Digital Stories Targeting Social Skills for Children With Disabilities:

Multidimensional Learning
CORI MORE

Many children learn easily by watching others, imitating actions, and cuing into subtle social cues. However, some students with disabilities have trouble acquiring these social skills. These children require a more intensive intervention to make gains in the social area. For students who have difficulties initiating and maintaining interactions, teachers can implement more structure in the environment to gain a students interest and encourage peer interactions. One strategy that meets these two criteria is the use of social stories. This article describes how digital technology can provide a multidimensional forum for the creation and implementation of social stories.

Keywords:

social stories; autism; multimedia; communication; technology

hildren are constantly learning and developing. By interacting with their environment, children form opinions and concepts about the world. When opportunities arise, they test the concepts, practice new skills, and develop theories to find patterns and make sense of the world ( Jensen, 1998). Many children are able to learn by watching others, imitating actions, and cuing into subtle social cues. However, some students with disabilities have trouble acquiring these social skills (Brown, 2001; Hall,

2008 Hammill Institute on Disabilities 10.1177/1053451207312919 http://isc.sagepub.com

Peterson, Webster, Bolen, & Brown, 1999; Odom et al., 1999). These children require a more intensive intervention to make gains in the social area. Competence in social skills is a significant indicator of a students success in and out of the classroom (Brigman, Lane, Lane, Lawrence, & Switzer, 1999; Elliot & Gresham, 1993; Smith & Gilles, 2003; Wilson & Shulha, 1995). Children develop with different strengths and weaknesses, but many children with disabilities experience deficits in social areas (McConnell, 2002). Delays in childrens social skill development can be noted across disabilities, including learning disabilities (Vaughn, Haager, Hogan, & Kouzekanani, 1992), autism (American Psychiatric Association, 2000),
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language delays ( Johnson & Golden, 1997), and emotional disturbances (Bos & Vaughn, 1994). Students with disabilities may be less likely to engage socially with peers (Odom, 2000). When children experience difficulties in social areas, they may experience difficulties across many settings. In school, students are expected to cooperate, listen, take turns, follow directions, and control their tempers (Agostin & Bain, 1997; Lane, Wehby, & Cooley, 2006). Essential skills for classroom success (Lane, Pierson, & Givner, 2003) include cooperation, self-control, and assertion. Children who develop skills in these areas have more positive experiences with peers and teachers. As children with disabilities are at risk for delays in social development, each childs progress should be monitored so that interventions can be implemented if delays are present.

Social Skill Development

Social skill intervention is most successful when the intervention is implemented using many modes of learning, naturalistic settings, positive peer models, and socially valid skills (Spence, 2003). Care should be given to ensure that targeted skills are culturally appropriate (Spence, 2003). This involves examining the cultural relevance of the skills taught, communication styles of the learner, and the manner in which the skills are presented (Cartledge & Loe, 2001, p. 41). Teachers must learn about diverse cultures, avoid stereotyping, and talk to families to learn about values and cultural practices (Cartledge & Loe, 2001; Gayle-Evans, 2004). Because the acquisition of social skills is a key to long-term student success (Brigman et al., 1999), it is important to identify strategies to help children who have social deficits. Intervention is especially important for those students with disabilities who experience difficulties in learning social skills without intervention. Some strategies that have previously been implemented to improve social behavior include peer tutoring, social stories, and digital media. Peer Tutoring Peer tutoring involves using peers as the teachers of a particular skill. The peers may be the same age, although in some cases older peers are selected by the teacher to assist with the implementation of the intervention (Barfield, Hannigan-Downs, & Lieberman, 1998). T eachers first identify the skill to be taught, then the type of peer intervention (e.g., small group, dyad, whole group) (Hardin & Hardin, 2002). Before the intervention is implemented, the teachers train peers in the desired skill and response (Epstein, 1978; Strain & Odom, 1986). This training may need to be ongoing to increase the effectiveness of the peers as models (Hardin & Hardin, 2002).

Finally, the intervention is evaluated to determine its effectiveness. The use of peer models is a strategy recommended to help students practice and improve a variety of skills, including language development (Saenz, Fuchs, & Fuchs, 2005), imitation skills (Garfinkle & Schwartz, 2002), and social skills (Bredekamp & Copple, 1997; Holahan & Costenbader, 2000; Odom et al., 1999). Hardin and Hardin (2002) recommended giving students with disabilities opportunities to participate as tutors as well as tutees. Tournaki and Criscitiello (2003) cited a decrease in targeted behaviors (e.g., hitting, cursing, interrupting, out-of-seat behavior) when students with skill deficits in the behavioral areas become tutors. Peer tutoring interventions require students to interact and participate with their peers. Students may be required to initiate these interactions; however, Odom (2000) pointed out that children with disabilities are less engaged in social activities than are their typically developing peers. For students who have difficulties initiating and maintaining interactions, teachers can implement more structure in the environment to gain a students interest and encourage peer interactions. One strategy that meets these two criteria is the use of social stories. Social Stories A social story is a short story that delivers social instruction. Social stories are distinguished from other stories by their short length, personalization, and being written from the perspective of the student (Gray, 2000; Gray & Garand, 1993; see Figure 1). Along with taking the childs

Sometimes it rains during recess time. When it rains, I cant go outside to play. When people go outside in the rain, they get cold and wet. It is okay if I cant go outside. I can play in the gym, or I can play in the classroom. I dont have to worry. Soon the rain will stop. Then it will dry, and I can go outside again. But not today, and that is okay.

FIGURE 1. Sample social story targeting a change in routine.

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Table 1. Sample Social Story With Sentence Descriptors Social story

Sometimes it rains during recess time. When it rains, I cant go outside to play. When people go outside in the rain, they get cold and wet. It is okay if I cant go outside. I can play in the gym, or I can play in the classroom. I dont have to worry. Soon the rain will stop. Then it will dry, and I can go outside again. But not today and that is okay.

Sentence type
Descriptive Descriptive Perspective Affirmative Directive Affirmative Descriptive Descriptive Affirmative Affirmative States a fact

Purpose

Relays information Describes feelings, physical state, and opinions of others Reassures reader Suggests responses/choices Reassures reader States a fact Reassures reader Reassures reader

Note. Information regarding sentence type and function can be obtained from Gray (2000).

perspective, social stories utilize a variety of sentences to address specific student needs (Gray, 2000; see Table 1). The social stories should be written at the students reading level and use age-appropriate vocabulary. Social stories can meet the diverse needs of learners by combining visual cues with verbal cues (Barry & Burlew, 2004). Several behaviors have been successfully targeted using social story interventions. These include gaining the attention of peers (Soenksen & Alper, 2006), playing independently (Barry & Burlew, 2004), increasing engagement with peers (Delano & Snell, 2006), and decreasing disruptive behaviors (Crozier & Tincani, 2005). Gut and Safran (2002) proposed incorporating social stories during reading instruction as a means of improving social and academic skills. Moore (2004) successfully implemented a social story intervention as part of a bedtime routine for a child with learning disabilities exhibiting sleep disturbances. Social stories have several strengths as interventions. Because the stories are individualized, they can be tailored to meet the needs of each learner. Social stories allow time for extra practice of skills and increased communication between parents, teachers, and children (Moore, 2004). Because the stories are short, they can be implemented in a minimal amount of time and be easily embedded in the classroom routine, in which reading instruction is already occurring (Soenksen & Alper, 2006). Social stories take complex skills and break them into smaller components that are more easily understandable (Barry & Burlew, 2004). They engage children, using information that is directly related to each childs unique experience. Sansosti, Powell-Smith, and Kincaid (2004) conducted a research synthesis examining social stories as an intervention for children with autism. The authors cited
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the methods link to positive intervention effects but cautioned against claiming that social stories constitute an evidence-based approach to working with students with autism. They stated that based on the current evidence, this claim is premature. Sansosti and colleagues recommended that future research examine experimental control, address issues of treatment integrity, define the crucial components of social stories, program for generalization, and compare treatment effects with typical peers. Even with these concerns noted, the authors stated that social stories show potential as an effective teaching method. They recommended future research to examine social stories as used with typically developing children, and they recommended further research on the use of computer-based social stories as an effective intervention. Digital Media Another engaging method is the implementation of computer-aided instruction and digital media. Computers and digital media have created dynamic opportunities for teaching and learning. Multimedia applications offer children more control of the learning experience (Yildirim, Ozden, & Aksu, 2001). This learner control can lead to increased motivation, engagement, and positive attitude (Yildirim et al., 2001). Digital media applications also offer the benefits of repetition and direct feedback (Segers & Verhoeven, 2005). These applications have resulted in increased phonemic awareness (Segers & Verhoeven, 2005), attention to task (Cardona, Martinez, & Hinojosa, 2000), vocabulary generalization (Bosseler & Massaro, 2003), and self-advocacy (Lancaster, Schumaker, & Deshler, 2002). The use of digital media involves visual supports and self-monitoring, which are effective strategies for young

children (Odom et al., 2003). Children enjoy viewing pictures of themselves and people they know. They point, name the people, and often tell stories about the pictures of familiar faces. Given recent advances in technology, the use of digital media in classroom settings will be the next step in the technological progression. Digital cameras allow students and teachers to use digital pictures to re-create portions of the school and present this information visually on the computer. Pictures can also be taken of community settings (e.g., the local grocery store, post office, parks), and many digital cameras allow for the creation of short video clips. Schiller and Tillett (2004) used digital photography to increase the visual literacy of young children. The children compiled pictures and presented them in a PowerPoint presentation. As the students skills improved, written text was added to supplement the visual presentation of information. Sutherland et al. (2004) found that multimedia instruction was most effective when embedded in the classroom routine. The authors recommended a balance between whole-class and individual use of the computer-aided instruction techniques.

Creating Digital Social Stories

Digital stories targeting social skills encompass effective teaching practices by involving multiple learning modes and using methods that can be embedded in the existing curriculum (Sutherland et al., 2004). Digital stories targeting social skills promote relationships with peers by selecting skills based on individual and group needs. Digital stories allow teachers to target culturally appropriate skills and create a unique opportunity to involve students and families in the creation process. Using digital media is an efficient and flexible method to create stories to teach social skills. The use of computers in instruction has been linked to increased motivation, time on task, attention, and student reinforcement

(Chen & McGrath, 2003; Davies, Stock, & Wehmeyer, 2004; Laffey, Espinosa, Moore, & Lodree, 2003; van Daal & Reitsma, 2000; Yildirim, Ozden, & Aksu, 2001). Once procedures have been taught, computer-aided instruction can be implemented by students independently throughout the school day. Research has shown that computeraided instruction yields positive results across a variety of skills (Moreno, Mayer, Spires, & Lester, 2001; Watts & Lloyd, 2004). Increased efficiency can be found throughout the digital media approach. Using traditional methods, teachers would write a separate script for each student. Any added pictures had to be re-created for each new student. By using digital applications, teachers can make changes to existing stories by cutting and pasting names and pictures into existing stories. They can create a file of scripts dealing with typical classroom behavior issues that can then easily be edited and individualized for a students specific needs. Digital media allow teachers to take into consideration a range of skills and learning styles. Teachers add sound to each digital story. Along with gaining the students attention, the addition of sound allows children with visual impairments or reading difficulties to access the digital social stories independently. The addition of digital pictures supports the needs of visual learners. The text, built on developmentally appropriate vocabulary, promotes literacy and provides structure to the lesson. To develop the lesson, learning style needs are considered up front. By considering the needs of students and the variety of their learning styles before the lesson is created, accessibility is improved for all learners. Digital stories can be created using hardware and software available at most school sites. This requires a digital camera, a microphone (if one is not built into the computer sound card), and PowerPoint or a similar slide show program (see Table 2). Teachers should familiarize themselves with the use of these items. There are several online help sites that can assist with technical questions that may arise (see Table 3). Once these materials are

TABLE 2. Digital Tools for Social Stories Brand name

Digital cameras (under $450) Panasonic DMCLZ2 Sony Cybershot DSC P200 Canon Powershot A620 Microphones Logitech USB Desktop Cyber Acoustics CVL-1064 Computer microphone PowerPoint/slideshow program PowerPoint Able photo slide show

Approximate cost
$156 to $213 $220 to $320 $230 to $400 $14 to $30 $7 to $12 $5 to $10 $175 to $220 $20 to $40

Store
Amazon.com Circuit City Buy.com Amazon.com Wal-Mart www.kid-computers.com Buy.com www.graphicregion.com

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gathered and teachers are familiar with the software features, digital social stories can be created following the steps in Figure 2. Identify Target Behaviors Implementing effective behavior change requires the targeting of specific behaviors. This allows change to be measured and helps focus the topic of the story. As digital stories can be written about any situation that occurs in the course of a day, teachers can identify a wide range of target behaviors. With such flexibility, teachers must prioritize by targeting functional skills and behaviors that are significantly affecting performance. Lane et al. (2003) found that teachers of elementary students specifically identified the following behaviors as needed skills for children to be successful in elementary school: using free time appropriately, cooperating and getting along with people who are different, responding appropriately to physical encounters, controlling temper, and following directions. Knowing that social competence is a key indicator of student success in school, teachers should also target skills they feel the child will need to be successful in school. Family members can assist in prioritizing target behaviors by providing a different perspective concerning necessary ones. The behaviors presented in the home may differ from the behaviors seen at school. Teachers can discuss behaviors with families during conferences, in daily logs kept at school and sent home, or through phone calls. Some guidelines for effective family involvement include building collaboration, using a variety of contact methods and locations, varying the intensity of interactions, and responding to the individual needs of families (Kostelnik, Soderman, & Whiren, 2004). When teachers and families are identifying target behaviors, they must consider the strengths of the child, the prerequisite skills each child possesses, and then determine if the behavior is functional for that student.

Compose Digital Story Scripts Once a target behavior that addresses a students functional need is identified (e.g., waiting, taking turns, sharing, following directions), it is time to write the scripts. The digital scripts are the written portion of the story. Scripts are created from the perspective of the student, using familiar vocabulary. The script must build on the childs strengths and be simple enough to target the identified behavior while remaining centered on the childs interests. Table 3 identifies several resources for writing social stories and scripts. According to Gray (2000), each story should include descriptive, perspective, directive, affirmative, cooperative, and control sentences (see Table 1). Gray recommended a ratio of 0 to 1 directive sentences for every 2 to 5 of the others. With the target behavior in mind, teachers can create a digital story that describes the students experience and feelings as well as a desirable outcome. In essence, teachers write about the behaviors they would like their students to exhibit (see Table 1). Obtain and Organize Pictures Using a digital camera or a traditional photograph and a scanner, take pictures of people in the classroom community, ensuring that all children are included in the picture data bank. Teachers, teachers assistants, support staff, and other adults should also be included in the data bank. Generalization across people is promoted by including family members and community members (e.g., policemen, doctors, grocery clerks, food service providers). Often, pictures of unknown people in uniform can be obtained online, saving a step in the collection process. Photos of different settings should also be obtained for the purpose of creating backgrounds. Pictures can be taken in the classroom, around the school, and in the community. The goal is to provide as many settings as possible to include in the stories. It is important that the

TABLE 3. Technical Assistance Web Sites Topic/Web site

Digital photography www.digicamhelp.com www.kodak.com www.dcresource.com PowerPoint www.rdpslides.com/pptfaq www.123ppt.com www.bitbetter.com/powerfaq.htm Social stories www.thegraycenter.org www.sandbox-learning.com www.polyxo.com/socialstories

Assistance provided
Information on types of digital cameras, troubleshooting, and frequently asked questions Discussions of taking, printing, using, and sharing digital photos. Tips for beginners are included. Lists of additional Web sites for troubleshooting Categorizes frequently asked questions for beginner and advanced PowerPoint users Answers questions about adding sound as well as other related PowerPoint questions Offers lists of frequently asked questions and solutions Provides information from the creator of social stories Helps create social story from information provided by the viewer. A fee is charged. Offers sample social story scripts addressing situations that occur during the school day.

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FIGURE 2. Flowchart describing steps used to create digital stories for teaching social skills.

setting be clear and identifiable by the children (e.g., computer area, playground, health office, library center, hallway). There are Web sites that provide pictures of people and scenes if a camera is not available (see Table 4). Teachers should ask the children which objects (e.g., truck, balls, book, school items) they want to include in their stories. Teachers can also watch students to determine the items that capture the childs interest. Teachers can take pictures directly with the digital camera or obtain them online. If they choose to obtain pictures online, they should ensure that the picture matches the classroom items. Children who are literal could focus on subtle differences, which may distract them from the lesson being presented.

When taking pictures of people or objects, one should select a plain background. This will make editing the photos easier and reduce visual distractions. This is important for children who are very literal (e.g., children with cognitive delays, children with autism), children who are easily distracted, and children who are young. For variety, pictures can be taken of the full body, of the head only, and with varied facial expressions, depending on the targeted behaviors. Once the pictures are taken, they must be edited and uploaded to the computer. Following the directions for the camera or scanner, upload the pictures to the computer, saving each picture with a clear label that can be used by students and teachers. It is helpful to pay close
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TABLE 4. Web sites Providing Free Digital Images Web site

www.images.google.com www.pics4learning.com www.freefoto.com/index.jsp www.free-pictures-photos.com classroomclipart.com

Assistance provided
Free images obtained using keywords implemented by user; allows user to select security level to avoid inappropriate content during search Download photographs from categorized lists Categorized list of photographs for free noncommercial use Large high-quality pictures; good for backgrounds A large collection of clip art and photographs placed in categories; site also contains audio and video files that can be downloaded

attention to the folder in which the file is being saved. Photos may need to be edited and cropped to remove visual distractions. Teachers should ensure that privacy and safety precautions are taken when they use photos of students. Pictures should not be accessible to anyone outside of the classroom. If the stories are to be implemented in a setting other than the school, obtain written consent before using images of children. Teachers must also be aware of cultural differences that may prohibit the use of photos. Communicating with families and knowing preferences regarding the use of photos is essential to maintaining cultural sensitivity. Soliciting the help of volunteers (e.g., teachers assistants, parent volunteers, community members, high school students) is an effective time management tool for collecting pictures. Another source for volunteers would be a local high school photography class that could conduct a special project. One strength of using digital photos is the ability to save and reuse them from year to year. As new people become members of the classroom, teachers must update the photo file so it accurately reflects the composition of the classroom community. It is important to remember that photo collection is an ongoing process. As the photo collection process continues, identifying target behaviors and writing the scripts are the next steps in creating digital stories. Create Stories on PowerPoint To create multimedia stories, teachers must transfer the scripts and pictures to a multimedia program, such as PowerPoint. Once the behaviors have been targeted, scripts written, and pictures collected, the transfer of information to PowerPoint becomes a simple matter of creating a presentation. First, create a title that will allow students and teachers easy access to the story. Then, add enough slides to cover the chosen script. Select the blank text slide format for more freedom of layout, limiting text to one to three sentences per slide. Text can be added by

creating a text box, which can be moved to any position on the slide. Once the text is created, add pictures to each slide using the Insert command. As the pictures are added to the slide, they can be resized and repositioned. When adding text and pictures, consider individual learning styles as well as the cognitive functioning of the student. Teachers and students can work together to create the digital stories. To promote generalization of settings, add backgrounds. Care should be taken when adding backgrounds to avoid clutter and distraction. Backgrounds are added in the same way pictures are added. Pictures can be brought to the forefront by highlighting the picture, right-clicking the mouse, selecting order, and then selecting bring to the front. When introducing a social skill, be careful to ensure that the pictures and backgrounds are kept simple so as not to distract the child from the message of the story. If the child becomes distracted, it may be necessary to avoid backgrounds until the student demonstrates an understanding of the targeted behaviors. The final step in creating the digital story is adding the voice. Combining visual and auditory agents results in broader learning (Bosseler & Massaro, 2003; Moreno et al., 2001). PowerPoint allows for the recording of voice directly onto each slide. Scripts can also be read ahead of time, recorded, and stored on the computer and added in a continuous play method. Allowing children to record their own voices as part of the digital story is another method to increase ownership of the story. This is a highly motivating activity that not only builds interest but also increases language development. For children who cannot read, teachers should read the scripts to them. Instead of making this a separate activity, this process could be incorporated into classroom activities throughout the day. Such activities could include opening calendar activities in the morning, language arts activities, or a classroom center. Many of the digital music players facilitate voice recording, which would provide another option for uploading information to the computer database.

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Implementing Digital Stories in the Classroom

The final step to implementing digital stories is embedding the story instruction throughout the classroom day. Digital stories can be implemented in whole-group settings to teach classroom routines and procedures, in small groups to target specific skill sets, or individually to meet individual needs. Social skills instruction is more effective when it is embedded as a regular part of the school day (Smith & Gilles, 2003). Teachers should establish routines to allow children access to the stories. One method of organization is to create a folder for each child on the computer desktop to allow easy access to the social stories. If a student lacks the ability to read his or her name, a picture symbol of interest to that child can be used in addition to the childs name to label folders, which will foster independence and increase name recognition. The power of the digital social story can be increased by involving students in the creation of the story. Involving students will increase their ownership of the story. Students select the setting for the story and the peers from the class they want to include in the story. The creation of a social story can also be done as a class lesson to teach classroom rules and procedures by using a digital projector. Connecting a projector to the computer allows the entire class to see the screen while the story is being created. If using a projector is not an option, the students could work together to create the text to the story using traditional paper-and-pencil methods, the information could be transferred to the computer, and the final product could be viewed by individuals or small groups during center rotation. For maximized success, students should have access to the stories throughout the day. Teachers should consider including peers to increase the effectiveness of digital stories in the classroom. By including their pictures in the creation of the digital story, peers can be used as indirect tutors. Using peers directly by including them in the creation and use of the social story would help promote generalization. Peer tutors can help students access social stories on the computer if such help is needed. Peer tutors can also be used to help generalize the skills from the social story to the classroom environment. Students can read the digital stories together and then practice the skills throughout the day. Simply presenting the digital stories to children will not automatically fix behaviors. Children must be prompted to access, read, and review the digital stories in order for the stories to become tools for the acquisition of new skills. Utilizing teachable moments and prompting students to access digital stories during behavioral times is a way to make the stories more meaningful. As teachers observe desired behavior, the students should again be prompted to view the digital stories while teachers

provide positive feedback for the demonstration of the desired social behavior by the students.

Conclusion
Digital technology provides a multidimensional forum for the creation and implementation of social stories. Creating the digital files of student pictures, backgrounds, scripts, and voice recordings allows the digital stories to be easily edited by cutting and pasting. Using digital media can increase learning by gaining childrens attention through the use of familiar people and settings (Moreno et al., 2001). As children are involved in the creation of the stories, they become more engaged in the learning process (Moreno et al., 2001). Ownership of learning is created when the children (a) see their image and hear their voice on the computer and (b) control the pace of learning. This responsibility is also nurtured when children have the ability to start and stop, create, and edit the story. As children are more actively engaged, learning will occur in a naturalistic way that is more easily generalized. In the digital stories, teachers have the ability to promote generalization of skills by targeting different people or settings and examining the specific needs of students. This strategy can be implemented at home as well as at school using members from the home community instead of the school community. Examining students needs in different settings facilitates communication between home and school. It is important to help children with disabilities begin to take ownership of learning as early as possible to avoid learned helplessness. Successful social skills instruction relies on an environment that fosters social interactions (Welton, Vakil, & Carasea, 2004). As children increase their ability to interact appropriately, they will be more successful members of their school and community.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Cori More, MA, is a doctoral student in special education at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas. Her research interests include communication and social skill interventions for young children with and without disabilities. Address: Cori More, Department of Special Education, University of Nevada, Las Vegas 4505 South Maryland Pkwy., Las Vegas, NV 89154.

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