II 140b he asked people 4 1) What do we do when we are asked a question about a part of an object that is not noteworthy, and what affects the speed with which we can answer more unusual que: objects and things? Keywords Fs ‘Ceompestion HO) 89 DY voreonpa yo umsu woumy Z16z. TOST A msceeye wy pom I 131a KUMON Name: Explaining the Summary Process 9 Date: ss How the Mind Works Time: = MME This is an extract from How the Mind Works by Steven Pinker. Read the passage and then do the exercise, IMAGINE THAT! hat shape are a beagle’s ears? How many windows are in y | stands up straight, is her navel above her wrist? If the letter D is tures on its back and put on top of a J, what does the combination remin you of? Most people say that they answer these questions using a “mental f image.” They visualize the shape, which feels like con picture available for inspection in the mind’s eye. The feeling is q iberties or a lower rate of crime?” Mental imagery isthe engine that drives our thinking about objets | \ arrangements before we try them. Thi anthropologist Napoleon Chagnon described an ingenious use of mental imagery by the Yanomam6 Indians of the Amazon rainforest. They bat ‘blown smoke down the opening of an armadillo hole to asphyxiate th animal, and then had to figure out where to dig to extract it from it tunnel, which could run underground for hundreds of feet. One of th |} Yanomamé men hit on the idea of threading a long vine with a knot at the end down the hole as far as it would go. The other men kep their ears to the ground listening for the knot bumping the sides of th burrow so they could get a sense of the direction in which the burrow ran. The first man broke off the vine, pulled it out, laid it along the | ground, and began to dig where the end of the vine lay. A few feet { down they struck armadillo, Without an ability to visualize the tunnel and the vine and armadillo inside i, the men would not have connected |I 131b I 132a KUMON Explaining the Summary Process 9 How the Mind Works MIN Read the passage, and then complete the summary and ‘summary process. (1) and Complete the following passage, which gives an explanation of the passage above. [S each] | inva joke we used to tell as children, two carpenters are hammering n into the side of @ hot The author of How the Mind Works, Steven Pinker, is a professor of replies the second carpenter, holding one up. The pointy end is facing the wrong way.” “You fool!” shouts the first Those are forthe other side of the hou: But people do not use imagery just to rearrange the furniture or dig | up armadillos. The eminent psychologist D. O. Hebb once wrote, “You | psychology and a world-renowned expert on language and visual cognition, is part of the book he looks at one of the more mysterious aspects of the human mind, 89 aI vonrnpg Jo amsH woUNY 2102 If someone asks us to solve a problem related to a real, as opposed to an can hardly tam around in psychology without bumping into the imag 7 . thing, we often use the visual part of our brain. To | Give people a list of nouns to memorize, and they will imagine them interacting in bizarre images. Give them fa introduce this concept to us the author asks a series of questions that require | a flea have a mou Us to particular shapes and objects, such as a beagle’s ears, | the mouth, And, of course, orientation, and they a lobster’s head and letters of the alphabet. The author also draws on the Many creative people claim to “ to show that mental imagery is a research of an 4, - ized electromagnetic saw the benzene ring in a reverie of snakes biting their tails. Watson and Crick mentally rotated how some Amazonian tribesmen use a combination of vine and mental models of what was to become the double helix. Einstein imagined imagery to find and extract an asphyxiated ___ fromts tunnel. what it would be like to ride on @ beam of light or drop a penny in a universal trait among humans. In this case, the research he uses focuses on ts visualize scenes and plots in their mind’s eye before putting pen to pape Images drive the emotions as well as the wrote, “Cowardice, as distinguished from pani | Hemingway almost alwaysIM 132b srousal, and jealous rage can there. IsuMMARY] Ina joke about two carpenters one carpenter tells the other that he is throwing half of the wrong way, but the other explains that they are for the other side of the house. But people do not use imagery just to rearrange furniture or dig up away because the pointy end is facing armadillos, they will also 2, interacting in bizarre images, visualize a flea when asked if fleas have by imagining them mouths and rotate an unfamiliarly orientated shape to a more familiar one. 5} = Images drive the emotions as well as the intellect: ambition, anxiety, sexual arousal and jealous rage can all be triggered by them. + Morking box or [eer worse [comportion 10) ISUMMARY PROCESS] «This summary emphasises the main issue that the author wants to discuss: that » comes into play inds of situations. + The topic of 3) is: how scientists, ») and novelists use 6) {19 ADM. voqeoNpG 0 amgSHT VOU, ZOE I 133a KUMOQN a Explaining the Summary Process 9. Dat 1 L How the Mind Works Tine = IMI Read the passage, and then complete the summary and summary process. [1) and 2)-5; 3) see marking box; 4) to 6) | tm one experiment, volunteers were hooked up to imagine their mates being unfaithful. The brow showed 7.75 microvolts units of contra heart rates accelerated by five beats per minute, equivalent to drinking ‘many experiences at atime, no { a mental simulation espe: | Imagery isan industry. Courses on How to Improve Your Memory teach age-old tricks like imagining items in the rooms of your house } | Sa thn mentally walking trough or ning vis alusion in | | patson's name and linking ito his fae (yo ee inoue 0 me, | i { you would imagine me ina cerise ). Phobias are often treated ning where an image substitu and then imagines the snake or eB the bell. The the image—and, by exte i the relaxation. Highly paid “sports psyche does the visualizing. (A woman once called to ask if | thought it would ‘work over the Internet.) ‘But what is a mental image? Many philosophers with behaviorist” sanings think the whole idea is terrible blunder. An image is supposed hen you would needa litle man etcetera, the computational theory of mind makes | | ooI 133b [SUMMARY] An experiment that asked volunteers to imagine their mates being unfaithful resulted in increased )_____, contraction ‘of a brow muscle and accelerated heart rates, and although the imagination revives many experiences, the visual image makes a mental simulation especially vivid. Imagery is an industry—courses on How to Improve Your Memory focus on imagining items in rooms of your house, or linking a», in a person’s name with his face; phobias are treated by a kind of Pavlovian conditioning; and “sports psychologists” have athletes visualize the perfect swing—but some techniques are flaky, and 1 am sceptical of cancer therapies in which patients visualize antibodies munching the tumour. + Mexking box for3) [kev words 101 ‘Compestion 1101 [SUMMARY PROCESS] “This summary emphasises examples of imagery that lead the author to ask: “s i + The topic of 3) is: how the », makes the notion of mental images « {89 Dt vomronpg Jo amnsiy Youn, Z102 134 I 134a KUMON Explaining the Summary Process 9 How the Mind Works Tine: = MIN Feed the passage, and then complete the summary and summary process. |!) and 2)-5; 3) see marking box; 4) to 6)-5] represented by in some of the elements in a patter eee ont , of proposition in mentalese. In the le is above a circle, the words do not id, and they are not arranged so that | nearby words represent nearby points. Words like symmetrical and above can’t be pinned to any piece of the visual field; they denote complicated relationships among the filledin pieces One ean even make an educated guess about the anatomy of mental imagery. The incamation of a 2%-D sketch in neurons is ealed a | topographically organized cotal map: a patch of cortex in which | each neuron responds to contours in one part ofthe visual field, and in which neighboring neurons respond to neighboring pants. The primate Teast fifteen of these maps, and in a very real sense they | the head, Neuroseientists ean inject a monkey with | a radioactive isotope of glucose while it stares at a bull’s-eye. The | lucose is taken up by the active neurons, and one ean literally develop the monkey's brain as i it were a piece of film. It comes out of theI 134b { | neurons plugged into each cortical map. | [SUMMARY] Elements are arranged in two dimensions, while shapes are represented by filling in some elements in a pattern and shape-analysis mechanisms —__________. A mental image is simply a pattern in the -D sketch that is loaded from long-term memory, and a number of artificial intelligence programs are designed this way. This contrasts starkly with a where words do rot stand for points in the visual field and some, like symmetrical and above, denote complicated relationships among the filled-in pieces. ‘We can guess about the anatomy of mental imagery: a 2¥4-D sketch in neurons, called a topographically organized cortical map, is in a very real sense a picture in the head. 3) * Marking box for 3) Key woes _ 10) (compasien 0) [SUMMARY PROCESS] * This summary emphasises the author's explanation of s, and how they compare to language-like representations. * The topic of 3) is: how neuroscientists can literally 5, to prove that mental images exist a8 6 ina real sense. 89 AI. oxen aSU Youn, 2162.9 135 I 135a KUMON Name: Explaining the Summary Process 9 93t#: L L How the Mind Works Time: = MIN Read the passage, and then complete the summary and summary process. [I) and 2)-5; 3) see marking box; 4) to 6) 5] resumably space in the world is represented by space on the cortex ‘cause neurons ate connected to their neighbors, and it is handy for rearby bits of the world to be analyzed together. For example, edges wre not scattered across the visual field like rice but snake along a ine, and most surfaces are not archipelagos but cohesive masses. In al map, lines and surfaces can be handled by neurons that are interconnected. is also ready for the second computational demand of an imagery system, information flowing down from memory instead of ip from the eyes. The fiber pathways to the visual areas of the brain 1re tWo ways to find out. On 1e visual parts of the br | the first act of Richard I, the exiled Bolingbroke pines for his né ' | England. He inno comoled by 2 fiends segesion to eso | els im mor idle sumoundig: | (0, who can hold a fire in his hand { By thinking on the frosty Caucasus? { Or coy hanes. tangas By bases cena Cowal sets es sw By ukingensis en? Clearly an image is different from an experience of the real thing. Wiliam James sd tht images are “devoid of pungency and angeI 135b [SUMMARY] Space in the world is represented by space on the cortex because neurons are connected to their neighbours, and it is handy for nearby bits of the world, such as The brain of from the eyes, with two-way pathways that carry information from » to be analyzed together, Iso ready for information flowing from memory instead 2) _______ as well as from the sensory levels—they could be there to download memory images into visual maps. on In Richard IT Bolingbroke pines for England, but is not consoled by his friend's suggestion to fantasize, which demonstrates that an image is different from an experience of the real thing. William James said that images were “devoid of pungency and tang”, though psychologist Cheves \W. Perky did try to show that images were ike y by asking subjects to form a mental image on a wall. + Morking box [rer worse [SUMMARY PROCESS] summary emphasises the author's explanation of how the visual areas of the brain might be processing information from both » + The topic of 3) is: ways we can {85 aD vogeonpg 0 apsu Youn Z10e.0 196 I 136a KUMON Name: Explaining the Summary Process9 Sat) How the Mind Works Time: = (MIE Read the passage and then do the exercise, Perky claimed that they had incorporated the sI image, and indeed, the subjects reported details in thei image that could only have come from the slide, such asthe banana’ standing on end. It was not a great experiment by modem standards, | but state-of-the-art methods have borne out the crux ofthe finding, now the Perky effect: holding a mental image interferes with secin, and fine visual details. Imagery can affect perception in gross ways, too. When peopl answer questions about shapes from memory, like counting off the right angles in a block letter, their visual-motor coordination suffers. (Since learning about these experiments I try not to get too caught up in a hockey game on the radio while I am driving.) Ment lines can affect perception just as real lines do: they make iteasie to judge alignment and can even induce visual see some shapes and imagine others, later they sometimes have trouble remembering which was which. i So do imagery and vision share space in the brain? The i neuropsychologists Edoardo Bisiach and Claudio Luzzatti studied two | Milanese patients with damage to their right parietal lobes that left them with visual neglect syndrome. Their eyes register the whole visual field, but they attend only to the right half: they ignore the cutlery to | the left of the plate, draw a face with no left eye or nostril, and when describing a room, ignore large details—like a piano—on their left iI 136b The following passage retells and explains what has happened in the story so far. Choose the most appropriate words from the choices below to complete the passage. (5 each) The author explains th there are some yin which our minds use visual imagery, such as when we mentally move around furniture in a house to picture how it might look, and some less obvious ways, such as when people form strange » when they are given a list of random nouns to remember. But mental imagery is not just for 5, it can also alter our emotions and affect our bodies” motor skills. One experiment has shown that imagining an event can make our hearts beat faster—a sign of 4 —while others have proved that tasks that ‘equire us to form mental images of shapes or places, such as counting the number of right angles on a block letter, can hamper our visual-motor coordination. It seems as though the brain finds it hard to 5) and images from the eyes at the same time, which is perhaps why the author tries hockey games while driving. Process mental images / not to listen to / problem solving ‘emotional stimulation / mental pictures / obvious ways 89 any wonrenpa yo mpsH wou ZI0e— mer M1374 KUMON Name Nee Ee as Explaining the Summary Process 9 Oat yy How the Mind Works Tine: =: MIN Read the passage and then do the exercise. ‘curopsychologists) Bisiach and Luzzatti asked the patients [with | | visual neglect syndrome] to imagine standing in the Piazza del Duomo | in Milan facing the cathedral and to name the buildings in the piazza | The patients named only the buildings that would be | right—neglecting the let half of imaginary space! The [oe asked to mentally walk across the square and cathedral steps facing the piazza and describe wh mentioned the buildings that they had left out the -xamined real visual inputs. coveries implicate the visual brain as the seat of imagery ere has been a positive identification. The psychologist Stephen Kosslynand hiscolleagues used Positron Emission Tomography (PET scanning) to see which parts of the brain are most active when People have mental images. Each subject lay with his head in a ring ‘of detectors, closed his eyes, and answered questions about uppercase recto anies | ed large leters, in others, | cd the parts ofthe cortex ; pondering smal letters activated the parts representing the fovea. Images really do seem to be laid across the cortical surface, Could the activation be just a spillover of activity from other parts of the brain, where the re is being done? The psychologist Martha Farah showed that it isn’t, ‘ery US. sping fr reyI 137b The following passage retells and explains what has happened in the story so far. Choose the most appropriate words from the choices below to complete the passage. ‘The way our brains 4) mysterious. Instead of using attempts to exp! the process in terms of relatively simple systems. The 2) —_____—the system related to what we see field of vision are arranged in 3, shape-analysis mechanisms help us to recognise objects and shapes the image. ‘The author puts forward evidence that appears to prove that pats ofthe brain that deal with vision and imagery occupy 4) In one Italian experiment, it was found that patients who could attend only to the right half of their field of vision could attend only to the right half of their ‘And in another experiment, subjects who were thinking of answers to questions about the shape of letters were found to be using the part of the brain that processes ‘Visual system / mental images / two dimensions visual input / the same space / deal with imagery 99 aD woneonpg yo sane woxEN 21089 I 138a Explaining the Summary Process 9 How the Mind Works Time KUMON IM Read the passage and then do the exercise. {see marking box} | She [psychologist Mariha Farah ted @ woman's images before and after surgery that removed her vi { in one hemisphere. After the surgery, her mental images shrank to half their normal width. Mental images live in the visual cortex; indeed, i j | | parts of pictures, ‘an image is not an instant replay. It lacks that pungency and tang, though not because it has been bleached or watered down: imagi red is not like seeing pink. And curious! image sometimes caused more act Darts of images take up parts of cortex, just as parts of scenes take up | perception, are somchow different, and perhaps that is not surprisi Donald Symons notes that reactivating a visual experience may we have benefits, b from a dream, our id contaminating | Knowing where mental images are says little about what they are or hhow they work, Are mental images really patterns of pixels in a 2D array (oF patterns of active neurons in a cortical map)? If they are, how | do we think with them, and what would make imagery different fro! | any other form of thought? [see the next page]. The diagram collapses many bear has a head” and “The bear has the size XL,"13% Wie eure ow Prvemeeneng he tememary oeewae ¢ ot ample set oe te Went Wee t { ae | } i THe the Gassege he author aincunses Wwe MORE OF ne—ey Sar ene propsena: Modele Wha Be the distin feats OF wad of then’) Novem tm Reng ater y ta nn a gat Mt ae serenaI 138b to.a single network, The array is straightforward. Each pixel represents a small surface or boundary, period; anything more global or abstr implicitin the quite different is rep the spatial properties are factored apart and listed exp! arrangement of an object’s parts or geons) formation, ike parts and their Positions, with conceptual information, like bearhood and membership in the camivore class. | Lo tees ee neat 1) In this passage, the author discusses two models of imagery: arrays and propositional models. What are the distinctive features of each of them? Corpoation FO) Keywoor 0) {89 ADE eonronp jo aymsu wouny 2rae I 139a KUMON Explaining the Summary Process 9 How the Mind Works Time = IMI Read the passage and then do the exercise. [see marking box! Of the two data structures, itis the pictorial array that best capture the flavor'' of imagery, First, images are thumpingly concrete. Consid is request: Visualize a lemon and a banana n don’t imagine the lemon either to the right or t the banana, You will protest th and banana are next to each of ith no particular shape, | on. That is the beauty of a proposit images allows them to be co-opted as a gue computer. Amy is richer than Abigail; Alicia is not as mental image fro is work? The medium under isdedicated toeach location, fixed ina tw s of geometry for free. For example, space is transitive: if is to the left of B, and B {floor US. lig fiw 5a US pig tre1 139b f deductive steps. The problem becomes a matter of plop down an look up. It is a fine example of how the form of a mental representa jetermines what is easy or hard t0 1) Read the underlined part again. According to the author, which kind of data structure would most people use to solve this question, and how exactly would they go about solving it? Reywoes (0) Conposion [01 89 a ones amREH| WoUNY 3192 9 40 IM 140a KUMON Name: Explaining the Summary Process 9 L L How the Mind Works Te = WIE Read the passage and then do the exercise. ¥@ marking box] images also resemble arrays in shmooshing together size, one pattem of contours, rather assertions, Mental rotation isa n assessing an objects shape, a person cannot ignore | on—which would be a simple mater if orientation were | sequestered in its own statement. Instead, the person must nudge the | orientation gradually and watch as the shape changes. The orientation is not re-computed in one step | computer; the farther a shape is led," the longer the dialing” takes. There must be a rotator network overlaid on the array that shifts the contents of cells a few degrees around its center. Larger rotations require iterating the rotator, bucket-brigade style. Experiments on how people solve spatial problems have uncovered a well-stocked mental toolbox Finally, images capture the geometry of an object, not just its meaning, The surefire way of getting people to experience imagery is toask them about obscure details of an object's shape or coloring—the beagle's ears, the curves in the B, the shade of frozen peas. When a feature is noteworhy—cats have claws, bees have snge—we fle | it away as an explicit statement in our conceptual database, available later for instant lookup. But when itis not, we call up a memory of the | appearance of the object and run our shape analyzers over the image. | Checking for previously unnoticed geometric properties of absent objects is one ofthe main functions of imagery, and Kosslyn has shown that this mental process differs from dredging up explicit facts. When aed and dling US. speling ocd nd daling "eloring) U.S spel coeur