Cold fusion - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia ‘hitp://en. wikipedia org/wiki/Cold_fusion Cold fusion From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Cold fusion refers to a proposed nuclear fusion process of SHOE CONNETON unknown mechanism offered to explain a group of disputed cotSmeTon “T-oxsouncer experimental results first reported by electrochemists Martin Yip eves Fleischmann and Stanley Pons. It is sometimes termed "Low cee Energy Nuclear Reaction" (LENR) to avoid the negative ._Ale connotations associated with the original name.!"IP7I_ The field ni originates with reports of an experiment by Martin Fleischmann, wet then one of the world’s leading electrochemists,'*! and Stanley Pons in March of 1989 where they reported anomalous heat SE production ("excess heat") of a magnitude they asserted would L defy explanation except in terms of nuclear processes. They eee td wera rit further reported measuring small amounts of nuclear reaction a byproducts, including neutrons and tritium.!"! The small tabletop a experiment involved electrolysis of heavy water on the surface woe — SIE sexe urvom of plain (P) lestrode aaa aameee The media reported that nuclear fusion was happening inside the "te New Hydrogen Energy Institute in Japan electrolysis cells,!*! and these reports raised hopes of a cheap and abundant source of energy.!”! Hopes fell when replication failures were weighed in view of several reasons cold fusion is not likely to occur, the discovery of possible sources of experimental error, and finally the discovery that Fleischmann and Pons had not actually detected nuclear reaction byproducts.'8! By late 1989, most scientists considered cold fusion claims dead,!?! and cold fusion subsequently gained a reputation as pathological science.!!°! However, a small community of researchers continues to investigate cold fusion!?I// E2103) claiming to replicate Fleishman and Pons' results including nuclear reaction byproducts. U4IUSI These claims are largely disbelieved in the mainstream scientific community"! tn 1989, the majority of a review panel organized by the US Department of Energy (DOE) found that the evidence for the discovery of a new nuclear process was not persuasive. A second DOE review, convened in 2004 to look at new research, reached conclusions similar to the first 17! Contents = History = 1.1 Before the Fleischmann—Pons experiment = 1.2 Fleischmann-Pons experiment = 1.2.1 Events preceding announcement = 1.2.2 Announcement = 1.2.3 Response and fallout 1.3 Ongoing work 1.4 Publications 1.5 Conferences 1.6 Further reviews and funding issues = 2 Experiments and reported results = 2.1 Excess heat and energy production = 2.2 Helium, heavy elements, and neutrons Ide 22 04/03/2011 13:23Cold fusion - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia ‘hitp://en. wikipedia org/wiki/Cold_fusion 2 de 22 3 Explanations = 3.1 Nuclear fusion and subsequent proponent proposals = 3.2 Unlikelihood of fusion = 3.3 Calorimetry errors 4 Patents 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 External links History Before the Fleischmann—Pons experiment The ability of palladium to absorb hydrogen was recognized as early as the nineteenth century by Thomas Graham.!"*! Ip the late 1920s, two Austrian born scientists, Friedrich Paneth and Kurt Peters, originally reported the transformation of hydrogen into helium by spontaneous nuclear catalysis when hydrogen was absorbed by finely divided palladium at room temperature. However, the authors later retracted that report, acknowledging that the helium they measured was due to background from the air.!SI[1?1 In 1927, Swedish scientist J. Tandberg stated that he had fused hydrogen into helium in an electrolytic cell with palladium electrodes"! On the basis of his work, he applied for a Swedish patent for "a method to produce helium and useful reaction energy". After deuterium was discovered in 1932, Tandberg continued his experiments with heavy water. Due to Paneth and Peters’ retraction, Tandberg's patent application was eventually denied.|'*! His application for a patent in 1927 was denied as he could not explain the physical process.701 The term "cold fusion" was used as early as 1956 in a New York Times article about Luis W. Alvarez’ work on muon-catalyzed fusion.'7!! £, Paul Palmer of Brigham Young University also used the term "cold fusion” in 1986 in an investigation of "geo-fusion", the possible existence of fusion in a planetary core.!?7! Fleischmann—Pons experiment Events preceding announcement Martin Fleischmann of the University of Southampton and Stanley Pons of the University of Utah hypothesized that the high compression ratio and mobility of deuterium that could be achieved within palladium metal using electrolysis might result in nuclear fusion?! To investigate, they conducted electrolysis experiments using a palladium cathode and heavy water within a calorimeter, an insulated vessel designed to measure process heat, Current was applied continuously for many weeks, with the heavy water being renewed at intervals.5] Some deuterium was thought to be accumulating within the cathode, but most was allowed to bubble out of the cell, joining oxygen produced at the anode.!4! For most of the time, the power input to the cell was equal to the calculated power leaving the cell within measurement accuracy, and the cell Electrolysis cell schematic 04/03/2011 13:23Cold fusion - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia ‘hitp://en. wikipedia org/wiki/Cold_fusion temperature was stable at around 30 °C. But then, at some point (in some of the experiments), the temperature rose suddenly to about 50 °C without changes in the input power. These high temperature phases would last for two days or more and would repeat several times in any given experiment once they had occurred. The calculated power leaving the cell was significantly higher than the input power during these high temperature phases. Eventually the high temperature phases would no longer occur within a particular cell,|74l In 1988, Fleischmann and Pons applied to the United States Department of Energy for funding towards a larger series of experiments. Up to this point they had been funding their experiments using a small device built with $100,000 out-of-pocket.!?5! The grant proposal was tumed over for peer review, and one of the reviewers was Steven E. Jones of Brigham Young University.!?°! Jones had worked for some time on muon-catalyzed fusion, a known method of inducing nuclear fusion without high temperatures, and had written an article on the topic entitled "Cold nuclear fusion" that had been published in Scientific American in July 1987. Fleischmann and Pons and co-workers met with Jones and co-workers on occasion in Utah to share research and techniques. During this time, Fleischmann and Pons described their experiments as generating considerable "excess energy", in the sense that it could not be explained by chemical reactions alone.'*4I They felt that such a discovery could bear significant commercial value and would be entitled to patent protection. Jones, however, was measuring neutron flux, which was not of commercial interest.!25) In order to avoid problems in the future, the teams appeared to agree to simultaneously publish their results, although their accounts of their March 6 meeting differ.?5) Announcement In mid-March 1989, both research teams were ready to publish their findings, and Fleischmann and Jones had agreed to meet at an airport on March 24 to send their papers to Nature via FedEx. !°l Fleischmann and Pons, however, pressured by the University of Utah which wanted to establish priority on the discovery,!27! broke their apparent agreement, submitting their paper to the Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry on March 11, and disclosing their work via a press conference on March 23!25I Jones, upset, faxed in his paper to Nature after the press conference 1761 Fleischmann and Pons’ announcement drew wide media attention.2! The 1986 discovery of high-temperature superconductivity had caused the scientific community to be more open to revelations of unexpected scientific results that could have huge economic repercussions and that could be replicated reliably even if they had not been predicted by current theory.!?*! Cold fusion was proposing the counter- tuitive idea that a nuclear reaction could be caused to occur inside a crystal structure, and many scientists ymediately thought of the Méssbauer effect, since it was an example of this happening, Its discovery 30 years earlier had also been unexpected though quickly replicated and explained within the existing physics 4, 5} framewor! The announcement of a new clean source of energy came at a crucial time: everyone still remembered the 1973 oil crisis and the problems caused by oil dependence, Global Warming was starting to become notorious, the anti-nuclear movement was labeling nuclear centrals as dangerous and getting them closed, and, to top it all, the Exxon Valdez oil spill happened the day after the announcement.|3!] Response and fallout Several laboratories in several countries attempted to repeat the experiments. A few initially reported success, but most failed to validate the results; Nathan Lewis, professor of Chemistry at the California Institute of Technology, led one of the most ambitious validation efforts, trying many variations on the experiment without success, while CERN physicist Douglas R. O. Morrison said that "essentially all" attempts in Western Europe had failed.!”! Even those reporting success had difficulty reproducing 04/03/2011 13:23Cold fusion - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia ‘hitp://en. wikipedia org/wiki/Cold_fusion $de22 Fleischmann and Pons’ results.'°2! On April 10, a group at Texas A&M University published results of excess heat and later that day a group at the Georgia Institute of Technology announced neutron production !33! Both groups later retracted their announcement and explained their results as being due to mistakes in experimental design and implementation.“ Another attempt at independent replication, headed by Robert Huggins at Stanford University also reported early success,!**I but it was called into question by a colleague who reviewed his work.!?! For the next six weeks, competing claims, counterclaims and suggested explanations kept what was referred to as "cold fusion" or “fusion confusion" in the news, 9611371 In April 1989, Fleischmann and Pons published a "preliminary note" in the Journal of Blectroanalytical Chemistry.51 This paper notably showed a gamma peak without its corresponding Compton edge, which indicated they had made a mistake in claiming evidence of fusion byproducts.3819! Fleischmann and Pons replied to this critique '“°! The preliminary note was followed up a year later with a much longer paper that went into details of calorimetry but did not include any nuclear measurements, 741 Nevertheless, Fleischmann and Pons and a number of other researchers who found positive results remained convinced of their findings.!”! The University of Utah asked Congress to provide $25 million to pursue the research, and Pons was scheduled to meet with representatives of President Bush in early May? In May 1989, the American Physical Society held a session on cold fusion, at which were heard many reports of experiments that failed to produce evidence of cold fusion. At the end of the session, eight of the nine leading speakers stated they considered the initial Fleischmann and Pons claim dead with the ninth abstaining”! Steven E. Koonin of Caltech called the Utah report a result of "the incompetence and delusion of Pons and Fleischmarm" which was met with applause. Douglas R. O. Morrison, a physicist representing CERN, was the first to call the episode an example of pathological science.!1191 In July and November 1989, Nature published papers critical of cold fusion claims.471l451 Negative results were also published in several scientific journals including Science, Physical Review Letters, and Physical Review C (nuclear physics).!"° "I In spite of this trend, in August 1989, the state of Utah invested $4.5 million to create the National Cold Fusion Institute.[“41 The United States Department of Energy organized a special panel to review cold fusion theory and research 4515 The panel issued its report in November 1989, concluding that results as of that date did not present convincing evidence that useful sources of energy would result from phenomena attributed to cold fusion 45/6 The panel noted the inconsistency of reports of excess heat and the greater inconsistency of reports of nuclear reaction byproducts, Nuclear fusion of the type postulated would be inconsistent with current understanding and, if verified, would require theory to be extended in an unexpected way. The panel ‘was against special funding for cold fusion research, but supported modest funding of "focused experiments within the general funding system."45I7 Cold fusion supporters continued to argue that the evidence was strong, and in September 1990 the National Cold Fusion Institute listed 92 groups of researchers from 10 different countries that had reported corroborating evidence./"©l However, by this point, academic consensus had moved decidedly toward labeling cold fusion as a kind of "pathological science” {01471 The Nobel Laureate Julian Schwinger declared himself a supporter of cold fusion after much of the response to the initial reports had turned negative. He tried to publish theoretical papers supporting the possibility of cold fusion in Physical Review Letters, but was deeply insulted by their rejection, and resigned from the American Physical Society (publisher of Letters) in protest, 4*1 In the ensuing years, several books came out critical of cold fusion research methods and the conduct of cold fusion researchers.'4°! Up to today, the scientific community continues to maintain a skeptical consensus with regards to the subject due to the seeming lack of experimental reproducibility!"°! and cold fusion's 04/03/2011 13:23Cold fusion - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia ‘hitp://en. wikipedia org/wiki/Cold_fusion 5de22 theoretical implausibility.!°! New experimental claims are routinely dismissed or ignored by mainstream scientists and journals !°2! Ongoing work A small but committed group of cold fusion researchers has continued to this day to conduct experiments using Fleishman and Pons electrolysis set-ups in spite of the rejection by the mainstream community!" fn, 1992, Fleischmann and Pons themselves relocated their laboratory to France under a grant from the Toyota Motor Corporation. The laboratory, IMRA, was closed in 1998 after spending £12 million on cold fusion work./53] Between 1992 and 1997, Japan's Ministry of International Trade and Industry sponsored a "New Hydrogen Energy Program" of US$20 million to research cold fusion. Announcing the end of the program in 1997, the director and one-time proponent of cold fusion research Hideo Ikegamil™4I stated "We couldn't achieve what was first claimed in terms of cold fusion." He added, "We can't find any reason to propose more money for the coming year or for the future."'5 Also in the 1990s, India stopped it fusion because of the lack of consensus among mainstream scientists and the US denunciation of it. 5°! research in cold In February 2002, the U.S. Navy revealed that researchers at their Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center in San Diego, California had been quietly studying cold fusion continually since 1989, by releasing a two-volume report, entitled "Thermal and nuclear aspects of the Pd/D20 system," with a plea for funding [571158] ‘A.2008 demonstration in Bangalore by Japanese researcher Yoshiaki Aratal*?! revived some interest for cold fusion research in India. Projects have commenced at several centers such as the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre and the National Institute of Advanced Studies has also recommended the Indian government to revive this research, /*5l As recently as January, 2011, researchers from the University of Bologna, Andrea Rossi and Sergio Focardi, claim to have successfully demonstrated cold fusion.{°! Publications In 1989, the ISI identified cold fusion as the scientific topic with most publications, but the publications then went into sharp decline as scientists abandoned the controversy and journal editors declined to even review the papers. (61 In the 1990s, the groups that continued to research cold fusion and their supporters established periodicals such as Fusion Facts, Cold Fusion Magazine, Infinite Energy Magazine, and New Energy Times to cover the developments in cold fusion and related fringe science topies that were being excluded from the mainstream journals and the scientific press, The Intemet has also become a major mean of communication and self-publication for CF researchers, allowing for revival of the research, 92! The Journal of Fusion Technology (FT) established in 1990 a permanent feature for cold fusion papers, publishing over a dozen papers per year, giving a mainstream outlet for cold fusion researchers at a time when other journals were unwilling to review cold fusion papers, When editor-in-chief George Miley retired in 2001, the journal began to cease publishing cold fusion research .!6!! Cold fusion reports have been published over the years in a small cluster of specialized journals like Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry and Il Nuovo Cimento. Some papers also appeared in Journal of Physical Chemistry, Physics Letters A, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, and a number of Japanese and Russian journals of physics, chemistry and engineering !""! since 2005, Naturwissenschaften has published CF papers and, in 2009, named a cold fusion researcher to its editorial board 04/03/2011 13:23Cold fusion - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia ‘hitp://en. wikipedia org/wiki/Cold_fusion 6 de 22 This decline of publications in cold fusion has been described as a characteristic of pathological science! and of a “failed information epidemics" °°! Cold fusion researchers occasionally succeed in publishing papers in prestigious journals; the 1993 paper in Physics Letters A is an important example because it was the last paper published by Fleischmann, and "one of the last reports to be formally challenged on technical grounds by a cold fusion skeptic" !#1919 Conferences Cold fusion researchers were for many years unable to get papers accepted in scientific meetings, and had to put up their own conferences. The first International Conference on Cold Fusion (ICCF) was held in 1990 and has been held every 12 to 18 months in various countries around the world since then. By 1994, attendants made no internal criticism of papers for fear of giving ammunition to external critics, and thi according to physicist David Goldstein, allowed for the proliferation of crackpots and prevented the normal process of serious science,!*°! By 2002, critics and skeptics had stopped attending the conferences !®*! with the founding in 2004 of the International Society for Condensed Matter Nuclear Science (ISCMNS), the conference was renamed the Intemational Conference on Condensed Matter Nuclear Science-an example of the approach the cold fusion community has adopted in avoiding cold fusion as a term due to its negative connotations.!I7] Cold fusion research is often referenced today under the name of "low-energy nuclear reactions", or LENR,!©7! but according to sociologist Bart Simon the "cold fusion" label continues to serve a social function in ereating a collective identity for the field. Since 2006, the American Physical Society (APS) has included cold fusion sessions in their meetings, clarifying that that this did not imply a softening of skepticism.!©8!!*! since 2007, the American Chemical Society (ACS) meetings also include "invited symposium(s)" on cold fusion.!7°! An ACS program chair said that without a proper forum the matter would never be discussed and, "with the world facing an energy crisis, it is worth exploring all possibilities."!°! On 22-25 March 2009, the American Chemical Society meeting included a four-day symposium in conjunetion with the 20th anniversary of the announcement of cold fusion. Researchers working at the U.S. Navy's Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center (SPAWAR) reported detection of energetic neutrons in a standard cold fusion cell design!7!! previously published in Die Naturwissenschafien '7?! The authors claim that these neutrons are indicative of nuclear reactions,!7*! although skeptics indicated that, to have their claims accepted by the scientific community, the authors have to make a quantitative analysis and they have to exclude other possible sources (21174) using CR-39,l!4I a result for those neutrons Further reviews and funding issues Around 1998 the University of Utah had already dropped its research after spending over $1 million, and in the summer of 1997 Japan cut off research and closed its own lab after spending $20 million.'75I Cold fusion researchers have complained there has been virtually no possibility of obtaining funding for cold fusion research in the United States, and no possibility of getting published !7°l University researchers, it has been claimed, are unwilling to investigate cold fusion because they would be ridiculed by their colleagues.!77! In 1994, David Goodstein described cold fusion as "a pariah field, cast out by the scientific establishment. Between cold fusion and respectable science there is virtually no communication at all, Cold fusion papers are almost never published in refereed scientific journals, with the result that those works don't receive the normal critical scrutiny that science requires, On the other hand, because the Cold-Fusioners see themselves as a community under siege, there is little internal criticism. Experiments and theories tend to be accepted at face value, for fear of providing even more fuel for external critics, if anyone outside the group was bothering to listen. In these circumstances, crackpots flourish, making 04/03/2011 13:23Cold fusion - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia ‘hitp://en. wikipedia org/wiki/Cold_fusion matters worse for those who believe that there is serious science going on here."150! Particle physicist Frank Close has gone even further, stating that the problems that plagued the original cold fusion announcement are still happening (as of 2009): results from studies are still not being independently verified and inexplicable phenomena encountered are being labelled as "cold fusion" even if they are not, in order to attract the attention of journalists,!67 Cold fusion researchers themselves acknowledge that the flaws in the original announcement still cause their field to be marginalized and to suffer a chronic lack of funding,!7! but a small number of old and new researchers have remained interested in investigating cold fusion !S1HII781 In August 2003, responding to a April 2003 letter from MIT's Peter L. Hagelstein,|7"! the energy secretary Spencer Abraham ordered the DOE to organize a second review of the field.'8°! Cold fusion researchers were asked to present a review document of all the evidence since the 1989 review, The report was released in 2004. The reviewers were "split approximately evenly" on whether the experiments had produced energy the form of heat, but they all complained about the lack of proof and the poor documentation of the experiments.®°l in summary, the reviewers were not convinced and they didn't recommend a federal research program, but they did recommend individual well-thought studies. *°! They summarized its conclusions thus ificant progress has been made in the sophistication of calorimeters since the review of this subject in 1989, the conclusions reached by the reviewers today are similar to those found in the 1989 review. The current reviewers identified a number of basic science research areas that could be helpful in resolving some of the controversies in the field, two of which were: 1) material science aspects of deuterated metals using modem characterization techniques, and 2) the study of particles reportedly emitted from deuterated foils using state-of-the-art apparatus and methods. The reviewers believed that this field would benefit from the peer-review processes associated with proposal submission to agencies and paper submission to archival journals, Report of the Review of Low Energy Nuclear Reactions, US Department of Energy December 2004 The mainstream and popular scientific press presented this as a setback for cold fusion researchers, with headlines such as "cold fusion gets chilly encore", but cold fusion researchers placed a "rosier spin"!'°I on the report, noting that it also recommended specific areas where research could resolve the controversies in the field.'* In 2005, Physics Today reported that new reports of excess heat and other cold fusion effects icing than 15 years previous.!!61 were still no more com Experiments and reported results A cold fusion experiment usually includes = a metal, such as palladium or nickel, in bulk, thin films or powder; * deuterium and/or hydrogen, in the form of water, gas or plasma; and 04/03/2011 13:23Cold fusion - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia ‘Iitp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_fusion * an excitation in the form of electricity [82] ., magnetism, temperature, pressure, laser beam(s), or of acoustic waves, Electrolysis cells can be either open cell or closed cell, In open cell systems, the electrolysis products, which are gaseous, are allowed to leave the cell. In closed cell experiments, the products are captured, for example by catalytically recombining the products in a separate part of the experimental system. These experiments generally strive for a steady state condition, with the electrolyte being replaced periodically. There are also “heat after death" experiments, where the evolution of heat is monitored after the electric current is turned off. The most basic setup of a cold fusion cell consists of two electrodes submerged in a solution of palladium: and heavy water. The electrodes are then connected to a power source to transmit electricity from one electrode to the other through the solution.!7" Even when anomalous heat is reported, it can take weeks for it to begin to appear - this is known as the "loading time." The Fleischmann and Pons early findings regarding helium, neutron radiation and tritium were later discredited '8°Il*4I However, neutron radiation has been reported in cold fusion experiments at very low levels using different kinds of detectors, but levels were too low, close to background, and found too infrequently to provide useful information about possible nuclear processes.!8°1I861 Excess heat and energy production An excess heat observation is based on an energy balance. Various sources of energy input and output are continuously measured. Under normal condition, the energy input can be matched to the energy output to within experimental error. In experiments such as those run by Fleischmann and Pons, a cell operating steadily at one temperature transitions to operating at a higher temperature with no increase in applied current !4 In other experiments, however, no excess heat was discovered, and, in fact, even the heat from successful experiments was unreliable and could not be replicated independently.!*7! tf higher temperatures were real, and not experimental artifact, the energy balance would show an unaccounted term. In the Fleischmann and Pons experiments, the rate of inferred excess heat generation was in the range of 10-20% of total input. The high temperature condition would last for an extended period, making the total excess heat appear to be disproportionate to what might be obtained by ordinary chemical reaction of the material contained within the cell at any one time, though this could not be reliably replicated.!8''5I881 subsequent researchers who advocate for cold fusion report similar results, 911019 !119211951194] One of the main criticisms of cold fusion was that the predictions from deuteron-deuteron fusion into helium should have resulted in the production of gamma rays which were not observed and have never been observed in any subsequent cold fusion experiments.'*71I95] Cold fusion researchers have since claimed to find X-rays, helium, neutrons and even nuclear transmutations.°°! Some of them even claim to have found them using only [961 it water and nickel cathodes In 1993, after the initial discrediting, Fleischmann reported "heat-after-death" experiments: where excess heat was measured after the electric current supplied to the electroly! type of report also became part of subsequent cold fasion claims,|?81991 cell was tured off 71 Helium, heavy elements, and neutrons 8 de 22 04/03/2011 13:23Cold fusion - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia ‘hitp://en. wikipedia org/wiki/Cold_fusion 9 de 22 Known instances of nuclear reactions, aside from producing energy, also produce nucleons and particles on ballistic trajectories which are readily observable. In support of their claim that nuclear reactions took place in their electrolytic cells, Fleischmann and Pons reported a neutron flux of 4,000 neutrons per second, as well as detections of tritium, The classical branching ratio for previously known fusion reactions that produce tritium would predict, with I watt of power, the production of 10! neutrons per second, levels that would have been fatal to the researchers !!"! In 2009, Mosier-Boss et al reported what they called the first scientific report of highly energetic neutrons, using CR-39 plastic radiation detectors,!!01Il!°?1 but the claims can not be “Triple tracks" in a CR-39 validated without a quantitative analysis of neutrons.!721I741 plastic radiation detector claimed as evidence for Several medium and heavy elements like calcium, titanium, chromium, neutron emission from manganese, iron, cobalt, copper and zinc have been reported as detected by palladium deuteride several researchers, like Tadahiko Mizuno or George Miley; these elemental transmutations are totally unexpected produets of nuclear fusion processes and won't be believed by the scientific community until iron-clad reproducible proof has been presented !87! The report presented to the DOE in 2004 indicated that deuterium loaded foils could be used to detect fusion reaction products and, although the reviewers found the evidence presented to them as inconclusive, they indicated that those experiments didn't use state of the art techniques, 8154.5 In response to skepticism about the lack of nuclear products, cold fusion researchers have tried to capture and measure nuclear products correlated with excess heat !105Il!°4l Considerable attention has been given to measuring *He production |'>! However, the reported levels are very near to the background, so contamination by trace amounts of helium which are normally present in the air cannot be ruled out, The lack of detection of gamma radiation seen in the fusion of hydrogen or deuterium to *He has further strengthened the explanation that the helium detections are due to experimental error.87! In the report presented to the DOE in 2004, the reviewers’ opinion was divided on the evidence for “He; with the most negative reviews concluding that although the amounts detected were above background levels, they were very close to them and therefore could be caused by contamination from air. The panel also expressed concems about the poor-quality of the theoretical framework cold fusion proponents presented to account for the lack of gamma rays./8'134 Explanations Skepticism about the cold fusion explanation for the reports of Fleishmann and Pons’ began even before reports about failure to replicate their experimental claims were published, and the reported null results only further encouraged the repudiation !!°°! In part a reaction to these theoretical difficulties, subsequent cold fusion proponents have proposed various novel scenarios and theories to explain positive experimental results, but they have also been unable to convince mainstream scientists to accept such explanations 141 Skeptics claim that cold fusion explanations are "ad hoc" and lack rigor.! 101107] Nuclear fusion and subsequent proponent proposals The initial cold fusion explanation was motivated by the high relative amounts of energy claimed to have been observed in cold fusion experiments along with the insistence by the initial reviewer, Stephen E. Jones, that a nuclear fusion explanation was viable. Additionally, the fact that hydrogen and its isotopes can dissolve in certain solids at high densities so that the separation of the nuclei can be relatively small (albeit larger than the separation of nuclei in the D2 deuterium molecule), and that electron charge inside metals can shield the repulsion between nuclei inspired the possibility of higher cold fusion rates than those expected 04/03/2011 13:23Cold fusion - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia ‘hitp://en. wikipedia org/wiki/Cold_fusion from a simple application of Coulomb's law. However, theoretical calculations show that these effects are too small to cause significant fusion rates.7! Other research groups that ly claimed that they were able to verify Fleischmann and Pons’ results came to report alternative explanations for their original positive results. A group at Georgia Tech found problems in their neutron detector and Texas A&M discovered bad wiring in their thermometers.!!°8I These reports, combined with negative results from some famous laboratories,!”! led most scientists to conclude that no positive result should be attributed to cold fusion, at least not on a significant scale.!!°81!!l physicist Gregory Neil Derry described the cold fusion explanation as being an ad hoc one that cannot coherently explain the experimental results,!1°1 Up to today, cold fusion proponents continue to offer and promote these and other theoretical explanations including relatively new proposals involving Bose-Einstein condensates, special effects happening only in the surface of the electrode, and electron lattice responses, Proponents’ attempts at theoretical explanation have either been explicitly rejected by mainstream physicists or lack independent review!” Supporters of cold fusion point to experiments where bombarding metals with deuteron beams increased reaction rates,!!!l and they suggested to the DOE commission in 2004 that electron screening could be one explanation for this enhanced reaction rate.!!!!] The DOE found the theoretical explanations to be the weakest part of cold fusion claims.!"!?1 Unlikelihood of fusion There are many reasons fusion is an unlikely explanation for the experimental results described above |!!31 Because nuclei are all positively charged, they strongly repel one another.!°2! Normally, in the absence of a catalyst such as a muon, very high kinetic energies are required to overcome this repulsion. !!!41 Extrapolating from known rates at high energies down to energies available in cold fusion experiments, the rate for uncatalyzed fusion at room-temperature energy would be 50 orders of magnitude lower than needed to account for the reported excess heat.!1 151116] Conventional deuteron fusion is a two-step process,!!!7I in which an unstable high energy intermediary is formed D+D— *He" +24 MeV High energy experiments have observed only three decay pathways for this excited-state nucleus, with the branching ratio showing the probability that any given intermediate will follow a particular pathway !!181 ‘The products formed via these decay pathways are: 4He* > n+ 3He + 3.3 MeV (ratio=50%) 4He” — p + 5H + 4.0 MeV (ratio=50%) 4H” — tHe + 7 +24 MeV (ratio=10°) Only about one in one million of the intermediaries decay along the third pathway, making its products comparatively rare when compared to the other paths./8"1 |f one watt of nuclear power were produced from deuteron fusion consistent with known branching ratios, the resulting neutron and tritium CH) production would be easily measured.!87 Some researchers reported detecting “He but without the expected neutron or tritium production; such a result would require branching ratios strongly favouring the third pathway, with the actual rates of the first two pathways lower by at least five orders of magnitude than observations from other experiments, directly contradicting mainstream-accepted branching probabilities. |!!! Those reports of 4He production did not include detection of gamma rays, which would require the third pathway to have been changed somehow so that gamma rays are no longer emitted, 87! Proponents have proposed that the 24 MeV excess energy is transferred in the form of heat into the host metal lattice prior to the intermediary's 10 de 22 04/03/2011 13:23Cold fusion - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia ‘hitp://en. wikipedia org/wiki/Cold_fusion decay !!'] However, the known rate of the decay process together with the inter-atomic spacing in a metallic crystal makes such a transfer inexplicable in terms of conventional understandings of momentum and energy transfer,'7°l and even then we would see measurable levels of radiations.(!?!] Calorimetry errors The calculation of excess heat in electrochemical cells involves certain assumptions.!!2! Errors in these assumptions have been offered as non-nuclear explanations for excess heat One assumption made by Fleischmann and Pons is that the efficiency of electrolysis is nearly 100%, meaning nearly all the electricity applied to the cell resulted in electrolysis of water, with negligible resistive heating and substantially all the electrolysis product leaving the cell unchanged.!*4! This assumption gives the amount of energy expended converting liquid D2O into gaseous D2 and O2.!'?°! The efficiency of electrolysis will be less than one if hydrogen and oxygen recombine to a significant extent within the calorimeter. Several researchers have described potential mechanisms by which this process could occur and thereby account for excess heat in electrolysis experiments, !!74IL 125111261 Another assumption is that heat loss from the calorimeter maintains the same relationship with measured temperature as found when calibrating the calorimeter." This assumption ceases to be accurate if the temperature distribution within the cell becomes significantly altered from the condition under which calibration measurements were made.!!?7! This can happen, for example, if fluid circulation within the cell becomes significantly altered.|!78Il!29l Recombination of hydrogen and oxygen within the calorimeter would also alter the heat distribution and invalidate the calibration,! 20130111511 Patents Although the details have not surfaced, it appears that the University of Utah forced the 23 March 1989 Fleischmann and Pons announcement in order to establish priority over the discovery and its patents before the joint publication with Jones.'27! The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) announced on 12 April 1989 that it had applied for its own patents based on theoretical work of one of its researchers, Peter L. Hagelstein, who had been sending papers to journals from the Sth to the 12th of April.!52] On 2 December 1993 the University of Utah licensed all its cold fusion patents to ENECO, a new company created to profit from cold fusion discoveries!!! and on March 1998 it said that it would no longer defend its patents.!751 The U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) now rejects patents claiming cold fusion.!”*! Esther Kepplinger, the deputy commissioner of patents in 2004, said that this was done using the same argument as with perpetual motion machines: that they do not work.!”"! Patent applications are required to show that the invention is "useful", and this utility is dependent on the invention’s ability to function.!"4l In general USPTO rejections on the sole grounds of the invention's being "inoperative" are rare, since such rejections need to demonstrate "proof of total incapacity",!'*4l and cases where those rejections are upheld in a Federal Court are even rarer: nevertheless, in 2000, a rejection of a cold fusion patent was appealed in a Federal Court and it was upheld, in part on the grounds that the inventor was unable to establish the utility of [134]]notes 2] the invention. US. patents might still be granted when they are given a different name in order to disassociate it from cold fusion !'35I although this strategy has had little success in the US: the very same claims that need to be patented can identify it with cold fusion, and most of these patents cannot avoid mentioning Fleischmann, and Pons’ research due to legal constraints, thus alerting the patent reviewer that it is a cold-fusion-related patent!!551 David Voss said in 1999 that some patents that closely resemble cold fusion processes, and that Ide 22 04/03/2011 13:23Cold fusion - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia ‘hitp://en. wikipedia org/wiki/Cold_fusion use materials used in cold fusion, have been granted by the USPTO.!"5°! The inventor of three such patents had his applications initially rejected when they were reviewed by experts in nuclear science; but then he rewrote the patents to focus more in the electrochemical parts so they would be reviewed instead by experts in electrochemistry, who approved them.!!361l!371 When asked about the resemblance to cold fusion, the patent holder said that it used nuclear processes involving "new nuclear physics" unrelated to cold fusion.!!56l Melvin Miles was granted in 2004 a patent for a cold fusion device, and in 2007 he described his efforts to remove all instances of "cold fusion" from the patent description to avoid having it rejected 138] outright | , 39 At least one patent related to cold fusion has been granted by the European Patent Office !!*91 A patent only legally prevents others from using or benefiting from one’s invention. However, the general public perceives a patent as a stamp of approval, and a holder of three cold fusion patents said the patents were very valuable and had helped in getting investments. 1° See also = Muon-catalyzed fusion Bubble fusion Nuclear transmutation ist of experimental errors and frauds in physics Pathological science Scientific misconduct of topics characterized as pseudoscience Faraday-efficiency effect Notes L Eg = Miskelly, GM; Heben MJ; Kumar A: Penner RM; Sailor MJ: Lewis NL (1989), "Analysis of the Published Calorimetric Evidence for Electrochemical Fusion of Deuterium in Palladium”, Science 246 (4931): 793-796, doi’ 10.1126/science.246.4931.793 (http://dx.doi.org, /10,1126%2F science. 246,493 1.793) , PMID 17748706 (http://svww.nebi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17748706) = Aberdam, D; Avenier M; Bagicu G; Bouchez J; Cavaignac JF; Collot J et al. (1990), "Limits on neutron emission following deuterium absorption into palladium and titanium", Phys. Rev. Lett, 65 (10): 1196-1199, doi: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.65.1196 (http://dx.doi.ony/10,1103%2FPhysRevLett.65.1196) * Price, PB: Barwick SW: Williams WT; Porter JD (1989), "Search for energetic-charged-particle emission from deuterated Ti and Pd foils", Phys, Rev, Lett. 63 (18): 1926, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.63.1926 (http://dx.doi.ory/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.63.1926) = Roberts, DA; Becchetti FD: Ben-Iacob E: Garik P: Musser J: Orr B; Tarlé G et al. (1990), "Energy and flux limits of cold-fusion neutrons using a deuterated liquid scintillator”, Phys Rev C 42 (3): RI809- RI812, doi: 10.1103/PhysRevC.42.R1809 (http:/idx.doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevC.42.R1809) = Lewis 1989 2. * Swartz, 232 F.3d 862, 56 USPQ2d 1703, (Fed. Cir. 2000). decision (http://www Il georgetown.edu/FEDERAL {judicial /fed/opinions/00opinions/00-1108. html) . Sources 2164.07 Relationship of Enablement Requirement to Utility Requirement of 35 U.S.C. 101 - 2100 Patentability. B. Burden on the Examiner. 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Sheldon (1992), How 10 write a patent application (hitp://books google.com Mid=alFyzuKs6q0C &pg=RA |-PT332&dq=patent+cold fusion) (illustrated ed.), Practising Law Institut, ISBN 0872240444, hitp://books. google.com ?id=alFyzuKs6q0C&ps-RA |-PT332& dg=patent+cold-Hfusion References IL 13, 14, 29, 30, 31 32, aa@bede Simon 2002, pp. 132-133 4 Seife 2008, pp. 154-155 * "60 Minutes: Once Considered Junk Science, Cold Fusion Gets A Second Look By Researchers" (hitp:shwww.cbsnews. convstories/2009/04/1 7/60minutes/main4952.167.shtml) . CBS. 2009-04-17, http:/Anww.cbsnews.com/stories/2009/04/17/60minutes/main49521167 shtml * Fleischmann & Pons 1989, p. 301 ("Its inconceivable that this [amount of heat] could be due to anything but nuclear processes... We realise that the results reported here raise more questions than they provide answers...") * Voss 1999 * Voss 1999 * Browne 1989, para, 1 * Browne 1989, Close 1992, Huizenga 1993, Taubes 1993 na bedeS9 hi Browne 1989 > Chang, Kenneth (2004-03-25), "US will give cold fusion a second look" (http://query nytimes.com ‘gst/fullpage html ?res=9C0 1 EODC 1530F936A 15750C0A9629C8B63) . The New York Times. hitp://query.nytimes.com/gstfullpage. html?res-9C0 I EODC 1530F936A 15750C0A9629C8B63, Retrieved 2000-02-08 * Voss 1999, Platt 1998, Goodstein 1994, Van Noorden 2007, Beaudette 2002, Feder 2005, Hutchinson 2006, Kruglinksi 2006, Adam 2005 * William J. Broad (31 October 1989). "Despite Scom, Team in Utah Still Seeks Cold-Fusion Clues" (http://query.nytimes.com/gstifullpage.html?res=9S0DE6DA 1331F932A05753C 1A96F948260& pagewanted=all) . 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MR; Bailey, M.; Croft, S.; Hooton, B.W.; Jones, CP. ef cal. (1989), "Upper bounds on ‘cold fusion’ in electrolytic cells", Nature 342: 375-384, doi:10.1038/342375a0 (http://ds doi org/10,1038%2F342375a0) = Wilson, RH: Bray, J.W.: Kosky, P.G.; Vakil, FLB.: Will, F.G. (1992), "Analysis of experiments on the calorimetry of LiOD-D30 electrochemical cells", Journal of Eleciroanalytical Chemistry 332: 1-31, doi:10.1016/0022-0728(92)80338-5 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2F0022-0728%42892%2980338-5) External links *# Cold fusion (http://www.dmoz.org/Science/Physics/Nuclear/Fusion/Cold_Fusion//) at the Open Directory Project = Britz, Dieter, Britz's Cold Nuclear Fusion Bibliography (http://www dieterbritz dk/coldfusion index.html) , http://www dieterbritz.dk/coldfusion/index. html, retrieved 2010-08-24. Lists books, papers and conferences about cold fusion; has graphs (http://www dieterbritz.dk/coldfusion/stats pdf) of publication rate over time. = Two video press conferences on "Cold Fusion Rebirth" during the 237th National Meeting of the American Chemical Society, March 23, 2009, Session 1 (http:/www.ustream.tv/recorded/1289320) , Session 2 (http://www ustream tv/recorded/1289427) = Palladium: The Cold Fusion Fanatics Can't Get Enough of the Stuff (ttp:/'www.slate.com ‘id/2258 112/entry/2258878/) Slate Magazine article about cold fusion, July 26, 2010 = Program & abstracts of the 17-th Russian Conference on Cold Nuclear Transmutation of Chemical Elements and Ball Lightning (17th RCCNT-BL) (http://www.iscmns.org/reent! T/program,paf) Retrieved from "http://en. wikipedia org/wiki/Cold_fusion" Categories: Nuclear fusion | Nuclear physics | Electrolysis | Pathological science | Fringe physics | Discovery and invention controversies | Palladium age was last modified on 25 February 2011 at 19:24 = Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details. pedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization 22 de 22 04/03/2011 13:23