RenewableEnergy, Vol. 6, No. 5-6, pp.

50~513, 1995
~ ) Pergamon Elsevier Science Ltd
Printed in Great Britain
0960-1481(95)00048-8 0960-1481/95 $9.50+0.00

DISSEMINATION OF PHOTOVOLTAICS IN THE GAMBIA

U. A B L E - T H O M A S , * t R. H I L L , P. O ' K E E F E $ an d N. M. P E A R S A L L t
t Newcastle Photovoltaics Applications Centre, University of Northumbria,
Newcastle Upon Tyne, U.K.
$ Department of Environment, University of Northumbria, Newcastle Upon Tyne, U.K.

Abstract--The Gambia has abundant solar energy but a significant shortfall in electrical generation and
distribution capacity, along with a growing demand for electricity. This paper will outline areas in the
application of photovoltaics (PV) in The Gambia which are both technically and economically viable.
Photovoltaics is beginning to contribute to developmental efforts, but this contribution is rarely quantified.
The paper will discuss the socio-economic benefits that The Gambia has derived from this appropriate
technology. The application of PV on a scale much wider than the present will require strengthening of the
infrastructure in PV systems, construction and maintenance and financing. The infrastructural needs of
the country and its manufacturing capabilities will be assessed along with the organizational aspects for
successful PV dissemination.

1. INTRODUCTION problems. The original aim of PV R&D in the U.S.A.

The Gambia has a plentiful supply of sunlight, avail-
able 7-10 hours a day, 365 days per year. A frequently
mentioned source of inexhaustible energy for the
future is the use of photovoltaics (PV) or solar cell
conversion of the energy contained in sunlight. Elec-
tricity produced by PV can light homes and streets,
power loads such as radios, televisions, refrigerators,
battery chargers, communication systems, navi-
gational aids, waterpumps for drinking and irrigation,
etc., at lower cost than conventional alternatives like
diesel generators. The Gambia has an energy source
crisis, with insufficient electricity generating capacity
in the major towns and cities and, frequently, no sup-
ply in rural areas. Around the urban areas (i.e. from
Banjul to Brikama), the demand for electricity is high
and the electricity generating company, Management
Services Gambia Ltd (MSG), is unable to meet this
demand, resulting in load shedding and serious power
fluctuations.
When the marketing of PV began, it was aimed at
rather sophisticated applications in industrial coun-
tries, as a consequence of the very high price of PV
cells. As the cost of PV systems has decreased over the
years, another market has arisen. Many developing
countries are becoming aware of the benefits of PV
and of how it can be used to solve some of their energy
*Permanent address: The Gambia Civil Aviation Auth-
ority, Banjul International Airport, Yundum, The Gambia.
507
and other countries was for large central stations on
the grid. The needs and, therefore, the research deter-
minants of small-scale applications for developing
countries are quite different. Most communities use
very little power and in certain cases a daily 50 W h
power supply can transform the lifestyle of a family.
Only in recent years has research begun to focus on
the problems that limit the development of PV systems
in this huge potential market. With greater demand,
economies of scale will help to reduce the high capital
outlay for PV systems and provide the manufacturers
with more financial incentive for further research and
development into the efficiency, stability and pro-
duction costs of various PV cells. Cheaper and longer-
lived PV modules, together with increased awareness
of the economic and social benefits they offer, will
make a major impact on the growth in the use of solar
power.
Because the rural areas in the developing countries
have very few conventional financing possibilities to
purchase these systems, innovative financing schemes
are essential to allow people access to much-needed
PV systems. In the developing world, the financial
situation or more precisely the lack of foreign
currency, means that so far the primary decision mak-
ers and purchasers of PV systems have been mostly
aid agencies and institutions in collaboration with
governments. For PV to be more widely used by small
communities, groups or individuals in rural areas,
more effective credit facilities are needed. Also needed
508 U. ABLE-THOMAS et al.
are more local skills to provide the infrequent but vital
service and repair that PV systems may require. The
importation of fossil fuels accounts for a very large
part of The Gambia's total imports. Naturally avail-
able renewable energy like PVs could help reduce this
financial burden.
2. THE PRESENT SITUATION OF PV IN THE
GAMBIA
The Ministry of Health has completed the replace-
ment of all vaccine refrigerators operating on kerosene
or gas with solar powered appliances. 17 health
centres, 13 dispensaries and 2 mission stations in the
rural areas have been equipped with lighting kits and
refrigerators powered by PV and solar water heaters
for sterilised hot water to wash newborn babies [1].
Some health centres have television and video cassette
recorders for use in training nurses on proper health
practices. It is envisaged to cover more health centres
with similar PV appliances.
The Gambia Telecommunications Company
(GAMTEL) has upgraded most of its tele-
communication system in the rural areas by replacing
the diesel generators with PV power. This improve-
ment has greatly enhanced the communications link
between the urban and rural areas with increased
reliability and socio-economic benefit for the nation.
Under the umbrella of the regional programme for
the use of PV solar energy in the Sahalian countries
(RSP), solar water pumping systems have been
installed at 66 villages. Two PV water pumping sys-
tems installed on a pilot basis proved so successful
that the EC decided to fund further similar projects,
currently providing additional water pumping systems
for 57 more villages. Also under this ongoing project,
22 veterinary stations are being equipped with solar
freezers and several high schools with PV battery
charging systems for their science laboratories.
Several kilowatts of PV power have been installed
by private individuals in their homes, offices and
farms. The main uses are for lighting, refrigeration,
battery charging and water pumping. From reports
received at The Gambia Renewable Energy Centre
(GREC), the number of private individuals interested
in and enquiring about PV systems is increasing daily.
The main reason for this upsurge of interest is the
frequent power load shedding and an embargo on the
installation of electricity from the grid to some newly
built houses.
With the growth of the tourist industry, certain
hotels are considering PV systems and their possible
cost-effective deployment.
3. G E O G R A P H Y OF T H E GAMB1A
The Gambia, with a population of about 1.1
million, is situated on the West African coast, midway
between the Tropic of Cancer and the Equator, at
latitude 13.5°N and longitude 13.5-17°W. The wea-
ther is subtropical with distinct dry and rainy seasons.
From the end of October to the end of May, the
harmattan Sahara winds result in the dry winter
season, with little or no rainfall and high daily
sunshine. During the harmattan and summer periods,
the temperature and humidity ranges from 19°C
(66°F) to 27°C (80°F), 30% to 60% and 27°C (80°F)
to 32°C (90°F), 60% to 85% respectively. The average
daily solar radiation is 5.5 kW h/m 2.
4. COST-EFFECTIVE PV APPLICATIONS
The piecemeal programme of PV installation which
The Gambia has experienced so far has nevertheless
shown clearly the value which could be derived from
a concerted action to make PV widely available. The
potential market and applications can be divided into
two categories, the first being a commercial market
for lighting, battery charging, etc., the second being
sales to communities or institutions for water pump-
ing, health care, communications, education and grid
support.
Studies undertaken by the World Bank [2],
UNESCO [3] and USAID [4] have shown that PV is
the optimum means of generating electricity in
developing countries in many cases, from the point
of view of both cost and reliability. A technical and
economic assessment of PV applications for The
Gambia is given below.
4.1. P V lighting
In The Gambia, lighting is presently the largest
application of PV with several hundreds of systems
installed throughout the country. They are mainly
used to provide lighting for domestic and community
buildings, such as homes, offices, schools and health
centres.
Kerosene lamps are the most common lighting unit
in the rural areas and some of the urban areas but give
poor light, are a fire hazard and can take a significant
fraction of the cash income of a poor family. On a life
cycle cost basis, PV lighting has been shown to be
cheaper than that from a kerosene or hurricane lamp
[5,6]. From Ref. [6], the total life cycle costs (LCC)
and the annualized life cycle costs (ALCC) of PV
lighting versus a kerosene hurricane lamp are given as
£799.73 and £2380.54, and £30.18 and £89.83, respec-
tively. The reliability of PV-powered' lights is quite
 Dissemination of photovoltaics in The Gambia
high. They are convenient and are relatively safe with a
better quality of luminescence. This is a very attractive
option compared to kerosene lamps or diesel powered
lighting [7,8].
The size of the potential market depends on the
number of households with sufficient income to pur-
chase the system with cash or credit, and the avail-
ability of appropriate financing mechanisms. There
are a large number of households, institutional and
commercial establishments that are not connected to
the national grid and hence are potential users of PV
systems for lighting.
4.2. P V water pumpin9
The provision of clean drinking water is the most
important application for PV pumps. Impure drinking
water is responsible for a large fraction of the illness
and infant mortality in many developing countries.
The provision of adequate supplies of clean drinking
water is a major social benefit.
Another major importance of solar water pumps is
for irrigation of crops. The Gambia, being part of the
Sahelian drought-stricken region, has experienced a
drop in crop yields, mainly because of reduced avail-
ability of water for crops. The expansion and increase
of food supplies is a major concern to all Gambians.
In most cases, PV pumps are provided to villages or
communities for drinking and domestic uses. Indi-
vidual farmers should be encouraged to purchase
these systems for irrigation via an attractive financial
route for repayment.
From the economic viability of a PV pumping sys-
tem versus a conventional handpumping system in
Ref. [6], the unit water cost (UWC) for the two sys-
tems are $0.115 and $0.13 per m 3 respectively. For
lower water requirements, handpumps operate at a
lower UWC, and for larger demand, PV pumps are
more cost-effective. A PV system does not face a queu-
ing limitation and a need for physical strength as
compared to a handpump. Since a storage tank is
included in the PV system design, water is available
at all times with increased reliability. Even with the
high cost of storage in the PV system, the relatively
large population served compared to handpumps
helps to bring down the UWC [8].
4.3. P V refrigeration
The provision of health care in rural and some
urban areas is a major task in most developing coun-
tries and is seriously hindered by the absence of energy
supplies. In The Gambia, the medical and health
department runs an immunisation programme with
assistance from the World Health Organisation
(WHO). The success of this immunisation programme
509
depends on the maintenance of the cold chain for
vaccines, which must be kept at temperatures between
0 and 8°C from manufacture to injection if they are
to be effective. PV-powered refrigerators are being
used in some of the health centres with similar instal-
lations planned for others.
A PV refrigerator costs more than that powered by
kerosene and installation costs are also higher for PV.
However, a kerosene refrigerator will use about 0.5 to
1 litre of fuel each day, requires frequent maintenance
and has a short life. From Ref. [6], the LCC and the
ALCC for the PV refrigerator versus the kerosene
refrigerator are given as £10,097.09 and £7,574.16 and
£381.02 and £285.82 respectively. The ALCC per
potent vaccine dose for the two different systems is
£0.039 and £0.048 respectively. It should be noted that
the life cycle cost of PV is higher than that of kerosene
but because of PV's greater reliability and resultant
savings in wasted vaccine, it is more cost-effective on
potent vaccine dose [8].
The Gambia, with a hot climate, makes the demand
for refrigerators in homes and offices quite high. These
are mainly used for storage of food and drinks. There
is a high demand for PV refrigerators especially in
areas with frequent load shedding or no grid connec-
tion.
4.4. P V telecommunications
Development efforts are greatly enhanced by
improvements in telecommunication systems within
the country and with the outside world. In The
Gambia, most of the telephone networks in the rural
areas are PV powered. They require little power, but
reliability is often of paramount importance. Some
other communications uses include TV, the recharging
of batteries for radios, radio transceivers for aid work-
ers, health centres, etc., and navigational aids.
The Gambia Civil Aviation Authority (GCAA) has
navigational aids and communications equipment at
remote sites. The cost of maintaining the diesel gen-
erators is proving to be extremely high. The Doppler
VHF Omni Range (DVOR), Distance Measuring
Equipment (DME), Outer Marker (OM) and U H F
Communication Link are at Kuloro. The DVOR,
DME and MM/OM are used by aircraft for angle,
distance and position information respectively. The
U H F link transmits voice and status information of
each piece of equipment to the equipment room at
the airport. The Instrument Landing System (ILS),
comprising the Glide Slope, Localizer and the Middle
Marker (MM) are at the airport, the Non-Directional
Beacon (NDB) will be located at Brufut and these
systems aid the aircraft in proper approach and touch
down/take off procedures. Stand-by batteries are cur-
510 U. ABLE-THOMAS et al.
rently being used for all these types of equipment,
making the situation favourable for the use of PV
power with increased confidence and reliability.
Economic analysis has indicated that PV stand-
alone powered communication systems are viable for
low power applications and for high power demand
diesel is recommended. It has also been shown that
improved technical and economic performance is
achieved by an optimised PV/diesel hybrid system [9].
The combination of the two power sources, leads to
a reduction of the disadvantages of each one used
individually, and increases the overall reliability [10].
5. POTENTIAL SYSTEM PURCHASERS
The large-scale dissemination of PV systems in The
Gambia requires not only cost effectiveness, but also
the development and maintenance of product credi-
bility and the instigation of financial support schemes
for purchasers. PV systems are capital intensive and,
even though they may be the cheapest option on the
basis of life cycle costings, it is the initial capital outlay
which provides the major disincentive to potential
users. In addition, the repeated message that PV costs
will be lower next year is counter-productive for indus-
try sales this year and liable to impede the social devel-
opment which accompanies the provision of energy.
A more useful approach would be to arrange financial
packages which could convert capital expenditure
now to recurrent expenditure over the lifetime of the
PV system.
At present, this approach is possible for government
and non-governmental organisations (NGO), but
should be extended to provide the same service for
individuals or groups of individuals. Farmers in rural
areas sell their produce through the Gambia Coop-
erative Union limited (GCUL) and this organization
could purchase PV systems for the farmers and take
payment for the system out of the reimbursement for
the produce sold to GCUL. In the urban areas, the
banking network can be used by individuals, although
the rate of interest on personal loans (about 25 % p.a.)
would make a PV system very expensive. There is a
need to organise low interest loans with rates com-
parable to the 9% p.a. paid by government civil
servants. This could be done by the PV companies as
a marketing strategy to make their products available
to as many Gambians as possible or by government
decision to support the purchase of PV systems in
order to reduce the national outflow of foreign
currency. Individual farmers that can afford to pur-
chase these systems for irrigation, lighting, etc. should
be encouraged by persuasive demonstration in their
own locality and the life cycle cost benefits. It should
be noted that each kind of potential purchaser views
the costs and benefits of PV systems from a different
standpoint.
5.1. Government institutions
For large installations or a large number of small
installations, the purchaser is usually a government
department or government sponsored agency. In this
case, the purchasing body is very rarely the end user
of the system. The main criterion for purchase is that
the PV system can provide a needed service at a lower
overall financial cost than with alternatively powered
systems. In some cases, political considerations such
as availability, either at the time of purchase or in the
future, social development plans, etc. may also affect
the decision to purchase. In general, financial assist-
ance to allow the capital cost to be spread over the
system's lifetime will be available. The failure of the
PV system may be an embarrassment to the govern-
ment department in question, but a potentially more
serious consequence is that of rejection of PV as a
future option. It may be that the reliability of the
product is of considerably more importance to both
the user and the supplier than to the purchaser.
5.2. Non-9overnmental organisations (NGO)
These bodies are often both the purchaser and the
user of the PV system. They will choose to purchase
a PV system if the system has the lowest relative cost,
where that cost is measured in terms of capital, opera-
ting and organizational costs, but may also include
the time and effort involved in introducing a new
technology. The failure of the system would be of
immediate effect in terms of lost revenue to the pur-
chaser and, thus, reliability is often of equal import-
ance to capital costs.
5.3. Individual or cooperative groups
In general, users are buying a small system to pro-
vide a needed service and they have requirements
which go beyond the lowest financial cost of that
service. These include the compatibility of the tech-
nology and the ease of introduction of that tech-
nology. The financial comparisons of this purchasing
group are largely determined by government policy
on such matters as fuel subsidies, interest rates, capital
availability, etc. Thus, the market can be encouraged
or stifled by government action. In particular, these
purchasers require the opportunity to offset capital
equipment costs with the increased revenue provided
by the system. This could be provided by the appro-
priate financial assistance package. The failure of the
system may have dire consequences for the individual
user in a developing country, leading to a reluctance
 Dissemination of photovoltaics in The Gambia
to adopt a technology which has not been proven
effective in the user's locality.
6. A S S E S S M E N T OF PV MARKET
Marketing means "market-oriented efforts to
design, produce and to sell products". It starts with
type and design of product, includes cost and quality
of product, sales force and sales strategy, and price
policies and ends with packaging of the product, cata-
logues, price lists, advertising, public relations and
sales promotion. The meaning of marketing is not
limited to sales, but involves a comprehensive man-
agement philosophy to develop the right product for
a specific group of customers in terms of function,
design, quality and price. Marketing requirements are
not fixed, but change with the economic development
of purchasing power and the development of con-
sumer behaviour. The progress and economic expan-
sion of developing countries is particularly related to
their capacity to develop industrial and marketing
policies and marketing management, both within local
and export markets.
Inasmuch as a marketing strategy can be established
only on the basis of a thorough knowledge of the
product and the market, market research and market
intelligence are needed to provide the information
required to develop a marketing strategy. Market
research and intelligence are also needed to control
the effect and efficiency of all marketing activities and
to provide feedback for permanent improvement of
the marketing strategy. Market requirements change
constantly, so research is needed to remain abreast
of developments, terminating production of obsolete
products and developing new ones and achieving the
necessary diversification. It is of utmost importance
to offer the right product in the right way to the right
buyer at the right time.
Market planning or programming means working
out a detailed scheme, using all the marketing tools to
transform the marketing philosophy and strategy into
a plan of activities, including time and costs. It starts
with the precise and detailed definition of market tar-
gets with regards to region, sector and segment as
well as sales and revenue forecasts, it includes the
integrated activities of all marketing instruments, and
ends with the control and steering system [11].
The dissemination of PV in the Gambia is essen-
tially a marketing exercise and the criteria for success
are similar to those for the successful introduction of
a new product. When considering any new product,
some criteria are applied as follows.
(1) Does it do the job for which it is meant?
511
(2) Is it cost-effective as compared to the alternatives?
(3) Which group of people are to be targeted?
(4) Can those in the targetted group afford it and on
what basis?
(5) How can people be educated about the product
and stimulated into action?
(6) Is it readily available and easily maintained?
(7) Does the product fit in with their life-style and
self-image?
7. INFRA-STRUCTURAL
NEEDS/ORGANIZATIONAL ASPECTS
If The Gambia is to embark on a coordinated pro-
gramme to exploit and market PV wherever it is cost-
effective to do so, then there must be an infrastructure
established to support the programme with a proper
organizational set-up. A PV programme for The
Gambia is illustrated in Fig. 1, giving schematic block
diagrams for the infra-structural needs and the poten-
tial PV applications. Marketing is one of the most
important factors in creative, effective use of resources
and there is an urgent need in developing countries
and The Gambia in particular for building up the
supply of marketing managers. Economic growth
through technological development depends on con-
tinual innovation with the diffusion of information. A
proper and adequate training of personnel to supply,
install and maintain the PV systems is a vital com-
ponent in the marketing strategy for successful PV
dissemination.
For The Gambia, innovative efforts will need State
planning and organization. This is mainly to do with
research into, and development, production and mar-
keting of PV systems. The improvement and adap-
tation of indigenous or imported technology and
increased efficiency of resources deserve close atten-
tion. Because of shortage of capital and other factors,
the PV market in the Gambia will demand an initial
small scale of operation which must then be nurtured
to grow. Hence the technologies needed initially are
those appropriate to small markets e.g. the assembly
of PV modules and the manufacturing and assembly
of balances-of-system~ (BOSs). Local companies
could be encouraged to supply some of the BOS com-
ponents. This indigenous fraction would increase in
time as local firms became familiar with PV tech-
nology. Initially, the market might not be large
enough to warrant investment in the types of plants
to which international investors are generally accus-
tomed in industrial countries. However, with sharper
vision and refined mechanisms for conducting the
search, opportunities could be found to supply small
markets, using technologies of a type that is suitable.
512 U. ABLE-THOMAS et al.

I INFRA-STRUCTURALNEEDSl

I SUPPLY& MAINTENANCEI
NETWORK I
I.NA NETWORK
'SUP O., II
I
i-o-.-,i i-o-i I CONVERSIONOF CAPITALCOST I
TO RECURRENTPAYMENT I
TERM:5.8 YEARS I

I
I PV systemshipPed I
i
Trainingof techniciansI
I
I Financingbody J
through Banjulport I , and engineers I operatns revol~ng I
loan system I

[ i Urbanexeas:
Bankingsystem

I
I - -I I
GambleCooperative
UnionLtd. (GCUL)system

Individualloan I [ Individualloan I
components of BOS compenantsI systems I
, obtainedfrom bank obtaknedfrom GCUL

S~rling, grading& packing Maintenance& CustomerrecetNes

installedPV system I
for supplyto r e ~ a i depots monitoring I wi~ maintenance I
support I
I
I Diatributicm and installationI
I
Coordin,a~nof ]
of PV systemsfrom J servmes I Monthlydeduction I I dedudio~s
Yearlyor haif-yanrly
~,o~ d~te I I
from w~gns madefrom
sale of producetD GCUL

POTENTIALAPPUCATION~

COMMUNITYI INSTITUTIONAL
COMMERCIALMARKET MARKET

Communalwater pump
for drinking,domestic&
irrigation
I ulility applicationsI
ICommunicatkxw syslams I
for prlvato ¢, donms~c use I
Oommuniesttem
for communalusa

Fig. 1. A PV programme for The Gambia.

8. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This paper has discussed the market opportunities
for PV in The Gambia. It has already been established
as a reliable and cost-effective form of energy for many
applications. At present, PV in The Gambia should
be considered as a means of providing services to
promote social and economic development in both the
rural and urban areas. In order for the nation to
realise fully the benefits of PV, individuals must be
encouraged to purchase PV systems by giving financial
assistance which transforms the capital payment into
a recurrent payment over the lifetime of the system.
The dissemination of PV in The Gambia requires a
coordinated marketing strategy. Market research and
intelligence are needed to provide the information
required to develop this strategy. There is a need to
control the effect and efficiency of all marketing activi-
 Dissemination of photovoltaics in The Gambia
ties and to provide feedback for permanent improve-
ment of the marketing strategy.
Since PV helps to supplement the energy needs of
the nation, it reduces the dependence on imported fuel
for electricity generation, with consequent savings in
foreign currency. A gradual change from conventional
fuels to PV would benefit both the economy and the
nation as a whole. However, in order to reap the
benefits, there is a need to encourage purchase of all
PV systems free of customs duty and sales tax. At
present, the duty on PV systems is 30.9%, with an
additional sales tax of 10%. This taxation makes the
systems too expensive for most Gambians and dis-
courages the potential purchaser from acquiring the
system. However, if these taxes were removed or sub-
stantially reduced, it is likely that the economic ben-
efits from the use of PV in terms of reduced import-
ation of fuel would be greater than the loss of the tax
revenues.
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