eed Pearson Edexcel ColVE NT ite=ttColary PEARSON EDEXCEL INTERNATIONAL AS / A LEVEL ib S(t) STUDENT BOOK 1 MILES HUDSONPDF COMPILED BY SAAD PEARSON EDEXCEL INTERNATIONAL AS/A LEVEL PHYSICS Student Book 1Publics by Pearson Euan Units, 80 Sand, London, WOR ORL pearsoaibalschools com Cope fil specilions el Pearson Edecel qufieaons may be fond ‘ne website: ipuaiieatonsparson.com “ax © Pearson Eaveton Lad 2018 ‘esigned by Teh Set La, Gatshaud UK te by Kate Baan ad Jove Rea “ype! by TetrSet Li. Cateshaed UK Chigal isin © Pearson Education Lied 2018 ‘Corer cesgn by Pearson Eavcaton Line 2018, Plcure research oy Aa, no (Cover sreto 0 RUSSELL CROMANSCENCE PHOTOLIBRAAY ‘ree ont cover pte: Diy Lebanor “ho rg of Mos Hutoon to be ents as autor ofthis work has boon ascarted bhiminaccorance with the Copyig. Desgrs and Patorts Ac 1388 Fret blah 2048 wo9e76s4321 ‘ish Leer Cataloguing n Puli Osta ‘Nealalogu cord or ha bak is reat eam the Bish ary Conyrignt notes [Ange Yesved No par of ts pubicaton may be epeauoed nary frm oy {ny mans incudingehetocopying or tong tin ny med by eect oan {and wraor ont ans oregertaly fo come ater wap ots pusteaton ‘ntnout te writen prison ofthe copyright owrer except in accordance wih ‘he pins the Copyright Designs and Patents ct 1888 cr under he om ‘ta leares ssc by the Copyright Joesing Agency, tna nn, 86 Fetter {are Landon ECAA TEN owe. co.k).Applcaton forthe copyright ones ‘rien parson sha te area to he pier Printed by Neoaraa in Sovakia ‘nower oensrettal his rescue oes high-ly suport fr the associat Pearson quliteaton thas bean tug a review process bythe aig ‘dy Te prooeas conrad hat th ese iy over teaching ard ‘auang conta ofa spetioaton whe Is aed, also cont att corrontatee en appropriate bance between the evelopment f sje! sl, ronleage ana uncertain, aon a areparatn lo assesmar Endorsement doesnot cover ary guidance on assessment acs or recesses {@9 practice questons cr novice on how fo answer assent questo) Ireudod nthe source, nor doe I prescribe ay pater approach Yr ‘ache or dere ested coe il te publishers rave redo every atte 6 ensue tat ace on he ‘unicaton ands assem accra te oficial spaciaton and ‘Sicocted ssteamertgaance mate eth oly auaratve sauce of ‘eration an shoul elas be eee oo deinaveguidancs ‘xaminaon papers fr unich ty have repens ‘Examines il not ve andoree etourcee ae ase ct marl ary stcesomen! et by Peas. 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(Uaueen Gta api 208, ‘euros Fede Bre of Investigation, Ovantoo, pina, USA Extract on pg 185 rom LIFEPAKG 1000 DERERILLATOR boc, 9p. 56-5, rept _hysocontol.com (uslouseeFesPhyiosS(Conenttemermency Medial. ‘CarProauctarrocrresLP1000, Brochur20u%20Rechargalo%20 Bator €806851-Cpet, copyright © 2012 Phsio-Contl, he; Exact on pane 180 rom Fover eam Wenig to Diagnose Electial issue 2 Noverer 2018, ‘nfm pinasa govnowsinows pp eare=2958, Source: NASA, Evert nas been mac to cart copyright lds of mstriarproaued in this bok Any omisions wl erected mr subeaquont rnings ntce is ave" tothe puro er Proto and Figure Actrowecgemens ples ae page 214Cy COURSE STRUCTURE iv ABOUT THIS BOOK vi PRACTICAL SKILLS viii ASSESSMENT OVERVIEW x WORKING AS A PHYSICIST 2 TOPIC 1 8 TOPIC 2 58 TOPIC 3 88 TOPIC 4 148 MATHS SKILLS 194 PREPARING FOR YOUR EXAMS 200 SAMPLE EXAM ANSWERS 202 COMMAND WORDS 205 GLOSSARY 207 INDEX 211Cosa WORKING AS A PHYSICIST 1 STANDARD UNITS IN PHYSICS 2 ESTIMATION TOPIC 1 MECHANICS 1A MOTION 1 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 2 MOTION GRAPHS 3 ADDING FORCES 4 MOMENTS 5 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION 6 KINEMATICS EQUATIONS 7 RESOLVING VECTORS 8 PROJECTILES THINKING BIGGER: THE BATTLE OF AGRA EXAM PRACTICE 1B ENERGY 1 GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL AND KINETIC ENERGIES 2WORK AND POWER THINKING BIGGER: ‘THE MECHANICS OF SOCCER EXAM PRACTICE 10 12 15 7 20 23 26 28 30 32 34 36 39 42 44 1¢ MOMENTUM 1 MOMENTUM 2 CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM THINKING BIGGER: SAVING HOCKEY GOALKEEPERS EXAM PRACTICE TOPIC 2 MATERIALS 2A FLUIDS 1 FLUIDS, DENSITY AND UPTHRUST 2 FLUID MOVEMENT 3 VISCOSITY 4 TERMINAL VELOCITY THINKING BIGGER: ‘THE PLIMSOLL LINE EXAM PRACTICE 2B SOLID MATERIAL PROPERTIES 1 HOOKE'S LAW 2 STRESS, STRAIN AND THE YOUNG MODULUS. 3 STRESS-STRAIN GRAPHS: THINKING BIGGER: GET ROPED IN EXAM PRACTICE 46 48 50 54 56 58 60 63 65 e7 70 72 74 76 79 81 84 86 TOPIC 3 WAVES AND PARTICLE NATURE OF LIGHT 3A BASIC WAVES 88 1 WAVE BASICS 90 2 WAVE TYPES 93 THINKING BIGGER: 96 EXAM PRACTICE 98 3B THE BEHAVIOUR OF WAVES 100 1 WAVE PHASE AND ‘SUPERPOSITION 102 2 STATIONARY WAVES. 105 3 DIFFRACTION 108 4 WAVE INTERFERENCE 11 THINKING BIGGER: THE MARIMBA 114 EXAM PRACTICE 116 3C MORE WAVE PROPERTIES OF LIGHT 118 1 REFRACTION 120 2 TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION 122 3 POLARISATION 124 THINKING BIGGER: GLASS FORENSICS 126 EXAM PRACTICE 128Cea and 3D QUANTUM TOPIC 4 MATHS SKILLS 194 PHYSICS 130 | ELECTRIC CIRCUITS PREPARING FOR YOUR 1 WAVE-PARTICLE EXAMS 200 mae ie aA ELECTRICAL SAMPLE EXAM ANSWERS 202 2 THE PHOTOELECTRIC ae 435 | QUANTITIES 143 | COMMAND WORDS 205 3 ELECTRON DIFFRACTION 1 ELECTRIC CURRENT 150 | GLOSSARY 207 AND INTERFERENCE 138 | 2 ELECTRICAL ENERGY INDEX ait 4 ATOMIC ELECTRON TRANSFER 153 ENERGIES 140 | 3 CURRENT AND VOLTAGE THINKING BIGGER: RELATIONSHIPS 156 SOLAR CELLS TO POWER Sate aq RESISTIVITY 159 5 CONDUCTION AND EXAM PRACTICE 146 | ” RESISTANCE 161 6 SEMICONDUCTORS 164 THINKING BIGGER: SHOCKING STUFF 168 EXAM PRACTICE 170 4B COMPLETE ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS = 172 1 SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS 174 2 ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT RULES: 178 3 POTENTIAL DIVIDERS 180 4 EMF AND INTERNAL RESISTANCE 184 5 POWER IN ELECTRIC CIRCUITS: 186 THINKING BIGGER: CURIOUS VOLTAGE DROP 190 EXAM PRACTICE 192ABOUT THIS BOOK This book is written for students following the Pearson Edexcel international Advanced Subsidiary (IAS) Physics specification, This book covers the full IAS course and the first year of the International A Level (AL) course. The book contains full coverage of IAS units (or exam papers) 1 and 2. Each unit in the specification has two topic areas. The topics in this book, and their contents, fully match the specification. You can refer to the Assessment Overview on page X for further information. Students can prepare for the written Practical Skills Paper (unit 3) by using the IAL Physics Lab Book (see page vii of this book). Each Topic is divided into chapters and sections to break the content down into manageable chunks. Each section features a mix of learning and activities. = Gaara aoc Semcmnmeoce ] [faececantay crecreate® Seen | te ee eaditinn | Sonnet enceoemcany | | Sommeenougediinn, | Borecerernar Somraeooned peissceaames | creer erst sirervcctoctam,, | sreausen Sous SME ER LEU Eats U0 ‘Checkpoint ‘amin know? Glestons at the endo cn ‘hese ntpyen focus Inert ot hp Scion eneck unostandng ofthe Yeurteoring and-aved | youtornnombe he key ‘learn pts in each chapter Someron eros, ConceptsEAST g DS ey aT) You leaning, chapter by ‘chapters slivays put n content * Links to eter areas of Pnysics Include previous knowledge ‘that sul on in the top, and future learsing that you wil ‘cower str your course, ‘A checklist detals maths knoutedge required. you eed to practise these ll, You can use the Maths Skills Teference at the back ef the book as staring point SMC Cen (ses) Thinking Bigger [AL Tho ond of each top, thore 's an opporunty to read ang ‘warty rea-ita research [angwnitng about sence ‘The actvlles ep you to ead real-life material that's relavant {your couree, analyse how Solent wrt, thin rtialy ‘ang consider now aierent Aspects of your leaning piece together ‘kis ‘These sections wil help you dvelog transferable skis. ‘which are highly valued in further study andthe workplace Exam Practice xam-style questions atthe end of ‘2ach chapta’ ae talored othe Pearson dexcol special and development ot technique. Tay also responcing tothe command werds used inthe exams Gee the command words ‘lossary atthe back ofthis ook). ‘allow Tor practice aPRACTICAL SKILLS Practical work is central to the study of physics. The Pearson Edexcel International Advanced Subsidiary (|AS) Physics ‘specification includes eight Core Practicals that link theoretical knowledge and understanding to practical scenarios. Your knowledge and understanding of practical skills and activities will be assessed in all examination papers for the IAS Level Physics qualification. + Papers 1 and 2 will include questions based on practical activities, including novel scenarios. ‘+ Paper 3 will test your ability to plan practical work, including risk management and selection of apparatus. In order to develop practical skills, you should carry out a range of practical experiments related to the topics covered in your course. Further suggestions in addition to the Core Practicals are included below. Tatu aoe) ‘STUDENT BOOK TOPIC | IAS CORE PRACTICALS Payee rts Topic 1 Dotermine the acceleration ofa frealy- Possible further practicals include: MECHANICS falling object + Strobe photography of the use of a video camera ‘0 analyse projectie motion Topic 2 (P2 Use a falling-ball method to determine MATERIALS the ascosly ofa qu “+ Dotormine the centr of gravity ofan kregular roc ‘+ Investigate the conservation of momentum using light gates and ai track Determine the Young modulus of Ca ad “+ Hooke’s law and the Young modulus experiments ee feravarety of materials oPIc 3 GP4 Determine the speed of sound in air Meer) WAVES AND THE using a two-beam oscilloscope, signal AT SU Staa Lag PARTICLE NATURE generator, speaker and microphone OF LIGHT " Possible further practicals include: ee a ee + Estimating power output of an electric motor tension and mass per unitlength on the * Using a digital valimete to vestigate the output ofa potential divider and investigating current! ios Seay Sao os ee) voltage graphs for flament bub, thermistor and diode P6 Determine the wavelenath of ight from + Determining the refractive index of solds and 8 laser or other light source using a liquids, demonstrating progressive and stationary diffraction grating waves’on a slinky oPIc 4 CP7 Determine the electrical resistivity of FLECTRIC CIRCUITS ‘a material (CPS Determine the e.m.t. and intemal resistance of an electrical cellPorous ney Inthe Student Book the Core OSs Practica specication and Lab [Book references ae supped in the relevant sections, Practical Sila Practica sklls boxes explain teohniques used in tne Core Practica, and algo detail useful sls and knowledge gained in ‘ther elated investigations “This Stucent Book is accompanied by a Lab Book, tihich includes nstrctions ‘and writing ames for tne Core Practical for etusente to record thes resus and reflect on thir work Practical skilechocklets, practice questions and answers [Be also provided The Lab Book records can be used as preparation and revision forthe Practoal Skils PaperASSESSMENT OVERVIEW The following tables give an overview of the assessment for Pearson Edexcel International Advanced Subsidiary course in Physics. You should study this information closely to help ensure that you are fully prepared for this course and know exactly what to expect in each part of the examination. More information about this qualification, and about the ‘question types in the different papers, can be found on page 200 of this book. Pa haem s nao (MECHANICS AND MATERIALS 40% 20% hour January, June and October Written exam paper minutes Fiese assessment: January 2019 Paper code WPHILOL Externally set and marked by Pearson Edexcel Single tier of entey Denes Dees ca ca Te Ug ‘WAVES AND ELECTRICITY Thour January, June and October ‘Writeen exam paper AO minutes Fire assessment June 2019 Paper code WwrHi201 Externally set and marked by Pearson Edexcel Single tier of entey a PRACTICAL SKILLS IN PHYSICS 1 20% Thour January, June and October ‘Written examination 20 minutes Fiese assessment June 2019 Paper code /WPH13/01 Externally set and marked by Pearson Edexcel Single tier of entryPesce) Fy ASSESSMENT OBJECTIVES AND WEIGHTINGS ASSESSMENT OBJECTIVE | DESCRIPTION Bid End eed Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of science 3436 29313234 (a) Application of knowledge and understanding of science in 343633863436 familiar and unfamiliar contexts n02 (b) Analysis and evaluation of scientific information to make o4l 446 11-44 judgments and reach conclusions. 3 ‘Experimental skills in seience, including analysis and evaluation » » » ‘of data and methods RELATIONSHIP OF ASSESSMENT OBJECTIVES TO UNITS ees eeu Ts ao 20) az) 403 unr i748 18 4555 00 unr2 48 718 4555 00 uns 00 00 00 2» ‘TOTAL FOR INTERNATIONAL es se am » ‘ADVANCED SUBSIDIARYThroughout your study of physics, you will develop knowledge and understanding of what it means to work scientifically. You will develop confidence in key scientific skills, such as handling, and controlling quantities and units and making estimates. You will also learn about the ways in which the scientific community functions and how society as a whole uses scientific ideas. Atthe end of each chapter in this book, there isa section called Thinking Bigger. These sections are based broadly on the content of the chapter just completed, but they will also draw on your previous learning from earlier in the course or from your previous studies and point towards future learning and less familiar contexts. The Thinking Bigger sections will also help you to develop transferable skills. By working through these sections, you will: + read real-life scientific writing in a variety of contexts and aimed at different audiences + develop an understanding of how the professional scientific community functions + learn to think critically about the nature of what you have read + understand the issues, problems and challenges that may be raised » gain practice in communicating information and ideas in an appropriate scientific way » apply your knowledge and understanding to unfamiliar contexts. You will also gain scientific skills through the hands-on practical work that forms an essential part of your course. As well as understanding the experimental methods of the practicals, itis important that you develop the skills necessary to plan experiments and analyse and evaluate data. Not only are these very important scientific skills, but they will be assessed in your examinations. MATHS SKILLS FOR PHYSICISTS + Recognise and make use of appropriate ut base and derived units) in calculations (eg. knowing the difference between + Estimate results (e.g. estimating the speed of waves on the sea) + Make order of magnitude calculations (e.g. estimating approximately what an answer should be before you start calculating, including using standard form) + Use algebra to rearrange and solve equations (e.g. finding the landing point of a projectile) + Recognise the importance of the straight line graph as an analysis tool for the verification and development of physical laws by experimentation (eg. choosing appropriate variables to plot to generate a straight line graph with experimental data) + Determine the slope and intercept of a linear graph (eg. finding acceleration from a velocity-time graph) + Calculate the area under the line on a graph (e.g. finding the energy stored in a stretched wire) Use geometry and trigonometry (eg. finding components of vectors)What prior knowledge do I need? + Understanding and knowledge of physical facts, TS ee ee ec ens ate ea eet including the applications of physics, to diferent contexts rae tn eeu Pee eee Eee Ee aoe based on the use of correct and sae laboratory ronan + Communicating scientific methods, conclusions and arguments using technical and mathematical rs ee benefits and rsks, of scientific and technological cea) n + Understanding how society uses scientific Peter er eng eee ene eed AE ee R ue cat loaee ee ea quantities and their Si units eee er eee) Peres ere See ee eee Cee Cn eect eon Pe acid Meee he re Eater See oer eet. Bienes a ee a appropriate ways using appropriate terminology eee ee) benefits and risks SR ee eed De eC Sa net) PereraPTs Ce I Understand the distinction between base and derived, = quantities. I Understand the idea of a fixed system of units, and explain the SI system BASE AND DERIVED QUANTITIES table A The bas he choice of which quantities are the base ones is somewhat a matter of choice. The scientists who meet to decide on the think standard unit system have chosen these that electric current is not a fundamental p movement of charge. So it could be derived from measuring charge an fundamental and they chose current. This means that electric charge is a derived quantity found by multiplying current p fora given time, ty as his ime, However, scientists had to pick what w SI UNITS Foreach of the base units, a meeting is held every four or sic ats of the General Conference on Weights and Measures, under the authority of the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures in Paris, Ar this meeting, they ether alter the definition, or agree to continue with the current definition. As we learn more and more aout the universe, these definitions are gradually moving the fundamental onstants of nature Some measurements we make are of fundamental qualities o things in the universe. For example, the length of a pencil is a fundamental property of the object. Compare this with the encils speed if you di have to consider a distance moved, and the rate of motion ove that dista ed to measure tim: oa calculation, You can see that there is a fundamental difference between the types of quantity that are length and speed. We call the length a base unit, whilst the speed isa derived unit, A present, the international scientific cornmunity uses seven base units, and from these all other units are derived, Some der units have their own names. For example, the derived unit of force should be kgms~, but this has been named the newton (N). Other derived units do not get their own name, and we just list the base units that went together in deriving the quantity. For example, speed is measured in ms >it. Ta give a value to the speed, we‘STANDARD UNITS IN PHYSICS WORKING AS A PHYSICIST ‘The current definition of each of the seven base units is listed below. + The kilogram is the unit of mass: i is equal to the mass of the International Prototype Kilogram, as in fig A. “The second isthe duration of 9 192631 770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the tensition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium-133 atom, The metre isthe length of the path travelled by light in vacuum, + during a time interval of of a second (see fig B), 1 299 79D 158 ‘The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in ‘wo straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section, and placed 1 m apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal 10 2 * 107 newton per metre of length. ‘The kelvin, unit of thermodynamic temperature, isthe fraction L TpacTg othe thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water ‘The mole is the amount of substance of a system which contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in (0.012 kg of carbon-12. (When the mole is used, the elementary entities must be specified and may be atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, other particles or specified groups of such particles) EXAM HINT Table A has the complete list of SI base units. You will not be asked uestions about the candela inthe exam. PEN "Metrology isthe study ofthe science of measurement, and metic! refers to ways of standardising measuring techniques. DERIVED UNITS In table B you will see many of the derived units that we will study in this book, but this is only alist of those that have their rr ro Em newton N kgs? ens Orvis force energy (worl) | _joule 7 ig power walt Ww ker frequency hen he 5 charge coulomb é As voltage vol v kems?A resistance ‘ohm o kgmes3A table B Some wall inown derived uns. POWER PREFIXES Sometimes the values we have to work with for some quantities ‘mean that the numbers invalved are extremely large or small. For example, the average distance from the Earth to the sun, measured in metres, is 15000000 000m, Scientists have made an easier system for writing such large values by adding a prefix to the unit which tells us that it has been multiplied by a very large or very small amount. In the Earth orbit example, the distance is equivalent to 150 billion metres, and the prefix giga- means multiply by a billion. So the Earth~sun distance becomes 150, ‘gigametres, or 150Gm. ES deca | da_| 10" | dec | 4 ecto. | h cent | Klo- | mili [om mega | M | 10% | mico- | w fm |G | 10? | nano- | wea | T | 0? | pico |p pea | P| 10% | femo- | f ea — | Ww | ato | a zeta | Z| 10 | zepio- | 2 yor | ¥ | 10% | yoo: | y table Prefnes used ith Suns Crea SKILLS) Prose 1. Refer to table B and answer the following questions: (a) Pick any quantity that you have studied before and explain how its base unit equivalent is shown. (b)All of the derived quantity units are named after scientists, ‘Compare their names and abbreviations. What do you 2, Write the following in standard form faszew (€) 6400km (0)43mm (€)Ados. 3. Write the following using an appropriate prefix and unit symbok: (a) 3600000 oules {€) 10 milionths ofan ampere (b)31536000 seconds) 105000 hertzPANTO) helps us quickly notice any miscalculation in an answer toa Se Sas ‘question. If we used an equation to calculate the answer to the fastest speed of a parila car in particular conditions. and the pasta vals Fog vera gumnites answer came out as 300000000 metres per second (the speed of Use your estimates to solve problems. light), we would immediately know thatthe answer is wrong. and recheck the calculation In physics, it can be very helpful to be able to make approximate estimates of values to within an order of magnitude. This means that the power of ten of your estimate is the same as the true value. For example, you are the same height as the celling in your | 1 = 10" m size of Earths orbit around the sun classroom, if we consider the order of magnitude. The ceiling : 110! m size of the solar system em size of Moons orbit around Earth ‘may be twice your height, bt it would need to be ten times bigger ‘ to reach the next order of magnitude 110m ameter of Manchester ‘This is made clearer if we express all values in standard formand 1 * 10°m human height then compare the power of ten. You are likely tobe athousand | x 109m antheight times taller than an ant, so we would say you are three orders of | magnitude larger 1g? m biological cell diameter typical ant height: 1.7mm =1.7 10m 110m wavelength of ultraviolet light ‘typical human height: 1.7 m= 1.7 10m 110m diameter of an atom Delo diameter ofan atomic nucleus th powers often © A table A Samples of cbject sais eh \ fig we arethee orders of magnitude ale than an at. In many situations, physicists are not interested in specific ‘answers, as circumstances can vary slightly and then the specific answer is incorrect. An order of magnitude answer will always be correct, unless you change the initial conditions by more than ‘an order of magnitude. So a physicist could easily answer the {question ‘What isthe fastest speed of a car?’ because we don't really want to know the exact true value, To give an exact answer ‘would depend on knowing the model of car. and the weather and x road conditions, and this answer would only be correct for that, Enrica Fermi was one ofthe developers of both nuclear reactors ae. eee ee for Physics for the discovery of new radioactive elements and induced Shave Thorson fr dnc wel be hat allons so il develop ideas as possible or impossible. Also it helps us focus on developing the ideas along lines that wil eventually be feasible __Ertico Fermi was an latin physicist who lived from 1901 to ven we getto developing a specific soliton. This reduces ime 1954. He vas @ pioneer of estimation Wht have become known and money wested by following idess that ae impossible. It also #8 Feti questions are seemingly specific questions, to whichESM) WORKING AS A PHYSICIST ‘only an order of magnitude answer is expected. Its common for the question to appear very difficult, as we do not have enough information to work out the answer One of Ferm’s most interesting thought experiments was @ consideration of whether or not alien life exists. Over a lunch with other scientists in 1950, Fermi surprised the group by asking ‘Where is everybody?" referting to cextraterrestrials There seems to be no evidence of the existence of alien life. That i stil as true today as it was in 1950. However. ‘when Fermi made an estimation of what would be necessary for an ‘exratertestial civilisation to travel o visi us, his estimate came out ‘ata much shorter amount of time than the age of our galaxy ‘onditions and likelihood for a visit extraterrestrials +A planet that will eupport life - the galary holds about 100 billion stars, 60 there 16 a high probability that some other solar systems will have an Earth-like planet. «Time to develop life - many of the stars in the galaxy are much older than the 6u) 60 allen life developing at the same rate 145 our own should have been established as long ae a billion years before oure + Time to develop interstellar travel —even if humans have to live our entire history again in order to develop spaceships that can travel to other stare, that means we will reach other stars in lees than a rilion years of human existence. «+ Time to explore the whole galaxy ~ from the nearest star to exploration of the whole galaxy i6, by extrapolation, only a matter of a few millon years. A. fig The Ferm Paradox even the most coneenvatve estimates of the requirements of exploring the galny mean that ens should reach Earth ‘thin ten millon eas of thei fe begining. they exe, they would be here ‘You need to work out what steps are needed to make an estimation. First think about what steps you would take to reach an answer if you could have any information you wanted, Then, ‘when the necessary data is not all available, make an estimate for the missing numbers, Making sensible assumptions isthe key 10 solving Fermi questions. Wee Bs ee Bee eee emer err Teen) pee tomaton he red was ht the populton che was 3miion Sareea eects) eachhouholis4 people. hen te ae 300000 759050 Pee een errees 220000 75000 panos ee eee eee ‘Assume each piano needs tuning once a yea. Further assume a piano tuner works 200 days a year, and can service 4 pianos a day. Each tuner can service: 200 x 4 = 600 pianos, ‘Step 3: How many tuners? ach piano tuner works with 800 pianes, and there are 75.000, pianos in total. So there ae: 75000 Your answer to Fermi would be ‘There are 100 piano tuners in Chicago, This isnot expected to be the exactly correct answer, but itil be correct to order of magnitude. We would not expect to find that Chicaga has only 10 piano tuners, and it would be very surprsingfthere were 1000, ‘94 plano tuners Poste DOAPTIVE LEARNING SKILLS 1. Give an order of magnitude estimate forthe following quantties (a) the height of gaffe {b) the mass ofan apple (¢) the reaction time of human (6) the diameter ofa planet (c) the temperature in this room. 2D Answer the following Fermi questions. showing all the steps and the assumptions and estimates you male. (a) How many tenis balls would fitinto a soccer stadium? {b]How many atomsare therein your body? {c) How mary drops of water ar there ina swimming pool? {6)In your lifetime, how much money will you make in total? {e) How many Fermi questions could Ervico Fm have answered whilst fing rom Rome 9 New Yor?Oem ate How can we calculate how fast a plane is flying, in what direction it is going and how longt will take to reach a certain destination? If you were a pilot, how would you know what force to make the engines produce and where to direct that force so your plane moves to your destination? ‘An incredible number of intricate calculations need to be done to enable a successful flight, and the basis for all of them is simple mechanics. This chapter explains the multiple movements of objects. It looks at how movement can be described and recorded, and then moves on to explaining why movement happens. It covers velocity and acceleration, including how to calculate these in different situations. We only consider objects moving at speeds that could be encountered in everyday life. At these speeds (much less than the speed of light) Sir Isaac Newton succinctly described three laws of motion. With knowledge of basic geometry, we can identify aspects of movement in each dimension. Newton's laws of motion have been constantly under test by scientists ever since he published them in 1687. Within the constraints established by Einstein in the early twentieth century, Newton’s laws have always correctly described the relationships between data collected. You may have a chance to confirm Newton's laws in experiments of your own. With modern ICT recording of data, the reliability of such experiments is now much improved over traditional methods. Units of measurement (e.g. the newton, N) Using Pythagoras’ theorem, and the angle sum of a triangle (eg. finding a resultant vector) Using sin, cos and tan in physical problems (e.g. resolving vectors) Using angles in regular 2D structures (eg. interpreting force diagrams to solve problems) Changing the subject of an equation (eg. re-arranging the kinematics equations) Substituting numerical values into algebraic equations (e.g. calculating the acceleration) sad Plotting two variables from exp. linear relationship and determi Estimating, by graphical methods as appropriate, the area between a curve and the x-axis and realising the, i physical significance of the area that has been determined (e.g. using a speed-time graph) imental or other data, understanding that y = mx + c represents a ing the slope of a linear graph (e.. verifying Newton's second law experimentally)‘The definitions of and equations for speed, Ce LR ey Cea See eae ee rd ‘Adding and resolving vectors ee Cd ee ‘Measuring and calculating the speed of objects Ce a a ‘Measuring forces, calculating resultant forces See ed ees) De CE te) Kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy ‘Transferring between gravitational potential eae Deo Cee eee eal Fluid movements and terminal velocity Sets ‘The meaning and calculation of impulse (A level)EU REFERENCE Ce RRA Re nS) tem] 120 Sty Raat sy | Explain the distinction between scalar and vector quantities. | Distinguish between speed and velocity and define acceleration. Calculate values using equations for velocity and acceleration, ‘Movement is fundamental to the functioning of our universe. Whether you are running to catch a bus or want to calculate the speed required for a rocket to travel to Mars or the kinetic energy of an lection in an X-ray machine, you need to be able to work out how fast things are moving, RATE OF MOVEMENT One of the simplest things we ean measure is how fast an object is moving, You can calculate an object's speed if you know the amount of time taken to move a certain distance: _ sistance speed (ms) =e) t However: the calculation for speed will only tell you how fast an object is moving. Often its also vitally important ta know in what direction this movement is taking the abject. When you include the direction in the information about the rate of movement of an object, ths is then known as the & eA Thesenaiestsne velocity. So, the velocity is the rate of change of displacement, where the distance in a particular acteleraing io. high speed. _—_ direction is called the ‘displacement ‘The upper case Greek leter delta is used in mathematics on to indicate a change ina ‘quantity. For example, As means the change in the displacement ofan object, to be used here to calculate the velocity ofthe object. ispacerent veloc (ne) SEEN ele DID You kNow? The troghopper, a 6mm long insect, can accelerate at ‘dooms! fig The isplacemen: due nor only 75m. whist he a velocity due north is much kes than the actual speed, distance ths atte has runs 300m, So the ‘A quantity for which the direction must be stated is known as a vector. If direction is not important, [ELD «te messuremencis tered to asa scalar quantity. Therefore, veloc isa vector and speeds a Nene Ga TTeas ta scalar: distance is a scalar and displacement is a vector vectors are written in bold type to distinguish them from scalar variables, Sealar and vector quantities are not limited to measurements related to mavement. Every measured quantity can be classified to include the direction (vector, eg force) or as being sufficiently stated by its magnitude only (scalar, e.g, mass).CO AVERAGE AND INSTANTANEOUS SPEED In most journeys it is unlikely that speed will remain constant throughout. As part of his training programme, an athlete in fig A wants to keep a record of his speed for all races, From rest, bbefore the starting gun stars the race, he accelerates to a top speed. However, the race timing will be made from star to finish, ‘and so it is most useful to caleulate an average speed over the ‘whole race. Average speed is calculated by dividing the total cistance for ajourney by the total time forthe journey. Thus it averages out the slower and faster parts of the journey, and even includes stops. Instantaneous speed can be an important quantity, and we will look at how to measure it in the next topic, A. fig Most speed checks look tinstantaneous spd, but CCTV allows police 19 monttor average speed over along distance ACCELERATION Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity ‘Therefore, it must include the direction in which the speed is changing, and so acceleration isa vector quantity. The equation defining acceleration is: change in velocity (ms) ‘acceleration (ms) oe taken to change the velocity () or ‘where wis the initial velocity and vis the final velocity ‘The vector nature of acceleration is very important. One of the ‘consequences is that if an object changes only the direction of, its velocity it s accelerating, while remaining at a constant speed. Similarly, deceleration represents a negative change in velocity ‘and so could be stated as a negative acceleration. OREM A UTE we Uy 1" EXAM HINT ‘Whit accelerations can (very bref be extraordinarily high ke that for the electron in question 3(0) no speed or velocity can ever be seater than the speed of ight which is3 = 10m" fyoucalculate a speed thats higher than this, check your calculation again as it must be wrong, Cea uy Send 1. The athlete in fig B has taken 36 seconds from the stat to reach the 200 m mark as shown. Calculate: (a) his average speed during this 36 seconds (b) his average velocty due north during this 36 seconds (@)his average velocty due east during this 36 seconds, 2. Adriver ina car wavaling at about 40.2km sees a cat run ‘onto the road ahead, (a) Convert 40.2 kmh" into a speed in ms (b) The car travels 16 m whilst the driver is reacting to the danger What i his reaction time? (The car comes toa stop in 2.55, What ists deceleration? 3. Anclectron inan X-ray machine is accelerated from rest to half the speed of ight in 1.7 10", Calculate: (a) the speed the elecron reaches in ms" (b) the acceleration the electron experiences BIeaa een speed the rate of change of distance: speed (ms Semen mae t velocity the rate of change of displacement displacement (m) velocity 5 = oR ? at displacement the vector measurement of distance in certain direction vector a quantity that must have both magnitude and direction scalar a quantity that has magnitude only average speed speed for a whole journey, calculated by dividing the total distance fora journey by the total time forthe journey: average speed (ms), instantaneous speed the speed at any particular instant in time on journey, which can be found from the gradient ofthe tangent toa Gistance-time graph at that ime acceleration the vector defined as the rate of change of velocity change in velocity (m=) time taken to change the velocity) acceleration (ms)War ONTO Vat abe) ey eR) ta Ta Interpret displacement-time graphs, velocity-time graphs and acceleration-time graphs. I Make calculations from these graphs. |B Understand the graphical representations of accelerated motion, ‘One of the best ways to understand the movements of an abject ‘whilst on a journey isto plot a graph ofthe postion of the object ‘overtime. Such graph is knowm asa displacement-time grap. A velocity-time graph will also provide detail about the "movements involved, A velocity-time graph can be produced from direct measurements of the velocity or generate from calculations made using the displacement-time graph, DISPLACEMENT-TIME GRAPHS If we imagine a boat trip on a river we could monitor the location of ‘the boat over the hour that it travels for and plot the displacement time graph for these movements. Depending on what information ‘we want the graph to provide, its often simpler to draw a distance~ time graph in which the direction of movement is ignored, ‘The graphs shown in fig A are examples of plotting position ‘against time, and show how a distance-time graph cannot decrease with time. A displacement-time graph could have parts of it in the negative portions of the axis if the movement went Inthe opposite direction at some points in time. Osstarce-tme gah EU REFERENCE EEeREENeC a) Comat) ‘The simplest thing we could find from these graphs is how far an ‘object has moved in a certain time. For example in fig A, both the ‘graphs show that in the first 15 minutes the boat moved 150m, Looking at the time from 40 to 48 minutes, both show that the bboat travelled 120 m, but the displacement—time graphis in the negative region of the y-axis, showing the boat was snaving down river from the starting point ~ the opposite direction to the places ithad been in the fist 40 minutes. During the period from 20 0 25 minutes. both graphs have a flat line ata constant valu, that shows no change in te distance or cdsplacement. This means the boat was not moving ~ a ft line on ‘a distancetime (2-1) graph means the object is stationary. From 20 to 25 minutes on the velocity-time (v2) graph ofthis journey (sce fig B) the line would be at a velocity of Om s~ ‘SPEED AND VELOCITY FROM dt GRAPHS ‘The gradient of the di graphs in fig A will ell us how fast the boat was moving, Gradient is found from the ratio of changes in the y-axis divided by the corresponding change on the x-axis, so: for a distance-time graph: = speed (ms) fora dsplacement-time graph clsplacement() ace = Braden ame) Jocity (ms!) vat at oO Time Jin |. figA. Acomparson ofthe displacement-time gaph of he boat trip up and down ‘sown wer 160: li yr with is coresponding dstance-tme graphro For example, the fist 15 minutes of the boat trip in fig A. represents a time of 900 seconds. In ths time, the boat traveled 150m. Its velocity is: Ae _150 ae VELOCITY—TIME GRAPHS Avvelocity—time graph will show the velocity of an object over time. We calculated that the velocity of the boat on the river was (0.167 ms™* up river forthe first 15 minutes of the journey. Looking at the graph in fig B, you can see that the line is constant at #0167 ms" forthe first 15 minutes. Also notice that the velocity axis includes negative values, so that the difference between travelling up river (positive y-axis values) and down river (negative paxis values) can be represented, 900 167 ms" up river Veosty/ms 02. on Tre an; rites A. fig. Velociy-tene graph ofthe bost tp, ACCELERATION FROM v—t GRAPHS ‘Acceleration is defined as the rate of change in velocity. In order to calculate the gradient of the line on a v-r graph, ‘we must divide a change in velocity by the corresponding time difference. This exact'y matches with the equation for acceleration: araciont = AY. acceleration eres fl For example, between 15 and 20 minutes on the graphs, the boat slows evenly toa stop. The acceleration here can be calculated as the gradient: av, gradient - 3Y 167 167 300 = -0.0006 ms? 17 5x60 5-06 x 10%ms So the acceleration is DISTANCE TRAVELLED FROM v-tGRAPHS Speed is defined as the rate of change in distance: ‘As the axes on the vt graph represent velocity and time, an area ‘on the graph represents the multiplication of velocity x time, which gives distance. Soto find the distance travelled from a v-1 ‘graph, find the area between the line and the x-axis, Velocy/ms 02: a4 tine po Amates ~oa -021 ae A fig Inthe fist 1S minutes (600 seconds the dizance waved bythe boat moving at 0.167 ms" given by the area between the ne andthe eas =v {= 0167 «900 T50m If we are only interested in finding the distance moved. this also \works for a negative velocity You find the area ftom the line up to the time axis. Tis idea wil stil work fora changing velocity. Find the area under the line and you have found the distance travelled, For example, from 0 to 20 minutes, the area under the line, all the ‘way down to the axis, is a trapezium, so we need to find that area,'To calculate the whole distance travelled in the journey for the first 40 minutes, we would have to find the areas under the four separate stages (015 minutes; 15-20 minutes; 20-25 ‘minutes: and 25~40 minutes) and then add these four answers togetherPOR) Lo PRACTICAL SKILLS cpt Finding the acceleration due to ‘gravity by muttiflash photography Using a multiflash photography technique, ora video recording that ‘ean be played back frame by frame, ‘we can observe the faling motion of a small object such asa marble see fig D). We need to know the time between frames. From each image of the ling, ‘object, measure the distance has fallen from the scale in the picture. A.carefly drawn distance-time ‘graph will sow a curve asthe object accelerates From this curve, take regular measurements of the ‘gradient by drawing tangents to the ‘curve, These gradients show the instantaneous speed at each point on the curve A figd Muth photography lows usto ‘apuarethe accelerating ‘movement ofan object fling under gray Platting these speeds ona velocity-time graph should show a straight lin, as the acceleration due to gravity is a constant value. The gradient ‘of the line on this v-t graph willbe the acceleration due to gravity, 9. ‘Safety Note: Persons with medical conditions such as epilepsy or migraine may be adversely affected by multilash photography. ‘The weight of a skydiver is constant. so the resutant force wil be ‘decreasing throughout, which means that the acceleration will also reduce (see Section 14.5). The curve would look like that in fig E ‘See Section 24.4 for more details on falling objects and terminal velocity EXAM HINT Remember that the gradient of a distance-time graph represents ‘peed or velocity. So ifthe line is curved, the changing gradient indicates a changing speed, which you can describe as the same as, ‘the changes in gradient ree eae as to 1. Describe in as much detail as you can, including calculated values, what happens in the bicycle journey shown on the d-t raph in fig F ©. 50 Bistence/m s ACCELERATION-TIME GRAPHS Acceleration-time graphs show how the acceleration of an object changes over time. In many instances the acceleration is zero or ‘a constant value, in which case an acceleration-time (a) graph is Ikely o be of relatively tle interest, For example, the object falling in our investigation above will be accelerated by gravity throughout. Assuming its relatively small, air resistance wil be minimal, and the a~¢ graph of its motion would be a horizontal line at a = ~9.81 ms, Compare this with your results to see how realistic itis to ignore ar resistance. For a larger abject falling for a long period, such as a skydive then the acceleration will change over time as the air resistance increases with speed ° % & Hus 2 6 -8 ‘A. MBE. Acceleraton-time graph fora syne. 510 2 a4 Tine /e A. fig Disiancesine graph of bike journey, 2. Describe in as much detail as you can, including calculated values, what happens in the car journey shown on the v-t graph infigs. 104 ae a) Tine/s A MigG Velociy-2me g 3. From fig B, calculate the distance travelled by the boat from 4010.60 minutes, BYE aaa nso displacement-time graph a graph showing the positions visited on a Journey, with displacement on the y-axis and time on the x-axis. ‘velocty-time graph a graph showing the velocities ona journey, with velocity on the y-axis and time on the x-axis {gradient the slope of line or surfaceoP Wee) mee ats) eR ty alas I Add two or more vectors by drawing, I Add two perpendicular vectors by calculation, Forees are vectors. This means that measuring their magnitude is important, but equally important is knowing the direction in which they act. In order to calculate the overall effect of multiple forces acting on the same object. we can use vector addition to work ‘out the resultant force, This resultant force can be considered ‘as a single force that has the same effect as all the individual forces combined ADDING FORCES IN THE SAME LINE f two or more forces are acting along the same line, then ‘combining them is simply a case of adding or subtracting their ‘magnitudes depending on their directions. ——__ in — + arsine » sain 1 $$ ge sires faa 100 ADDING PERPENDICULAR FORCES ‘The effect on an object of two forces that are acting at right angles (perpendicular) to each other will be the vector sum of their individual effects. We need to add the sizes with consideration forthe directions in order to find the resultant. focces inthe same line requies aco EPL REFERENCE Per 136 MAGNITUDE OF THE RESULTANT FORCE ‘To calculate the resultant magnitude of two perpendicular forces, ‘we can dravr them, one after the other, as the two sides of @ Fight-angled triangle and use Pythagoras’ theorem to calculate the size of the hypotenuse. stent = 1300 THON fig The resultant force hee is caeulated using Pythagoras theore F (0) - 130N DIRECTION OF THE RESULTANT FORCE ‘As forces are vectors, when we find a resultant force it must have ‘both magnitude and direction, For perpendicular forces (vectors) trigonometry will determine the direction, Fesutant = 190N, Eun ‘Always take care to state where the angle fora vector’ direction is ‘measured. For example in fig D, the angle should be stated 2s 32° up {rom the horizontal. This is most easily expressed on a diagram ofthe ‘uation, where you draw in the angle. ADDING TWO NON-PERPENDICULAR FORCES ‘The geometry of perpendicular vectors makes the calculation of the resultant simple. We can find the resultant of any two vectors by drawing one after the other, and then the resultant will be the third side of the triangle from the stare of the fist one to the end of the second one. A scale drawing of the vector triangle will, allow measurement of the size and direction of the resultantPees} 70N TON A. figG Free-bod force cgram ofa rugby player red crcl). forces rom the aces are marked on ae force arows EXD wo Lo ‘THE PARALLELOGRAM RULE ‘There is another method for finding the resultant of two nor-perpendicular forces (or vectors) by scale drawing, which can be easier to use, This is called the parallelogram rule, Draw the two vectors to scale ~ at the correct angle and scaled so their length represents the magnitude — starting from the same point. Then draw the same two vectors again parallel to the original ones, so that they form. a parallelogram, as shove in fig F. The resultant force (or vector) will be the diagonal across the parallelogram from the starting point. 4E0N A. fig Finding the resultant vector using te para EXAM HINT ‘The vector action rues shown on these pages work forall vectors, not just forces. They are useful only for co-planar vectors, which means vectors that ae inthe same plane. fwe have more than two vectors that are in more than one plane, add two vectors together ist. in their plane, and then add the resutant tothe ext vector using these rues again, Keep doing this until all the vectors have been added in, jogam we. FREE-BODY FORCE DIAGRAMS If we clarify what forces are acting on an object, itcan be simpler to calculate how it will move. To do this, we usually draw a free-body force diagram, which has the object isolated, and all the forces that act on it dravm in at the points where they act. Forces acting on other objects, and thase other objects, are not drawn. For example, fig G could be said to be a free-body force diagram ofthe rugby player being tackled in fig B, and this would lead us to draw fig C and fig D to make our resultant calculations 11. Work out the resultant force on a toy car ifit has the following forces acting on it + rubber band motor driving forwards 84 + airresistance 05 N + fiction S8N + child hand pushing forward 10N. 2. Asasmall plane accelerates to takeoff the lift force on it is 6O00N vertically upwards, whilst the ‘thrusts 2800 N horizontally forwards, Whats the resultant ofthese forces on the plane? 3. Drawa free-body force diagram of yours sitting on your chal (a) Draw the scale diagram of fig E, and work out what the resultant force would be (6) Use the parallelogram rule, a in fig, to check your answer to part (a) 5. Inorder to try and recover a car stuck in a muddy field, two tractors pull on it.The fist acts at an angle of 20° lft ofthe forwards direction with aforce of 2250.N. The second acts 15° to the right of ‘the forwards direction witha force of 2000 N Draw a scale diagram of the situation and find the resultant force on the stuck ca BTeaa oa resultant force the total force (vector sum) acting on a body when all the forces are added together accounting for their directions free-body force diagram diagram showing an object isolated, and al the forces that acton tare drawn in at the points where they act, using arrows to represent the forces1A 4MOMENTS PUN CRO eae Sy PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS 1 Calculate the moment of a force. | Apply the principle of moments. I Find the centre of gravity of an object. Forces on an abject could act so that the object does not start to ‘move along, but instead rotates about a fixed pivot. If the object is fixed so that it cannot rotate, it will bend, THE MOMENT OF A FORCE fig force acts on a beam fed at a pont. The moment ofa free ses otaton on ths case, bending ‘The tendency to cause rotation is called the moment of a force. Its calculated from: ‘moment (Nm = force (N} x perpendicular distance from the pivot to theline of action ofthe force (ms) co moment = Fe weit wait {figB_ The calculation of moment only consdes the perpendicular distance beiyeen the line of action of the force and te ani of rotation through the pvot point, When fee to rotate, a booy wil tum inthe 4.2me 42% 0766 32m! A. AEC Finding the components of veloiy ‘THE HORIZONTAL COMPONENT OF VELOCITY ‘Similarly, for the horizontal component, we can use the relationship: sin 40" 2 vpn 42 x sin 40" = 4.2% 0.643 ve27ms! Leen ae tan & = oppositefadjacent ws <= __>, adjacent A. figb nigooomety reminderCO PEs ‘Resolving vectors could also be achieved using a scale diagram, Using this method in rough work may help you to get an idea as to what the answer should be in order to check that your calculations are about fight ALTERNATIVE RESOLUTION ANGLES If we know the velocity of an object, we have seen that we can resolve ths into a pair of velocity vectors at right angles to each ‘ther The choice of direction of the right-angle pair, though, is arbitrary, and can be chosen to suit a given situation. Imagine a submarine descending underwater close to an angled seabed, A AIEE. Rasolvng submarine velocty vectrs helps to avoid clision. ‘The velocity could be resolved into a pair of vectors, horizontal and vertical, ubmarne velooty.v = voos 45° Yan van ae (A. figF Submarine veloctyressived into hotizontal and vertical components However, the submarine commander is likely to be most interested, in knowing how quickly the submarine is approaching the seabed, ‘This could be found by resolving the velocity of the submarine {nto a component parallel with the seabed, and the right-angled palr with that will be a component perpendicular to the seabed. It 1s this Vj that Will tell the submarine commander haw quickly he is approaching the seabed. Peacoat) submarine veloc, v A figGSubmanne velocity rsolved ita components paral and perpendicular to the seabed (EI ‘The vectors produced by resolution can be at any angle with respect ‘to the original vector, as long as they are perpendicular to each other and their resultant equals the original vector In order to allow for every par to add up to the original vector, their magnitudes wll vary asthe angle changes, Cea Us EEE wrenencranon (@) On graph paper, draw a velocity vector fora stone fred from a catapult at 45° to the horizontal, Your arrow should be 10cm long, representing a velocity of 10s”. Draw onto your diagram the horizontal and vertical components that would make up the overall velocity, Use a ruler to measure the size ofthe horizontal and vertical components, and Convert these lengths into meties per second using the same scaling. (b) Find the horizontal and vertical velocity components for this catapultstone by calculation, and compare with your answers fom part (2 2, Ajavelins thrown at 16ms" at an angle of 35° up from the horizontal, Calculate the horizontal and vertical components of the javelins motion. 33. ladder s leant against a wall, at an angle of 28"to the wal ‘The 440N force from the floor acs along the length of the ladder Calculate the horizontal and vertical components of the force from the floor that act onthe bottom of the ladder. 4. Aplane is fying at 240 ms", on a bearing of 125* from due orth, Calculate it velocity component due south, and its velocity component due east. BT resolution or resolving vectors the determination ofa pair of vectors at right angles to each other, that sums to give the single vector they were resolved from catapult a device that can throw objects at high speed1A 8 PROJECTILES ey eR) ta Ta 1 Apply kinematics equations to moving objects. 1 Apply the independence of horizontal and vertical motion to objects moving freely under gravity. Combine horizontal and vertical motion to calculate the movernents of projectiles. ‘Objects thrown or fred through the air generally follow projectile motion. Here we are going to combine ideas from the various, carlier sections in order to solve questions about projectiles. Resolving vectors shoved that the actions in each of two perpendicular directions are wholly independent. This means we can use Newton’ laws of motion and the kinematics equations separately for the horizontal and vertical motions of the same objec. ‘This wil allow us to calculate its overall motion in two dimensions ‘We only consider the motion after the force projecting an object has finished — for example alter a cannonball has left the cannon. Air resistance is ignored in these calculations so the only force acting wall be the object's weight. Thus, all vertical motion wil flaw kinematics equations, with gravity as the acceleration, There will be no horizontal fee at al, which means no acceleration and therefore = s/t (eT Vectors acting at right angles to each other act independent, Their combined effect can be calculated using vector addition, but they can also be considered to act separately and atthe same time. This would cause independent effects, which themselves could then be combined to see an overall effect. PET Physics i holistic: you can apply ideas from one area of physics to other areas of physics Remember that physics ia set of rules that attempts to explain everything inthe universe. Every rule should ‘therefore be universally applicable, HORIZONTAL THROWS: If an object is thrown horizontally it will tart off with zero vertical velocity However gravity will act on it so that its motion will curve downwards in a parabola shape, lke the scone in fig A. In the example of fig A. a stone is kicked horizontally off cliff with a velocity of 8.2ms~, How much time is the stone in fight? How far does it get away from the cliff by the time it lands? Horizontal and vertical motions are totally independent. Here the vertical component of velocity is initially zero, but the stone accelerates under gravity. Uniform acceleration means the kinematics equations can be used. EU Catt ceREtd A fig Vertical acceleration on a horizontally mouing stone ‘The time to hit the beach, willbe the same as ifthe stone was simply dropped. We know u = Oms~' a= -9.81ms~, and the height fallen, = ~60:m, se ute la u=0s.ut+0 Horizontally, there is no accelerating force once the stone is in fight, so it has a constant speed. Thus, to find the distance travelled horizontally, d d=vxe d= 82%35. 4=287m RECOMBINING VELOCITY COMPONENTS Inthe example of the stone kicked from the cliff to the beach, ‘we might also want to calculate the final velocity of the stone on landing. This means adding vertical and horizontal components into their resultant. Yocom” 82M" A. figB The stones final velocty is he resultant fs vertical and horzotalCO Inthe example of fig A. whats the velocity of the stone when it hits the beach? ‘The horizontal velocity was given as 82m“ To calculate the vertical velocity: w=Oms'; a= -981ms™, and s= ~60m. w+ 2a5=0°+ (2-981 x -60)= 11772 Pythagoras’ theorem gives the magnitude of the final velocity: v= (B29 3439) v=353ms" ‘Trigonometry wil give the angle at which the stone is fying on Impact with the beac M3 82 ome tan ‘The stone’s velocity when itlands on the beach is 35.3 metres per second at an angle of 77° daw from the horizontal, EXAM HINT We use the usual approach that up is postive throughout this section You can choose any direction to be negative, but you must refer to that direction as negative at every step ofthe calculation. If you are ‘not consistent, your calculation willbe incorrect. VERTICAL THROWS: Imagine throwing a ball to a fiiend. The ball goes up as well as forwards, One common idea in these calculations is that an object thrown with a vertical upwards component of motion will have a symmetrical trajectory. At the highest point, the vertical velocity {is momentarily zero, Getting to this point wil take half of the time Of the whole fight highest point BABE Consice In the example of fig C, a ball is throwin witha vertical velocity ‘component of 5.5m", How much time is it in light? How high does it get? "These questions would have the same answer if a person threw the ball vertically up and caught it again themselves. This again. highlights the independence of horizontal and vertical motions. It ‘may be that an intial velocity at an angle is quoted, so that we need to resolve the velocity veetor into its horizontal and vertical ‘components in order to know that here Vaszy = 5.55" ig oly the vertical component ofveloty. aes eats) 29 Consider the second question first: uniform acceleration under gravity means @ = ~9.81ms-* and the kinematies equations can be used. We know w= 5.5ms°': at the top of the path, v= Ors"; and we want to find the height, s. vews2as 2a 26-981 s2154m Note that 1.54 metres is actully the height the ball reaches above the point of release at which it lef the hand ~ the point wire its inital speed was 5.5m"? — but this soften ignored in projectiles calculations. ‘The time of fght fr the ball willbe jst the time taken to rise and fal vertically. We find the time to each the highest pont, and then double that value. We know w = 5.5 ms~ atthe top of the path, y= Oms"': and we want to find the time, veurat vw 0-155) ' 10565, So the overall time of fight will be 0.56 seconds doubled: total time = L125. EXAM HINT. For vitually al projectile motion calculations, we assume that there is no ar resistance, so the only force acting is gravity, vertically downwards, eee PROBLEM SOLVING 1. Aboy throws a all vertically at a velocity of 48 ms" (a) How long is it before he catches it again? (b) What wil be the balls greatest height above the point of release? 2. The boy in question 1 now throws his ball horizontally out ofa high window witha velocity of 1 ms" (a) How long wil it take to reach the ground 18m below? (b) How faraway, horizontally, should his friend stand in order tocatch the ball? A basketoallis thrown with a velocity of .0ms" atan angle of 40" to the vertical, towards the hoop. (a) ifthe hoop is 0.90 m above the point of release, wil the ball rise high enough to go in the hoop? (b) the centre ofthe hoop is 2.00 m away, horizontally, fram the point of release, explain whether or not you believe this throw wil score inthe hoop. Support your explanation with calculations Bteteaa ea projectile a moving abject on which the only force of significance: acting is gravity. The trajectory is thus pre-determined by its initial velocity1A THINKING BIGGER THE BATTLE OF AGRA FOOTE, ICAL kta AoBLEN sxe ANALYSIS, WTERPRETATION, [ADAPTIVE LEARNING, PRODUCTIVITY, ETHICS, COMMUNICATION, [ASSERTIVE COMMUNICATION ‘Agra Fort was built in the 11th Century, although the present structure was builtin 1573. In this activity, you need to imagine attacking the fort using a cannon that fires a cannonball as a projectile. essa A. fig Agra Fortis now an UNESCO Word Hertage St, In this section, I will use some basic mechanics to answer a question: could the Mughal Empire artillery really have attacked Agni Fortin the way described previously’ The nineteenth ‘century source material suggests that the fortress was under iege by the Mughals for three months and “battered by antllery’. However, the current walls bear litle inthe way of ‘obvious battle sears Looking at fig B, the question that needs to be answered here is How high up the front wall ofthe fortress will the cannonball hit?" This height is marked on fig Bas“ = 160m A. FEB The wajectory ofa cannonball fred towards Aga Fon. \We assume the cannanbal leaves the cannon a ground eve, {In addition to the layout shown in fig B, we need information ‘about the initial velocity of the cannonball. The eannon explosion could aet for 0.05 to accelerate the cannonball (onass = 12kg) with a force of 9300N. It causes the cannonball to leave the cannon at an angle of 45° tothe horizontal. Steps to the answer ‘We can work out what calculations are required to solve this problem, by working back from the answer we want to find ‘The fundamental idea is thatthe parabola trajectory would be ‘symmetrical ifthe flight was not interrupted by crashing into the fortress wall | To find the height up the wall from the ground, we will need to work out how far dawn from the cannonballs maximum height i alls: H= hight 2 To find hi, we need to know the time of fight, fy SO We ccan divide ths into time to reach fs and time left to fall hncight fr. We will use vertical gravitational acceleration to caleulate the vertical dop in that remaining time: fat From fig B, we can sce that s= 150m, 3 Va) CAM be found by resolving the velocity to give the horizontal component: 4 The overall velocity will come from the cannon’s acceleration ofthe cannonball veutar ‘where w= Oms-', and the question tells us that the explosion acts for 0.05 seconds, ‘5. Newton's second law of motion gives us the aeceleration ‘caused by the sling: Calculate the answer by reversing these ste ‘The acceleration caused by the explosion:CO Be Eee ered 1 The extract opposite is a draft for a university essay about the Mughal siege of 1857 Consider the extract and comment on the type of writing being used. For example, think about whether ths sa scientist reporting the results oftheir experiments, a scientific review of data, a newspaper or a magazine-style article for a specific audience. Try and answer the following questions (2) How can you tell thatthe author is doubtful about the historical source material? (b) What isthe purpose of this mathematical analysis, for its inclusion in this essay? sean Now we will look atthe physics in detail. You may need to combine concepts from different areas of physics to work out the answers. 2 Complete the calculation steps, in reverse as suggested, in order to find out the answer, H: {@) the acceleration caused by the explosion (b) overall velocity hat the cannonballs projected from the cannon {€) horizontal and vertical components ofthe velocity {@) time of fight found from the horizontal travel {e) time to reach maximum height using vertical motion (0) remaining fight time from maximum height (g) height fallen from the maximum in the remaining fight time (h) final answer, H. 3 State two assumptions that have been made in these calculations. 4 Calculate what difference there would be in the answer ifthe cannon was loaded with diferent cannonballs of masses 10kg and 14kg. Note from fig B thatthe fortress walls are 24m high. Comment on these answers. 5 Ifthe available supply of cannonballs offered very variable masses, how might the Mughals. be able to overcome the problems shown in question 4 rN) Imagine the writer of this essay isa friend of yours, and he has come to you for help with the calculations as he isnot an experienced scientist. His section ‘Steps to the answer was taken from a research source about.a different fortress under siege. Write an email 1o Claus to explain the calculations required in each step. L ET (iene ‘Once you have answered the ‘calculation questions below, decide whether you think the ‘Mughal siege happened as the author suggests. Inside a cannon, an explosion ‘exerts a force on the cannonball 1 fireitout of the cannon. You can assume that the writer understands mathematics, and is generally intelligent ~a student who could have done Level physics but preferred arts subjects