle, its called the centripetal acceleration, a. To calculate the centripetal acceleration, we rmust consider how quickly the direction, and therefore the velocity, is changing