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Heliyon
journal homepage: www.cell.com/heliyon
Review article
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: A state-of-the-art review has been conducted in this work on soil constitutive modeling, which has
Constitutive relations emphasized on: soil type, ground-water conditions, loading conditions, structural behavior,
Constitutive applications constitutive relation discipline, and dimensions. By extension also, the soil constitutive applica
Stress-strain behavior
tions were reviewed on the bases of: single discipline dealing with soil mechanical properties
Soil constitutive modeling
Finite element method
constitutive modeling which included slope stability problems, bearing capacity, settlement of
And finite difference method foundations, earth pressure problems, soil dynamics, soil structure interaction, thermal and hy
drological conditions; bi-discipline (coupled problems) which solve problems related to ther
momechanical (freeze/thaw conditions), smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH) and
hydromechanical (consolidation, collapse and liquefaction) conditions in soils and rocks and
multi-discipline constitutive models which solve complex problems related to thermo-
hydromechanical (THM) conditions in soils and rocks. This work has shown that smoothed
particle hydrodynamics (SPH) and hydromechanical (HM) models, which belong to bi-discipline
or coupled conditions are better suited for geotechnical applications, generally, while thermo-
hydromechanical (THM) models, which belong to multi-discipline are better suited to solving
freeze/thaw and thermal piles problems and these are proven with high performance and
flexibility.
1. Introduction
Soil is a material, which is diverse in behavior and lies on the surface of the earth, which may comprise organic and weathered
* Corresponding author. Department of Civil Engineering, School of Engineering, University of the Peloponnese GR-26334, Patras, Greece.
E-mail addresses: konyelowe@mouau.edu.ng, konyelowe@gmail.com (K.C. Onyelowe), ahmed.abdelkhaleq@fue.edu.eg (A.M. Ebid), sujatha@
civil.sastra.edu (E. Ramani Sujatha), ali.golaghaei@sharif.edu (A. Golaghaei-Darzi), kontoni.denise@ac.eap.gr (D.-P.N. Kontoni), nabaz.
nooralddin@gmail.com (N. Nooralddin-Othman).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e14465
Received 7 April 2022; Received in revised form 5 March 2023; Accepted 7 March 2023
Available online 15 March 2023
2405-8440/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
K.C. Onyelowe et al. Heliyon 9 (2023) e14465
materials, as well as water and/or air. However, under various conditions of stress, it behaves in a heterogeneous pattern i.e., during
loading, unloading, and reloading state conditions. Moreover, it exhibits non-linear behavior pattern below the plastic limit with
stress-dependent stiffness [1]. A good understanding of all this complexity states and the knowledge of the soil behavior is important in
geotechnical analysis and design of geostructures.
In a geotechnics engineering project, one of the most sensitive assignments is to select the appropriate failure or deformation of the
soil model that can represent the reality of the soil state. With the development of numerical models and analysis techniques such as
finite elements methods (FEM) and finite difference methods (FDM) for geotechnics problems, it is possible to analyze and forecast the
behavior of soil and soil-structure interaction problems. Coincidentally, these analyses are based on the representation of the relations
between stresses and strains for the endless modeling materials. In geotechnical engineering, the relationships between stresses and
strains labeled as constitutive soil modeling are just mathematical equations (expressions) that outline the closest behavior of soil and
rock deformations and investigate its failure mechanism. Modeling is fundamentally concerned with finding solutions to real-world
problems and implies approximations, which are essentially a simplification of reality. To understand the complexity of soil
behavior and implementation of constitutive modeling, Brinkgreve [2] illustrated five (5) basic aspects of the behavior of soils.
Additionally, the three-dimensional deformation of the soil subjected stress is unavoidably complex. Therefore, there are lots of va
rieties to explicate failure state condition under such stresses. For this reason, numerous researchers in the decades proposed simple to
advanced soil modeling techniques known as the stress-strain and failure behavior of soils. Meanwhile, these models contain certain
advantages and limitations, which depend largely on their application. On the other hand, Chen and Baladi [3] suggested three basic
criteria for the evaluation of models. The first criteria are the theoretical evaluation of the models with respect to the basic principles of
continuum mechanics to ascertain their consistency with the theoretical requirements of continuity, stability and uniqueness. Second
is the experimental evaluation of the models with respect to their suitability to fit experimental data from a variety of available tests
and the ease of the determination of the material parameters from standard test data. The final criteria are the numerical and
computational evaluation of the models with respect to the facility which can be implemented in computer calculations [1]. However,
the objective of this paper is to extensively review classical and advanced soil constitutive models, which have been implemented by
several geotechnical software, to present a better understanding to young modelers in their projects, and also identify the applicability
and limitation swifter. The choice to adopt these two major categories of relations and application with adjoining topics is to guide the
readers straight to what area they need information on. There have been lots of efforts made in this area to suggest constitutive models
for solving complex geotechnical engineering problems. For this reason, researchers face great difficulty in accessing the lots of
available literature and in making the choice of the best approach for different geotechnical situations. Hence this research review
reduces this task and helps researchers have a grasp of the foundational knowledge in choosing modeling techniques suitable for their
particular problems.
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performance of OC clay. The Unified Hardening (UH) model is one of the most illustrative results in this regard [16,17,30,31]. A
unified hardening parameter was added for the model for over-consolidated clay under the MCC model framework indicating the
power of the model to explain some of OC clay features, including shear dilatancy, shear contraction, strain hardening, and softening
for the over-consolidation degree of zero. Then, it naturally returns to the MCC model. Thus, the MCC-based constitutive model can
simulate the OC clay soil behavior effectively.
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transient temperature on the dynamic performance. Furthermore, the ZWT model [72] was modified considering the accumulated
damage process. These models are extensively utilized to describe the constitutive relationships of concrete and metal, respectively.
For predicting the frozen soil well’s dynamic stress-strain curves, an energy-based constitutive model was also developed [73].
However, the framework could not explain the failure process due to the pathway independence of the energy method. To more
accurately describe the behavior of frozen soil, the damage progress procedure of frozen soil exposed to the impact loading must be
studied. Damage evolution in materials will happen during the loading process. The process becomes considerably complex with time
and other factors. Therefore, further investigation should be focused on this problem in the future.
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is essential to use the drained parameters (E , ν , φ ) in analyzing coarse-grained substances (sands and gravels). When liquefaction
′ ′ ′
under unloading conditions, using residual strength parameters of liquefied soil per Boulanger and Idriss [136] guidelines or adopting
advanced constitutive models can be typical approaches where the drained parameters are the input parameters. The failure behavior
is well captured generally in drained circumstances; however, the operative stress pathway followed in undrained materials may
significantly deviate from observations. Hence, in an undrained analysis, it is preferred to utilize undrained shear parameters with a
friction angle of zero. Prior to the local shear, the stiffness behavior (or deformation) is modeled poorly. For perfect plasticity, softening
or strain-hardening effects of the soil should not be included in the model. For instance, The Modified Cam-clay predicts more realistic
undrained shear strength in comparison to the Mohr-Coulomb model [137].
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the models have been created either by adapting the damping hysteretic nature or utilizing the corresponding viscous damping hy
pothesis [176,177]. The "Backbone curve” concept (or skeleton curve) determining the shear stress amplitude as a function of the shear
strain amplitude (Christensen, 1982)is used in most of these models, and the reloading and unloading branches of the hysteretic loops
are made via the Masing criterion [175]. The stationary cycle rules are prolonged for modeling irregular cyclic deformation possessing
a variable amplitude [173]. Masing’s works are the base of these rules, which took into account a plasticity model of
elastic-perfectly-plastic elements with various yield stresses. Furthermore, the inelastic behavior is represented by the soils’ cyclic
shearing with strain amplitudes of 10− 5, as well as a hysteretic association between the shear stress and strain. The strain–stress as
sociation for a considered soil is based on the density of the soil, the confining pressure, and the strain amplitude. The saturated soil’s
response to the cyclic deformation is also based on the drainage circumstances. In the drained conditions, the cyclic shearing of dry or
saturated soil leads to the soil’s gradual compaction. In undrained conditions, by the shearing of saturated soil, the effective pressure is
reduced, changing the soil’s shear stiffness, thus affecting the strain–stress association. It is worth noting that, under strong ground
motion, soil behavior tends to be nonlinear. Therefore, in this respect, the constitutive model that could consider the nonlinearity of
soils during seismic loading should have been used [178–181].
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clay for various strain levels. The viscous performance of clay was investigated in the field of Micro-rheology. The creep performance of
clay in terms of the rate process theory was described successfully by Singh and Mitchell [207] and Singh and Mitchell [208]. The rate
process theory was used for the shear force higher than the thermal energy to create an exponential type of non-linear flow law be
tween the strain rate and the shear force acting on each flow unit. Viscoelastic modeling is essential for describing both the plastic
nature of the soil and the viscous nature. A viscoplastic theory was proposed by Perzyna [209], generalizing the viscoplasticity theory’s
linear theory of Hohenemser and Prager [210]. A linear prolonged viscoplastic model considering the plasticity and fluid model of
Bingham was presented by Hohenemser and Prager [210]. According to Yong and Japp [211], it is possible to utilize the viscoplasticity
theory to the clay’s dynamic behavior. An elasto-viscoplastic theory was proposed by Adachi and Okano [51] first for clay, taking into
account Perzyna’s theory as well as the original Cam-clay model. A real-time elastic-viscoplastic model was presented by Sekiguchi
[212]. This model was presented initially as a creep model comprising failure. Time-dependent models were also derived [213,214],
known as non-stationary models. It is worth noting that these models involve time, which explicitly violates the objectivity principle.
An elastic-viscoplastic model was proposed by Yin and Graham [215] in terms of the flow surface and the modified Cam-clay model.
Recently, new visco-plastic constitutive models have been used for creep analysis in soft rocks or soils that some of them mentioned in
the following [216–218].
2.5.1.1. Thermo-mechanical. Recently, investigations have been performed on the effects of temperature on soils from different as
pects. Studying the thermal impacts on soils’ engineering features dates back to the late 30s. The first research was reported by Gray
[219] on the thermal effects on soil consolidation. In this field, the state-of-art motivating factors are the growth of industrial tech
nologies like a thermal technique for improving soil stability [220], changes in temperature of soil during storing and sampling [221],
temperatures around higher voltage buried cables [222], underground storage of thermal energy [223],temperature-induced by
augmented motions of some landslides [224,225], and neutralizing the reduction in permeability owing to remolding of soil followed
by installing drains by a mandrel [226]. It was indicated that the engineering properties of soils, such as compressibility, shear
strength, and permeability, are highly affected by increasing temperature to less than the boiling temperature of the water. Graham
et al. [227] presented various constitutive laws to simulate the soil’s behavior in increased temperatures occasionally oriented by
thermodynamic principles. However, they mainly have the CCM (Cam-clay) template and critical state concepts. Coupled behavior
was considered in some models, such as viscosity, thermal, hydraulic, mechanical, and chemical aspects [228,229]. Former studies
have mainly revealed the normal consolidation line movement to lower void ratio values at increased temperatures. Typically, the
changes in the location of the normal consolidation line (NCL)owing to the increased temperature are regarded as a parallel movement
to lower void ratio values in the compression plane [230]. Though, such assumptions are not always by the detailed assessment of
experimental data. Considering the modified Cam-clay model, an innovative method was proposed [231] for the structured soils’
deformation analysis. To obtain the generalization of the present model and pretend the performance of unsaturated soils observed
experimentally, Bishop’s suction and stress are introduced as independent stress parameters to modify the hardening agent and the
yield conditions to consider the suction role. A similar approach is used to predict an isothermal framework for estimating the un
saturated clays’ thermo-elastoplastic performance in triaxial stress space. By this model, the thermo-elastoplastic model is extended for
completely saturated clays presented by Hamidi et al. [225]. A non-related temperature-based flow rule was used in the current model
for simulating the clays’ mechanical performance on changes in suction and temperature. Recently, constitutive models of this topic
have been used to investigate the behavior of clay soils and rocks and, specifically, the structure variation during the thermo
mechanical type of loading condition. Also, pile-soil interaction is the other recent development field for these models [232–237].
2.5.1.2. Hydro-mechanical (HM). The macro behavior is controlled by the coupled HM mechanism owing to the interaction of the two
grain-scale phenomena, (1) rearrangement and grain sliding, (2) ruptures of a liquid bridge [238,239]. Noticeable hydro-mechanical
coupling is caused by these grain-scale phenomena at the continuum level with extensive investigations in various suction-controlled
[240,241] as well as constant water content [242,243]. Mainly, by increasing the suction, the shear strength [244] is increased along
with the yield limit [245] and dilatancy [246]. All these properties include the volume change related to the irreversible changes in
saturation [247] that are induced by the coupled mechanical and drying or wetting procedures. Such volume alteration is regarded as
an essential feature of unsaturated soils [248]. A constitutive model should be reflected by these critical features of partially saturated
soil for capturing the transition between unsaturated and saturated circumstances [249]. For instance, several papers have reported
the impacts of suction on the stress-strain relations [250]. Particularly, suction was utilized in a loading-collapse section for capturing
the plastic compression owing to the collapse behavior induced by wetting. The normal consolidation line (NCL) is changed with
suction, in which the compression index decreases [251,252] or increases by incrementing the suction [253]. However, these models
did not consider the relation between the degree of saturation and suction. Thus, it becomes difficult to regenerate the model responses
dependent on various saturation trends. For instance, there is very different cohesion induced by the liquid bridge distributions be
tween particles in the three saturation trends [254]. In this regard, an NCL was used [255] with the soil compression index changing
with the effective saturation degree. However, an NCL was proposed by Alonso et al. [240] based on both saturation degree and
suction. Further hardening constitutive laws were suggested [256,257] regarding the coexistence of saturation and strain rates. These
papers revealed that saturation and suction degrees have an indispensable role in model collapses of partially saturated soils induced
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by wetting or drying. Recent work in this area mainly considers the modeling of unsaturated soil behavior under different
hydro-mechanical loading. The new constitutive models have the advantages of more straightforward model calibration and subse
quent model parameters from different laboratory tests [258–261].
2.5.2. Multi-discipline
2.5.2.1. Thermo-hydro-mechanical (THM). Recently, the THM performance of partially saturated soils has been very attractive in
engineering, particularly in nuclear waste disposal. For a long time, it has been well-known that the variation of temperature highly
affects the hydro-mechanical features of porous media. Several attempts have been devoted to deeply comprehending the performance
in various aspects. Creating the THM mathematical model is one of the critical features of a quantitative study of coupled, transient
Thermo-Hydro-Mechanical performance. It investigates the mechanisms leading the THM performance and its evolution, formulation
of the PDE (partial differential equations), and discretizing of the leading equation system for numerical solutions. The finite element
model was developed [262–264] along with its solution process for heat transfer beside the nonlinear HM procedure in unsaturated
and saturated porous media. A completely coupled THM mathematical model was also presented [265–268], considering the
experimental findings and former studies. Several efforts have been allocated to numerically model the coupled
Thermo-Hydro-Mechanical procedures in environmental engineering problems, mainly the numerical simulation of the THM behavior
in engineered clay barriers. A general mathematical model was provided [269–271] to analyze Thermo-Hydro-Mechanical problems in
partially saturated soils with possible pollutant transport. Moreover, using the model was extended to numerically analyze THM
performance and damage phenomena of concrete at higher temperatures. Besides, it has also been attempted for mathematical
modeling. Another most vital feature is the experimental work on the constitutive connection for describing the
thermo-hydromechanical performance quantitatively. Hueckel and Borsetto [272] extended the modified Cam-Clay model to model
the saturated soils considering the temperature impacts. A thermo-mechanical model was presented by Cui et al. [273] for saturated
clays in terms of the Cam-Clay model. Significant contributions were made by Gens and Alonso [274] to experimentally assess the
constitutive modeling of unsaturated soils. Though, fewer studies have been performed on developing the THM constitutive model for
partially saturated soils. In the constitutive model of Gens et al. [275] for unsaturated soils, a generalization of the Cam-Clay yield
surface was considered in the suction, stress, and temperature space. Recently different THM models have been used to investigate the
saturated or unsaturated soil behavior that can be used for a specific problem [276–279].
2.6.1. 1D
1D relaxation experiments for saturated soils, especially clay, can be conducted in swelling and creep areas. Here, swelling is not
similar to the unsaturated soils. It happens in saturated conditions and is led by the time-based expansion of the saturated clay plates’
skeleton with a negative charge owing to moving the water with dipole attraction to the clay surface [280]. In clay soils, the swelling
was found in odometer circumstances [281]. Three distinct phases of swelling were defined by Sivapullaiah et al. [282]: primary
swelling, inner void swelling, and secondary swelling. The early experimental works were performed on a sand-bentonite mixture and
reconstituted illite [283]. A 1D elastic visco-plastic model was contemporarily proposed by Yin and Graham [283], considering the
equivalent time idea in the one-dimensional straining conditions while considering the clayey soils’ viscous performances. This EVP
model was esteemed and utilized for modeling and analyzing soft soils [284–286]. A novel constitutive 1D elastic visco-plastic model
was adopted by Tong and Yin [286], taking into account the swelling (1D EVPS) model for describing and simulating the nonlinear
stress-time performance of soils.
2.6.2. 2D and 3D
The fractional plastic flow rule and a three-dimensional yield function matching together are vital to establishing a three-
dimensional fractional framework for soils. Presently, yield function can be made in the 3D stress space in two methods: (1) Direct
technique where the yield surface is expressed explicitly based on the stress components [286–289], (2) Indirect technique, in which
the yield surface is made under triaxial compression circumstances in a transitional space to reflect yield features of soils under true
three-dimensional stress circumstances [290,291]. Regarding general stress components σij using the present fractional flow rule, it is
not possible to obtain clear expressions of the fractional derivative to the common 3D yield functions made by the specifically
mentioned approaches [292]. Therefore, to develop a three-dimensional fractional plasticity model, a three-dimensional fractional
plastic flow rule is eagerly needed with no restriction of the coordinate basis of the yield surface. Different identification methods are
now available, armed with completely-field measurements, including the Reciprocity Gap Method [293], Equilibrium Gap Method
[294], Finite Element Model Updating [295], and the Constitutive Equation Gap Method [296]. There is a common restriction in such
approaches as they are limited to 2D applications when analyzing two-dimensional full-field data. Though, three-dimensional impacts
should not be ignored in cases such as for thick samples constructed of an elastoplastic material. Wu et al. [297] used stereo-correlation
systems on different sides of a specimen for extracting the plane averaged through the thickness strain components. The framework
presented in Réthoré [298] can be prolonged to 3D kinematics. It should be noted that Rossi et al. [299] recently prolonged the Virtual
Field Method to include 3D data.
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Fig. 1. Cam clay and modified cam clay yield surface in (a) 2D and (b) 3D space. Cam clay over-consolidation, normal, and critical state line with
equivalent model parameters [308,309].
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means that the critical state limits the changes in effective stress, deviator stress, and specific volume that can occur during a test. For a
given soil, all critical states create a unique line known as the Critical State Line (CSL) determined by the equations q = Mp and ν = Γ−
′
λ ln(p ) in the space (p ,q, ν), where Γ, M, and λ are soil constants. It is worth noting that M and λ is the slope of CSL in q- p and ν - ln(p )
′ ′ ′ ′
plane. By the first equation, the magnitude of the deviatoric stress q is determined, which is required to maintain the continuous soil
flowing as the product of the mean effective stress p and a frictional constant M (capital μ). The second equation indicates that by
′
increasing the logarithm of the mean effective stress, the specific volume ν filled by the unit volume of flowing particles is decreased
[304–307]. Fig. 1 shows the schematic illustration of these parameters. MCC or CC model variation was represented in two (Fig. 1a, c)
or three (Fig. 1b) dimensional spaces, which explicitly shows the difference in yield surface (Fig. 1a). The NCL shows points at which
soil specimens are normally consolidated, while the CSL shows where soil specimens reach critical states.
Various improvements were presented to this theory including taking into account fabric effects or using the nonlinear formulas for
the critical state line [310,311]. Within the critical state theory framework, a proper constitutive model is also searched for OC clays
[312]. Roscoe and Burland [301] presented the modified Cam-clay (MCC) model as the soil models’ prototype in this context.
Several models were presented in terms of the MCC model for overcoming some of its disadvantages like excessive dilatancy, the
sharp transition from elasticity to plasticity, and the overestimation of the shear resistance of OC clays [313,314]. Considering the
restrictions of the classical theory of plasticity, several studies have tried to look for better hardening rules for modeling cyclic behavior
and smooth elastic-plastic transition from the 1960s [315]. There are two successful and common theories in this regard including (a)
The theory of multi-surface plasticity presented by Mróz [316] and Iwan [317]; and (b) The theory of bounding surface (or two
surfaces) plasticity caused by Dafalias and Popov [318], and Krieg, [319]. These concepts were developed initially for metals.
However, they found applications quickly in modeling geomaterials [320–324]. For the structured soils, some of the conventional
elastoplastic models are compensated by integrating multi-surface kinematic bubble and bounding surfaces models such as stress
history dependency of the material, stiffness nonlinearity in the elastic domain, and reduced size of yield surface caused by bond
degradation. Constitutive models were developed by incorporating the above features [55,56,59,114]. In most of the soil models
oriented by critical state soil mechanics, it is assumed that the soil structure’s isotropic behavior avoids redundant complexity of
mathematical details owing to the anisotropic behavior. Nevertheless, some models are oriented by critical state concepts considering
the soil’s anisotropic nature [325]. The critical state-based soil models are not able to explain the memory of immediate stress history,
the small strain stiffness, and stiffness changes in the estimated response of soils under a non-monotonic loading. However, such soil
model (multi-surface and bounding models) enhances the critical state elasto-plastic models to describe the complex soil performance
under cyclic unloading and loading by incrementing the coupling level between deviatoric and volumetric components of soil
Fig. 2. Relationship between, Artificial intelligence (AI), Machine learning (ML), and Deep Learning (DL).
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K.C. Onyelowe et al. Heliyon 9 (2023) e14465
performance.
As a kinematic-hardening model, the bubble model consists of a small yield surface enclosing an elastic domain that can move
within but never outside of the outer boundary. By using the bubble model, Cam clay can be extended to describe small strain stiffness,
stiffness degradation with strain in clays that have been overconsolidated, moderate memory of recent stress history, and hysteresis
when loaded cyclically [326,327]. It is challenging for most bubble models to be incorporated into finite element programs. Moreover,
they do not take into account the cementation-caused cohesion intercept. In this regard, some of the critical properties of the clay
structured artificially are not believed mainly the crushing in soil cementation structures. Thus, these models are merely appropriate
for naturally structured soils. However, it can be utilized for describing the constitutive performance of lightly cemented soils.
Nevertheless, the cohesion intercept is considerable for the cement-treated clay [328,329].
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K.C. Onyelowe et al. Heliyon 9 (2023) e14465
Soil is a complex natural material that exhibits varied behavior. Constitutive relations used to model the geotechnical behavior of
different types of soil widely range from basic linear elastic models to more complex relations that are required to model hardening and
consolidation. Constitutive relations are mathematical representations of the stress-strain behavior of the soil under different loading
conditions. The constitutive models vary from simple to complex relationships to represent the various geotechnical conditions. The
common models used for the simulation of soil behavior are Hooke’s model, Mohr-Coloumb’s model, hyper and hypo elastic model,
cam clay model, etc., and can be extended for various geotechnical applications.
3.1.1.1. Slope stability. Slope stability analysis is vital to design safe slopes for any engineering structure like an embankment, natural
slope, landfill, etc. Experimental investigations do not provide an adequate understanding on the internal deformation of failed slopes
or the evolution strain of slope failure [216]. Numerical methods can be very helpful in not only analyzing slope failures but also in
helping to identify the failure response under various loading, drainage and environmental conditions. The finite element method
(FEM) is more popularly used for analyzing the stability of slopes and predicting their behavior, particularly for complex slopes under
non-steady state conditions. The success of the analysis depends greatly on the stress-strain response of the material and its mathe
matical representation of behavior (i.e) constitutive relationship. Linear and non-linear constitutive relations like elastic,
elasto-plastic, hardening, and softening are used to model the slope failure. Shear strength is the most important factor that governs
slope stability and therefore emphasis on strength and related parameters are of significance for modeling slope stability. Constitutive
relations based on the statistical theory of damage have been successfully used to model the strain-softening behavior of both soil and
rock [364]. The availability of commercial software packages like PLAXIS, Geo-slope, FLAC, etc. presents the possibility of modeling
slopes with a combination of constitutive relations. Chang and Yin [365] modeled anisotropic granular soil in the slip surface of a failed
slope and studied the deformation behavior of each plane by varying the mechanical properties of the granular soil in each of the
directions of the mobilized shear planes. The model successfully predicted the behavior of the granular soil in the slip surface under
diverse stress paths. Kalantari et al. [366] compared the performance of modified cam clay and the Mohr-Coulomb model for slopes
made of fine-grained soil stochastically and reported that the modified cam clay model showed a lower reliability coefficient than the
Mohr-Coulomb model. Zou et al. [367] developed a shear constitutive model that described the deformation behavior and failure
characters of the slip zone to address the gap in soil softening models that did not take into account the physical properties and
stress-strain of the slip zone. Their model predicted the shear –displacement response under different normal stresses with a limited
number of experimental data on shear strength and estimated the dynamic factor of safety.
Numerical models are effective in capturing the hydro-mechanical behavior of soil but there is a discernible difference in the
behavior of the natural and modeled slope due to improper representation of the physical process which can be attributed to a number
of factors like selection of poorly suited the constitutive relation, complexity in slope geometry, unknown initial and boundary con
ditions, or combination of any of the mentioned factors [368]. Mohsan et al. [368] suggest that measured slope behavior can be used
for the selection of constitutive relations and subsequent modeling. Data assimilation or inverse analysis that adjusts the data based on
field conditions can be used to improve the model significantly as established by authors Brinkgreve et al. [2], Liu et al. [259],
Numerous studies compare the modeled displacement obtained from various constitutive relations with observed field data
[369–371]. Mohsan et al. [368] studied the effect of assimilating the observed field displacement measurement in the calculation of
the factor of safety using the Mohr-Coulomb and hardening soil model under unsteady hydraulic conditions and investigated the
non-linearity in the selected models by comparing the conditions close to failure and far from failure. Mohsan et al. [368] concluded
their study by stating that the hardening soil model tends to estimate the factor of safety with a narrow posterior distribution and also
demands less effort on computation than the Mohr-Coulomb soil model indicating that constitutive models with an influence of
strength in the elastic zone are better suited for effective data assimilation.
3.1.1.2. Bearing capacity. Bearing capacity determination is the fundamental input in the design of shallow foundations. Bearing
capacity is often estimated based on saturated soil conditions neglecting the effect of capillarity and matrix suction that results in a
lower bearing capacity. Constitutive relations for the case of unsaturated soil are in general based on completely saturated soils ac
counting for the effect of the suction and partial saturation. Georgiadis et al. [372] used a three-dimensional model that used
elasto-plastic constitutive relation to understand the collapse behavior of unsaturated soils over a wide range of stresses and suction
adopting a non-linear relationship between suction and shear strength. This approach provided more flexibility. Vanapalli and
Mohamed [373] proposed an equation to determine the bearing capacity of unsaturated soil taking into account the non-linear
behavior of soil based on laboratory tests on the square footing and validated the equation with experimental studies. Zhang et al.
[252] investigated the effectiveness of the Barcelona basic model for unsaturated soils and reported that this model does not effectively
reflect the behavior of unsaturated soil under both elastic and undrained conditions. The limitation was attributed to inconsistency in
the assumption that wetting and drying curves showed a unique function between matric suction and degree of saturation with the
volume change behavior. McMahon and Bolton [374] adopted the energy method for a linear and elastic von Mises geomaterial along
with the flow to investigate the deformation mechanism under a shallow foundation both before and after failure. Wuttke et al. [375]
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studied the failure surface and validation of deformation caused by plastic load using a hardening model (single surface) using
experimental data from tests conducted on small-scale footings placed on partially saturated sand to formulate the elasto-plastic
macro-element in case of shallow footings. The applied load was vertical and concentric. The parameters affecting soil suction
were also investigated. Ghorbani et al. [376] used the extended modified cam clay model to study the load-displacement behavior of
rigid footings that were loaded statically. Their work effectively predicted the changes in both the mechanical and hydraulic properties
and was able to accommodate problems involving both static and dynamic loading. Tang et al. [377] used the elastic – perfectly plastic
Mohr-Coulomb constitutive relation to investigate the bearing capacity in unsaturated soils under different drainage conditions like
constant water content, constant suction and constant influence of suction on effective stress and strength. The hydraulic hysteresis
and the relation of soil water characteristic curve on change in volume were also considered in the study. Lavasan et al. [378] used
finite difference (FDM) package FLAC that applied the elasto-plastic Mohr-Coulomb constitutive relation to study the ultimate bearing
capacity of closely spaced strip footings. Their study compared the failure mechanisms using enhanced limit equilibrium, kinetic
element method and FDM and concluded that inverted arching that enhanced bearing capacity of closely spaced footings did not form
in soil with low friction angles. Evans and Baker [379] studied the bearing capacity of shallow foundation on unsaturated soil using the
constitutive model by adopting a modified cohesion term in the conventional Vesic’s equation and found that bearing capacity was
under estimated in conventional analysis.
3.1.1.3. Settlement of foundations. Settlement calculations are a routine and mandatory part of foundation design. The linear elastic
behavior of soil is often used to determine the settlement of a particularly shallow foundation. But soil exhibits a non-linear behavior
even for strains of very small magnitude [380]. This makes the choice of stiffness challenging in an elastic analysis as it increases with
strain level. Abed and Vermeer [381] investigated the settlement behavior of footings using Barcelona basic model and modified cam
clay model under saturated conditions and observed that theoretical results matched the results obtained from numerical analysis.
Osman and Bolton [382] modeled the non-linear behavior of soil by adopting a scaled stress-strain curve (from triaxial test data to
footing load-settlement curve) using mobilized strength design (MSD). Klar and Osman [383] further extended the MSD using
constitutive relations elastic perfectly plastic, hyperbolic and truncated power law for minimizing energy. This allowed displacement
to change with loading sequence. In the early stages of loading elastic relation was adopted and in the latter stages used Pradtl’s plastic
solution. Vardanega and Bolton [384] proposed a power-law relation to representing the non-linear response of stress-strain in clay
and reported that their model predicted the settlement behavior with an increase in load. Dougherty and Wood [385] used an extended
Mohr-Coulomb model that combines an isotropic elastic component, yield surface adopted from the Mohr-Coulomb model, and flow
rule from the cam clay model and using an asymptotic strain hardening rule to estimate the settlement of footing placed on the sand.
There was good agreement between the load test results and the predicted settlement values. A considerable amount of creep set
tlement was also observed indicating the sand in the site is over-consolidated. Le et al. [386] used the Barcelona basic model to
represent the mechanical behavior and van Genuchten’s relation to model flow in unsaturated soil to investigate the differential
settlement caused by rainfall infiltration. They also combined the finite element method (FEM) with random fields to account for
heterogeneity in soil. The results show that structures may experience cracking or tilting when supported by rigid foundations resting
on partially saturated soil characterized by varying distribution of pre-consolidation stress due to infiltration of rain water. McMohan
et al. [374] using the energy method investigated the settlement of the foundation adopting von Mises yield criteria and concluded in
their study that the cavity mechanism is more suited to predict small settlements while Prandtl’s mechanism yields a better upper
bound solution. Oh and Vanapalli [387] developed a technique extending the finite element analysis to investigate the bearing ca
pacity and settlement behavior of partially saturated fine-grained soils and found that settlement behavior is not affected the earth
pressure when the modified total stress analysis was used as the friction angle adopted was zero and Poison’s ratio of 0.495 yielded best
results for the soil under study.
3.1.1.4. Earth pressure. Design of retaining structures unloading combined in part with deviatoric loading. Also arching behind the
retaining walls produce varying load distributions. Federico et al. [388] predicted the coefficient of earth pressure at rest for soils that
are normally consolidated by adopting the elasto-plastic constitutive model. In order to estimate lower values of the earth pressure
coefficient for fixed friction angles, the surface shape of the plastic potential of the modified cam clay model non-associated flow rule
was adopted. Al Atik and Sitar [389] conducted an experimental and analytical study to investigate both the distribution and
magnitude of earth pressure against a cantilever retaining structure that held a sand backfill of dense nature. An elasto-plastic
hardening constitutive relation was used by Bakr and Ahmad [390] to model the earth pressure on a rigid retaining wall subjected
to seismic loads in PLAXIS. The soil model considers the stiffness of soil, stress dependency, reduction in the shear modulus
non-linearly, and hysteretic damping. Design charts portraying the relation between seismic earth pressure and its movement were
derived accounting for the effect of the height of the wall, acceleration level, and frequency of seismic motion.
3.1.1.5. Soil dynamics. Constitutive relations for soil dynamics are fundamental to understanding the dynamic properties of the soil
and also the soil structure interaction on the application of dynamic loads. Considerable efforts have been taken by geotechnical
engineers to describe the hysteretic non-linear behavior in soils, particularly granular soils. Yang and Ling [391] modified the plastic
model to dependency at pressure level and hardening on being subjected to cyclic load which showed good agreement with experi
mental data but suffered the limitation of lacking the adaptability to consider the impact of change in void ratio. Masing [392]
developed a one-dimensional stress-strain response under cyclic loading of constant stress type by adopting a hyperbola to express the
skeleton curve and constructed the hysteretic curve by double times method but this procedure had a major drawback where the stress
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calculated was greater than the ultimate stress when cyclic loading was of irregular type. Several authors conducted investigations on
Masing type hysteresis loop to analyze the response in earthquake sites [393–395]. Chong [396] adopted the Davidenkov model to
describe the relation between amplitude and friction angle in relation to the non-linear hysteretic behavior. The study shows that the
model is successful in capturing the stress-dependent dynamic response of the soil and also helps to understand the non-linear hys
teretic stress-strain response.
3.1.1.6. Soil-structure interaction. Soil-structure interaction (SSI) is of vital importance in geotechnical design. The chief concern in SSI
problems is the mechanical behavior of both soil and the material in contact with the soil. Geotechnical design of retaining structures,
cut-off walls, deep foundations and reinforced earth benefit from the knowledge of SSI parameters. Soil-structure interface is an
important parameter in a constitutive relation and is necessary for obtaining realistic solutions matching field performance in prob
lems involving soil-structure interaction (SSI). The frictional characteristics of the soil interface are of primary importance for theo
retical analysis and also design. Numerous constitutive models are used to describe the interface behavior. The elastic perfect-plastic
relation has been adopted to model the interface and the tangential stiffness of the interface is set to zero when the shear stress is
greater than the shear strength [397]. Clough and Duncan [398] developed a non-linear model that has also been used widely for
modeling the behavior of interface but this model is not capable of considering the retrained dilation that occurs in the interface of the
dense sand and structure. Plastic models have also been proposed by some authors [399,400] that take into account the coupling of the
shear and normal behavior. The interface behavior of rock joints was modeled using the disturbed state concept (DSC) and this model
considered the coupling behavior of interfaces [401]. The DSC model can address the dilatancy and strain-softening behavior. Hu and
Pu [402] developed a damage model based on the DSC and simulated a rough interface. Liu et al. [195] attempted to model the SSI of
sandy soil through the concept of critical state soil mechanics addressing the variations in density and normal stress. The proposed
method has the capability to model strain hardening, softening, dilatancy, and stress path dependency of the SSI when sheared. Zhou
and Lu [403] proposed a bi-potential SSI model to assess the strain-softening and dilatancy behavior of the soil under the generalized
potential theory. This model has the advantage of deriving the elasto-plastic matrix without deriving plastic potential and yield
surfaces.
Over the years, researchers started concentrating on the dynamic effects of SSI. Torabi and Rayhani [404] proposed a 3D finite
element model to study the seismic response of SSI and validated the model through numerical results of soft clay under the situation.
Results reveal the tall and slender structures under seismic load suffer dynamic effects of SSI predominantly. Knappett et al. [405]
studied the dynamic response of adjacent buildings through the SSI mechanism. The proposed model could effectively predict the
structure behavior and the model could be effective in designing buildings in earthquake-prone urban areas. Saberi et al. [406] studied
the SSI effects on geostructures under both sandy and gravelly stratum under static and dynamic loading with the ability to predict
their complex mechanisms under various loading and stress path conditions. Mercado et al. [407] highlighted the drawbacks of as
sumptions and simplifications in soil modeling to reduce the complexity. They compared the effects of seismic loads on a tall building
with linear elastic and non-linear inelastic models. Results showed that the non-linear inelastic model was more accurate in the
prediction. This accumulated knowledge on the SSI and its effects could be helpful in the analysis of various geotechnical applications
like the prediction of a pile or piled raft behavior, tunneling, and shoring activities.
Luccioni [408] proposed a constitutive model for the simulation of deep excavation in clay focusing on the deformations around
them. Hejazi et al. [409] compared the effects and the limitations of three materials models, namely the linear-elastic perfectly plastic
Mohr-Coulomb model, the Hardening soil model, and the Hardening soil model with small-strain stiffness. Validation of results from
real-time results reveals that complexity in the model showed the advantage of better prediction of responses. The outcome revealed
that Bourgeois et al. [410] proposed an SSI-based multiphase model to analyze the settlement of piled raft foundations. Upon vali
dation with numerical analysis, the model could effectively predict the variations in length and diameter of the pile group in the
squared piled raft foundation. Essa and Desai [411] analyze the dynamic response of individual piles subjected to dynamic loads with
the disturbed state concept. The non-linear model helped in the accurate prediction of dynamic and liquefaction effects of soil and
structure interaction.
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building. It transfers ground heat to the buildings during winter and it transfers the heat from the building to the ground in summer.
Iodice et al. [415] used a coupled thermo-hydro-mechanical model to predict the behavior of thermal pile in normally consolidated
clay with three soil models, namely, the Mohr-Coulomb model, modified cam clay model and Hypoplastic model under thermal cycles.
Results reveal that higher-end complex models like the hypoplastic model are necessary to simulate the thermal behavior of soil. Song
et al. [416] did a long-term evaluation of thermal piles using a thermo-mechanical model under various climatic conditions. Under
each condition, the thermal variations, axial load on the pile, and displacement of the pile head with thermal variation were compared.
The work showed that the thermal imbalance with nonsymmetrical thermal demands is more concerned than the balanced thermal
demands in the surrounding soil. The induced axial forces are less, whereas the head displacement is more at nonsymmetrical thermal
demands.
3.1.3. Hydrological
Hydrological soil models deal with the water flow characteristics, effects of seepage and dewatering, and other effects of changes in
the saturation conditions of the soil. Que et al. [417] developed a constitutive model to study the effect of seepage on a columnar
jointed rock mass by adopting quadrangular, pentagonal, and hexagonal prism models and by altering the column deflection angles.
Numerical validation suggests that the pentagonal prism model predicted the behavior in an effective way, and the relation between
hydraulic conductivity and confining pressure followed the general seepage rule. Zhang et al. [418] worked on the seepage analysis of
the dike due to an increase in water level and due to rainfall. A coupled two-phase smoothened particle hydrodynamic model was used
to simulate dike failure conditions. The same has been validated through the model test on a slope and dike failure under rainfall
conditions. Water was considered as a quasi-incompressible fluid and soil was in its unsaturated conditions. This model could act as a
preliminary study on the seepage problems associated with dikes. Waterproofed curtains will usually be used as barriers to prevent the
entry of water in deep well excavations. However, tampering and damaging or leakages from the barriers are usually possible under
operating conditions. Wu et al. [419] proposed a 3D solid-fluid coupled model to study the effects of such barrier leakage and found
that the leakage induces excess deformation in the longitudinal direction, a drawdown of groundwater outside the excavation zone,
change in the direction of flow. They found that the factors influencing the leakage are the area and location of leakage, depth of
penetration of the pumping well, and the anisotropic nature of the aquifer.
3.2.1. Thermo-mechanical
The application of thermo-mechanical in geotechnical engineering extends to areas such as nuclear waste disposal, geothermal
structures, petroleum drilling, buried cables, and seasonal variations of pavement subgrade and foundations for furnaces [420]. Liu
and Xing [421] derived a newer non-linear soil model from a double-hardening soil model to outline the behavior of saturated clays.
The model predicted the effects of temperature variations and over-consolidation ratio on the saturated clays and the same had been
verified through experimental results. Hamidi and Khazaei [255] proposed a thermal extension of the Modified Cam clay model to
simulate the behavior of saturated clays up to 100 ◦ C in triaxial conditions. Further, the work gave a clear idea of the reduction of void
ratio with temperature increase highly relies on the stress conditions of the soil element. However, this model holds good only on fixed
higher temperatures and it will not explain the isothermal expansive nature of the soil. Zhou and Ng [422] proposed a
thermo-mechanical elastoplastic model for the soil incorporating the structural effects. The aspects of the soil with the structure are
discussed with the help of three parameters, namely pre-consolidation pressure, thermal softening, and degradation of soil structure.
The model is validated through cyclic heating and cooling of loess at various compaction conditions. Zymnis et al. [423] analyzed the
thermal consolidation properties and accumulation of strain subjected to season thermal variation in the Tsinghua Thermo Soil (TTS)
model and calibrated it with the laboratory results of Geneva clay. However, the authors concluded that further validation with other
types of clay is necessary for fully understanding the thermo-mechanical behavior of the TTS model.
3.2.2. Hydro-mechanical
Zhou and Sheng [424] proposed a 13 parameter-based constitutive model to analyze the behavior of partially saturated soil under
various initial density conditions. The modeling uses a sub-loading surface with hardening parameters in Bishop’s effective
stress-effective degree of saturation space to study the impact of initial densities. This model, in turn, will be reduced to modified cam
clay under fully saturated and normally consolidated conditions. A similar approach was attempted by Lei et al. [425] to predict the
unsaturated soil’s response at various over-consolidation ratios. Gholizadeh and Latifi [426] proposed a constitutive model addressing
both saturated and unsaturated soil having friction and cohesion characteristics. The models work with deviatoric and isotropic
mechanisms at multi-surface and conventional plasticity frameworks, respectively. Under the concept of the bounding surface, the
hydraulic part works in the critical state framework. Qiao et al. [427] proposed a micro and macro-structured hydro-mechanical model
for compacted bentonite. The model incorporates mechanical and water-retention models under micro and macro scales, respectively.
It is observed upon validation that elastoplastic behavior is a characteristic of both micro and macrostructure and the water retention
phenomenon is unique for both structures. Tang et al. [428] proposed a hypoplastic material-based coupled hydro-mechanical model
for understanding rainfall-induced landslides. The model is tested with various rainfall types and intensities and the model is verified
with the Baishuihe landslide in South China. This model holds the advantage of having simple and fewer parameters and would be
helpful when there are fewer rainfall data or parameters available. However, the model does not account for the unsaturated con
ditions and behavior of soil.
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3.2.2.1. Consolidation, swelling and collapse. Constitutive modeling of partially saturated soil with non-linear compression lines tends
to predict the collapse potential inaccurately. Georgiadis et al. [429] proposed a 22-parameter constitutive model which can be ob
tained through a series of laboratory tests were proposed. The proposed model described the wetting-induced collapse with great
accuracy. Liu et al. [430] investigated stress-induced deformation and time-dependent swelling behavior of expansive soils using
one-dimensional constitutive modeling. The advantage of this proposed model is that the parameters can be obtained through routine
tests under general practice. Despite the simplicity of the model, this leads the way for modeling soil that possesses both high
compressive and swelling behavior.
3.2.2.2. Liquefaction. Liquefaction is a phenomenon where saturated or partially saturated sand loses its shear strength and starts
behaving like a fluid. Liquefaction is a dynamic phenomenon that mandates numerical modeling. Material modeling of liquefaction in
soil has been extensively studied by researchers since the early and late 1980s. However, over time many new and innovative de
velopments were made in the initial models of liquefaction analysis. Liyanapathirana and Poulos [431] used an effective stress-based
model to ascertain the loss of shear strength and the development of pore pressure upon liquefaction. The new method developed has
the advantage of fewer parameters than the existing method. Moreover, the new methods showed higher accuracy in the prediction of
pore pressure ratio than the traditional equivalent cycle method and the same had been verified with the parameters of the Kobe
earthquake. Mroz et al. [432] proposed a superior sand model to predict liquefaction under saturated conditions in loose sand under
monotonic, cyclic loading. The model predicted plane strain compression behavior under drained and undrained conditions. Najma
and Latifi [433] developed a model for a flow liquefaction study and the results revealed that the stress ratio that triggers liquefaction
depends on void ratio, state parameters, and other material-dependent parameters. This method divides stress paths into two parts,
namely the one which retains the original soil structure and the other which collapses the soil for all cyclic, monotonic, and constant
deviatoric stresses. Choobbasti et al. [434] analyzed the effect of fines content in the liquefaction potential of sand using various
experimental analyses and through Finn’s constitutive model, it is observed that at lower content of fines (up to 20%), the sand
behavior was predominant however with the increase in the percentage of fines, the critical slope decreases as the liquefaction
resistance increased. In the case of liquefaction behavior being cyclic mobility, elasto-plastic constitutive models can be successfully
used but if they are of flow liquefaction, the behavior is complex. Lü et al. [435] used a constitutive relation that allows phase transition
criteria to sense the start of liquefaction and uses both elastoplastic and fluid relations in a framework to model liquefaction. They
observed in their study that the developed model described the behavior of soil in solid and fluid phases smoothly transiting from solid
to liquid phase.
3.3. Multi-discipline
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They applied the principles of static equilibrium, mass and energy conservation to obtain the governing equation. They found that
compressed air energy storage is not feasible in the jointed rock mass and as it results in energy loss. Gens et al. [441] analyzed the
consequences of thermal loading on the Opalinus clay of Switzerland, which served as the source soil at the disposal site of nuclear
waste. They studied thermal conductivity, thermal-induced pore pressure, and mechanical effects on the soil in connection with the
THM model. Fig. 3 shows the THM model involved in the thermal loading of soil. Yang and Bai [442] coupled the idea of thermo
dynamics with granular soil hydrodynamics, and predicted the plastic deformation and effective stress on unsaturated soil, thereby
providing a framework on complex geotechnical problems under unsaturated soil conditions. With several works started emerging in
coupled THM soil behavior, this model still remains as one of the complex models to simulate soil conditions.
4. Discussions
Soils exhibit spontaneous and erratic reactions during loading and unloading and also when exposed to moisture effects during soil
reconstitution and some natural occurrences like percolation, seepage, impregnation, capillary rise, etc. Due to this reason, it is a
difficult geomaterial to handle both at the design and construction stages. The dry, partially saturated, and fully saturated states of soil
are studied with utmost design considerations more especially when stress-strain relationships are concerned due to the effect of
moisture conditions at the three different hydraulic states. In this work, soil constitutive modeling in both relations and applications in
solving geotechnical engineering problems have been extensively reviewed. This has been done with emphasis: on soil type; soft clay-
consolidated and hard clay-overconsolidated conditions, granular soil, cemented soil, soft rock, intact and fractured rock, on ground
water; dry soil, saturated soil, and drained/undrained soil conditions, on loading conditions; monotonic and cyclic loading, impact
loading, and seismic loading, on structural behavior; linear and nonlinear, time-independence (elastoplastic conditions), and time-
dependent (viscoplastic conditions); on constitutive relation discipline; bi-discipline (coupled conditions) like thermomechanical
(TM) and hydromechanical (HM) conditions, multidiscipline like thermohydromechanical (THM) conditions and on dimensions; one,
two and three-dimensional modeling relations. By extension also, the soil constitutive applications were reviewed on the bases of:
single discipline dealing with soil mechanical properties constitutive modeling which included slope stability problems, bearing ca
pacity, settlement of foundations, earth pressure problems, soil dynamics, soil structure interaction, thermal and hydrological con
ditions; bi-discipline (coupled problems) which solve problems related to thermo-mechanical (freeze/thaw conditions) and
hydromechanical (consolidation, collapse, and liquefaction) conditions in soils and rocks and multi-discipline constitutive models
which solve complex problems related to thermo-hydromechanical (THM) conditions in soils and rocks. It can be observed from other
related reviews that have been done in recent years that none has been as extensive as this present work and as current in exposing
recent developments in soil constitutive modeling for instance the application of HM models, THM models, and SPH in solving
geotechnical engineering problems.
Constitutive equations are the ones that simply describe the relationship between stresses and strains in geomechanics material
under different environmental or boundary conditions. The existing constitutive relation in previous literature could be categorized
according to soil type, groundwater, type of loading, structural behavior, discipline, dimensions, and so on. From reviewed literature,
it can be determined which relations dealing with soil type, ground water, loading type, behavior, discipline and dimensions, we have
model strengths compared to others. In each item, there are multiple equations that particularly deal with a specific phenomenon. We
have tried to mention some of the well-known equation territories in this paper. Choosing each of the models directly depends on the
geotechnical and geophysical problems, materials, loading types, and many other parameters. However, a comparison has been
conducted in this paper for some of the abovementioned items. Due to the specific characterization of existing constitutive equations,
the designer or constructor could choose an appropriate model group and then, using each subsection’s content and potentially
comparison, find his/her relevant models. We have tried to extensively describe the previous models and some of their advantages and
disadvantages that could help anyone find the best one based on its choice related to the problem territory. But the best attractive part
of this paper is the nearly all recent models (more than 300 constitutive models) in 6 classes that have been extensively reviewed.
Focusing on this information could attract many researchers and let them know about the recent progress in their fields of interest.
5. Conclusions
From the foregoing overview of literature solving geotechnical engineering problems by adopting soil constitutive modeling re
lations and applications, it can be concluded that;
• In slope stability problems, the hardening soil model tends to estimate the factor of safety with a narrow posterior distribution and
also demands less effort on computation than the Mohr-Coulomb soil model indicating that constitutive models with an influence of
strength in the elastic zone are better suited for effective data assimilation.
• In bearing capacity problems, elasto-plastic Mohr-Coulomb constitutive relation studies the ultimate bearing capacity of closely
spaced strip footings and compares the failure mechanisms using enhanced limit equilibrium, kinetic element method and FDM and
uses inverted arching that enhanced bearing capacity of closely spaced footings which do not form in soils with low friction angles.
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• In settlement problems, Barcelona basic model has been proposed to best solve the mechanical behavior and van Genuchten model
to solve flow in unsaturated soil and investigate the differential settlement caused by rainfall infiltration. It is also noted that these
were combined in the finite element method (FEM) with random fields to account for heterogeneity in soil.
• Validation of results from real-time results reveals that complexity in the model showed the advantage of better prediction of
responses
• A non-linear model helps in the accurate prediction of dynamic and liquefaction effects of soil and structure interaction
• Higher-end complex models like the hypoplastic model are necessary to simulate the thermal behavior of soil
• The work showed that the thermal imbalance with nonsymmetrical thermal demands is more concerned than the balanced thermal
demands at the surrounding soil
• A 3D solid-fluid coupled model has been proposed to best study the effects of barrier leakage though with induced excess defor
mation in the longitudinal direction, a drawdown of groundwater outside the excavation zone, and change in the direction of flow
• Thermo-mechanical elastoplastic model, thermal consolidation properties and accumulation of strain subjected to season thermal
variation in Tsinghua Thermo Soil (TTS) model and calibrated with the laboratory results of Geneva clay has been proposed to best
model soil thermal coupled conditions. It is equally concluded that further validation with other types of clay is necessary for fully
understanding the thermo-mechanical behavior of the TTS model.
• Hypoplastic material-based coupled hydro-mechanical model for understanding rainfall-induced landslides is also proposed to best
model geophysical flows like landslides. The model is tested with various rainfall types and intensities and the model is verified
with the Baishuihe landslide in South China. This model holds the advantage of having simple and fewer parameters and would be
helpful when there are fewer rainfall data or parameters available. However, the model does not account for the unsaturated
conditions and behavior of soil.
• Finally, hydromechanical (HM) models are better suited for geotechnical applications, while thermo-hydromechanical (THM)
models are better suited to solving freeze/thaw and thermal piles problems and these are proven with high performance and
flexibility.
All authors listed have significantly contributed to the development and the writing of this article.
Funding statement
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
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