The Atmosphere Peed Fig. 41.1 Layers of the atmosphere GS LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE The layer of gases that surrounds the Earth is called its atmosphere These gases keep our planet warm and protect us from the harmful radiation of the Sun. Earth could not sustain life without its atmosphere The atmosphere is divided into four distinct layers based on temperature. With increasing distance from the surface of the Earth, these are the troposphere, the stratosphere, the mesosphere and the thermosphere. The atmosphere becomes thinner with altitude and eventually fades off into outer space. This layer extends to about 15 km above the surface of the Earth The air is mainly composed of nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%) and other gases (1%). Itis the air we breathe. Not included in the above air is water vapour which is highly variable (1% - 4%). Nearly all atmospheric water vapour is found in the troposphere. The troposphere is associated with weather conditions. The changes in temperature, wind, pressure, and moisture in this region are created as a result of the rotation of the Earth about its axis and convection currents generated as the surface of the Earth is heated by solar radiation. The troposphere helps keep the Earth warm and maintain its climate. Generally, the temperature decreases with altitude in the troposphere. This is due to the decrease in heat transfer by convection as the distance from the surface of the Earth increases. In addition, as the pressure decreases with altitude, rising gases expand and cool. This makes the top of the troposphere an extremely cold and windy place. The stratosphere isa stable layer of atmosphere which extends from about 15 km to 60 km above the surface of the Earth. It contains a relatively high concentration of ozone which is constantly being formed and broken down through interactions with ultraviolet radiation. These overall reactions are exothermic and warm up ae ieee Rithe atmosphere in this layer. Therefore the temperature increases with altitude in the stratosphere. Ozone is formed from a pair of photochemical reactions. First molecular oxygen absorbs ultraviolet radiation (wavelengths <242 nm) to form two oxygen free radicals. 0. bg thy + O, + 0, Then the oxygen free radicals react with molecular oxygen, in an exothermic reaction, to form ozone. This reaction usually takes place in the presence of an inert body such as nitrogen. 0 x Or = OK AH =~ 105 kJ mol" The inert body carries away the excess energy which would otherwise cause the ozone to breakdown back to molecular oxygen and oxygen atoms. Ozone is broken down by another pair of photochemical reactions. First ozone absorbs ultraviolct radiation (wavelengths 290-330 nm) and undergoes photodissociation to form molecular ‘oxygen and oxygen atoms. Oe A hy OO. Then the oxygen atoms react with ozone, in an exothermic reaction, to form molecular oxygen. Oe a One U 20,45 AH = - 391 kJ mol" In the stratosphere, these photochemical reactions occur because the intensity of ultraviolet radiation is high enough to dissociate ‘oxygen and ozone molecules significantly. However, in the troposphere the ultraviolet radiation is insufficient to dissociate molecular oxygen as most of the high intensity ultraviolet radiation would have already been absorbed in the stratosphere, Above the stratosphere, the concentration of molecular oxygen is too low to react with oxygen free radicals to form ozone thus the oxygen free radicals generally recombine to form molecular oxygen. Therefore an ozone layer is maintained about 25 km to 40 km above the surface of the Earth. The photochemical reactions involved in the formation and destruction of ozone absorb a significant amount of high intensityFig. 41.2 ‘An’ average” temperature profile Unrough.the layers ofthe atmosphere CFC refrigerants solar ultraviolet radiation. Thus the ozone layer prevents harmful ultraviolet radiation from reaching the surface of the Earth. This is very important to all living things on Earth, since unfiltered radiation from the Sun can destroy living tissue and increase the incidence of skin cancer and cataracts ‘The mesosphere ‘The mesosphere extends from about 60 km to 80 km above the surface of the Earth. In this layer, the temperature once again begins to decrease with altitude. This is the coldest part of the atmosphere with temperatures reaching as low as -143°C. Here, meteors coming too close to earth slows down and burn up. The thermosphere The thermosphere extends from about 80 km to 500 km above the surface of Earth. [t is the layer of the atmosphere which is first exposed to the solar radiation. The air is so thin that a small increase in energy causes a large increase in temperature. Here, the temperature reaches as high as 200°C. The solar radiation in the thermosphere causes air particles to become ionized. These charged particles form a layer called the ionosphere, Beautiful coloured lights called auroras are formed in the ionosphere near the North Pole and the South Pole. These are created in the ionosphere when solar radiation interacts with the magnetic field of the Earth, Beyond the ionosphere is the exosphere which gradually fades off into space. GS CFCs AND THE OZONE LAYER Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are man-made compounds that contain only atoms of carbon, chlorine, and fluorine. They were developed in the 1920's as alternatives to the toxic sulphur dioxide and ammonia reftigerants used at the time. They have also been used as aerosol propellants, electronic cleaning solvents and to produce the bubbles in styrofoam. CFCs are ideal for these and other applications because they are cheap, chemically inert, non flammable, have low toxicity and can be readily converted from a liquid to a gas and vice versa. The main CFCs were derivatives of methane and ethane. They are denoted by the industry nomenclature CFC-11 (trichlorofluoromethane - CFCI,), CFC-12 (dichlorodifluoromethane - CF,Cl,), CFC-113 (1,1,2-trichloro-1,2,2-trifluoroethane -C,F,CI,)CFC-114 (1,2-dichloro-1,1,2,2-tetrafluoroethane - C,F,Cl,) and CFC-115 (chloropentafluoroethane - C,F,CI). ‘The production and use of CFCs grew enormously over the years which resulted in large emissions into the atmosphere. In 1974 it was discovered that CFCs accelerated depletion of the ozone layer in the stratosphere. Since they are chemically inert, they have a long lifetime in the atmosphere, They remain unchanged in the troposphere but when they reach the stratosphere, they dissociate in the presence of ultraviolet light into chlorine free radicals. RCI, a Ry : Chay (where RCI is a CFC) (initiation) ‘The chlorine free radicals then set off a chain reaction which converts ozone into oxygen. Cy + Oy > 10s, +0, C10*,, $ 0% tre Clg + 0, (propagation) The overall equation for the destruction of ozone is O%, +20, > 20 Ay a) Since the chlorine free radical is reformed in the second reaction, ‘one chlorine atom can destroy thousands of ozone molecules before it is removed from the stratosphere. he Antarctic ozone ho Chlorine-containing free radicals can be removed from the stratosphere by reacting with methane or nitrogen dioxide. CH, + Cl, > HCl, + CH, (lermination) NO,,, + Cl0*,, -» CIONO,,, Normally, these two reactions would quickly remove the chlorine- containing free radicals from the stratosphere. However, in the a? , a a a a Sepolar region hydrogen chloride and chlorine nitrate can react in the presence of ice particles to form chlorine and nitric acid crystals. CIONO,,, + HCl, — Cl,,, + HNO, These remain in the stratospheric clouds until light intensities increase in the Artic and Antarctic during spring. Then the chlorine dissociate into chlorine free radicals which result in severe depletion of the ozone layer in these regions. Following the discovery of the “hole” in the ozone layer over Antarctica in 1985, many nations signed the Montreal Protocol designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of a number of substances believed to be responsible for ozone depletion. The banning of CFCs has led to alternatives that can be used without the environmental concerns, Two classes of chemicals that have been identified are the hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and the hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs). HFCs do not coni chlorine and therefore cannot damage the ozone layer. HCFCs 5 contain chlorine and can damage the ozone layer. However, the S presence of hydrogen in the molecule makes them react with chemical species in the troposphere (e.g. hydroxyl radicals) leading to a shorter atmospheric lifetime. This greatly reduces the chance of the chlorine reaching the stratosphere. Thus HCFCs have approximately only 5% of the ozone depletion potential of CFCs. £ In subsequent amendments to the Montreal Protocol, the HCFCs ' have been classified as transitional substances and they are scheduled for a phase-out. Although emissions of CFCs around the world is reduced due to intemational control agreements, the CFCs already in the atmosphere will continue to damage the ozone layer for many years. Scientists predict that the ozone layer would begin to recover in a few years and will be fully restored by the year 2050, if the implementation of the Protocol is continued. , GS THE CARBON CYCLE The carbon cycle is a naturally occurring process in which carbon is recycled through the air, land, water, and living organisms. Large amounts of carbon exist in the atmosphere as carbon dioxide (CO,). The main source of carbon dioxide is fromaerobic respiration of living organisms, This process involves the oxidation of carbohydrates to provide energy for the organisms. C,H,,0, + 60, —+ 6CO, + 6H,O + energy ucose + => carbon diodes — Carbon dioxide is also released into the atmosphere through decay of organic matter, volcanic activity and when carbon compounds such as limestone are decomposed. Another important source of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is from combustion. Human activities involving the combustion of fossil fuels and natural combustion processes such as forest fires also release carbon dioxide. The main process which removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is photosynthesis. In this process green plants convert atmospheric carbon dioxide into organic molecules in the presence of light. Photosynthesis is the reverse of aerobic respiration, 6CO, + 6H,O + enersy + CH,,0, + 60, bon dioxide + Be ee Carbon dioxide is also removed from the atmosphere when it dissolves into surface water. Since more than two thirds of the surface of the Earth is covered with water, the oceans play a major role in maintaining the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The solubility of carbon dioxide in water increases When pressure increases but it decreases when temperature increases. In the oceans, aquatic animals use dissolved carbon dioxide to build their skeletons of calcium carbonate. These give rise to coral reefs and other limestone formationsMap of the Amazon rainforest ‘Combustion of fossil fuel The Earth maintains a natural carbon balance. The sources which produce carbon dioxide in the air are balanced by sinks ie. processes which remove it. Thus the composition of carbon dioxide in unpolluted air remains more or less constant. When concentrations of carbon dioxide are slightly altered, the system gradually readjusts to return it to its natural state. For example, when carbonic acid is removed from solution by weathering of rocks to produce carbon dioxide, the reaction adjusts by dissolving more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to replace the carbonic acid used. This is a large-scale example of Le Chatelier’s Principle. Human activities such as deforestation and combustion of fossil fuels are significantly disrupting the natural balance of the carbon cycle. Clearing forest for industry and farming reduces the rate at which green plants remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere by photosynthesis. Furthermore wood burning which occurs with forest clearance adds carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. In 1987, an area of the Amazon rain forest roughly the size of Britain was bumt, adding about 500 million tonnes of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. The loss of the forests also meant that there were fewer trees to remove carbon dioxide from the air. Similar types of deforestation take place in Indonesia, India and some African countries. Combustion of fossil fuels for electric power generation and transportation releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere far more rapidly than it is removed. These activities lead to an overall increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Since carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas, this would tend to enhance the greenhouse effect and thus contribute to global warming. S THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT The greenhouse effect is the process by which certain gases in the atmosphere absorb infrared radiation to maintain the temperature of Earth, The process is compared with the way a greenhouse warms up by allowing sunlight to enter through its glass and prevent infrared radiation from leaving. Gases which absorb infrared radiation are called greenhouse gases. The main greenhouse gases in the atmosphere are water vapour, carbon dioxide and ozone. Other greenhouse gases include methane, nitrous oxide and the chlorofiuorocarbons.Carbon monoxide Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colourless and toxic gas produced in vehicle exhaust when there is insufficient oxygen for complete combustion of hydrocarbon fuel in the engine. Carbon monoxide combines readily with haemoglobin in the blood to form the stable compound carboxyhaemoglobin. This makes the haemoglobin unable to transport oxygen which results in the cells of the body being deprived of oxygen. Exposure to carbon monoxide ean cause headaches, dizziness and increase heart disease. A concentration as little as 400 ppm in the air can be fatal. Carbon monoxide can also take part ina series of reactions which can lead to the increase in the level of tropospheric ozone. This ground-level ozone is a major component of smog. Exposure to elevated levels can lead to severe coughing, shortness of breath, lung and eye irritation. Oxides of nitrogen Oxides of nitrogen, collectively referred to as NO, are produced when fossil fuels are burnt inair. Under normal conditions nitrogen and oxygen do not combine, however during combustion of fossil fuels, the high temperatures in engines or power plants provide sufficient energy for the nitrogen and oxygen molecules to react to form oxides of nitrogen. Nitric oxide (NO) which is the major form produced by combustion is oxidized in air to form nitrogen __Combustion of hydrocarbon dioxide (NO,). fuel in vehicles — Nyg + Oxy — 2NO, es 2NO,, + 0, — 2NO,,, Nitrogen dioxide reacts with water to form nitrous and nitric acid which fall as acid rain. 2NOyy + HOy > HNO + HNOQsiy It also catalyzes the oxidation of sulphur dioxide to sulphur trioxide in the atmosphere. SO, + NO... > SO,., + NO, 2NOy, + Oy, — 2NO, 28) e The nitrogen dioxide is regenerated and the sulphur trioxide reacts readily with water in the atmosphere to form sulphuric acid which is the main cause of acid rain. Rema ee cose gt ie eee ae te Sis TecIn addition, the sunlight-catalyzed reaction in the atmosphere between oxides of nitrogen and unburnt hydrocarbon leads to photochemical smog, a brown haze often seen above large cities. It is a respiratory irritant and can cause bronchitis and decrease resistance to respiratory infections. Sulphur dioxide Sulphur compounds occur naturally in both coal and crude oil The combustion of such fossil fuels in power stations is the main source of sulphur dioxide emission, S$ infuel) + Oy, > SO,, Sulphur dioxide is further oxidized to sulphur trioxide in the atmosphere. 2SO. sce) +O, — 280, a) Both sulphur dioxide and sulphur trioxide react with water in the atmosphere to form acid rain. SO,,. + H,0,, — H,S0,,, SO,,, + HO, — H,SO,,, Acid rain In an unpolluted atmosphere, carbon dioxide, the oxides of sulphur and oxides of nitrogen give rainwater a pH of about 5.5-5.0. In heavily industrialized areas, the concentration of these gases increases in the atmosphere and the pH of rain can reach as low as 4.0, This is about ten times more acidic than rain in unpolluted air. Rain which is more acidic than its natural value is referred to as acid rain, Acid rain has done tremendous damage to trees in Europe and has caused the death of fish in lakes of many countries such as Canada, Sweden, the USA and UK. As acid rain percolates through soil, it leaches out essential nutrients required by plants resulting in loss of large areas of forest. Furthermore, the sulphate ions in acid rain can combine with aluminium compounds in the soil to form soluble aluminium sulphate which can wash out into lakes and rivers. As water flows over the gills of fish, aluminium hydroxide is precipitated on the gills. The gills secrete mucus and become clogged so preventing oxygen uptake. This results in the death of the fish.“it: MODULE 3 INDUSTRY AND ENVIRONMENT Figure 2 presents a simplified version of the nitrogen cycle with some components, A, B, Cand D, unlabelled. Figure 2. The nitrogen cycle (@) Identify the unlabelled components, A, B, Cand D, in Figure 2. [ 4 marks} (&) _ Thenitrogen and carbon cycles have natural sources which enable the maintenance of balance. However, the input of additional gases due to human activity has led 10 the disturbance of the existing balance. ‘State TWO human activities that have led to the disturbance of the balance of these cycles. [2 marks} (© Explain, with the use of relevant equations, the processes which allow for the maintenance of the concentration of ozone in the stratosphere. In your answer, discuss the process of oxygen formation and decomposition. 1 9 marks} ‘Total 15 marks END OF TESTA) A: Nitvogen Aung bacteria (Nibntying bacterta) B: Proteins C. Suil Notes D: Nikogen oxides (NO) 8) - Burning ok fost fuels Cindudry) + Deforestackon C) Ozone Formation Diszodaken of oxygen into akorns by UW radi edvon Sag > Og t Of Qeene is formed by reckon of oxygen atoms Qa) * O'») + Mg) - Qs @) + MW «) ond adletwlor Oxygen Ozone break own Ozone deen mpoces fo maletulor oxygen ond oxigen cloms by lower ener UV codiction O; (9) ty Ogcgd ‘ Ow Oone mdlewles ot oxygen atoms produce 2 andleules of onygen Os — Ocgy t 2 Og cg)® >) © @ «ie MODULE 3 INDUSTRY AND THE ENVIRONMENT List FOUR factors which would influence the location of an industrial plant. | 4 marks) State TWO safety concerns associated with the locating of an ammonia plant and for EACH ‘concer suggest a measure that can be taken to reduce its effect. (4 marks} “The reduction in harmful gaseous emission from vehicles has been achieved by fitting vehicles with catalytic converters. These allow for the conversion of carbon monoxide and nitrogen monoxide to carbon dioxide and nitrogen, respectively. Write TWO equations for these conversions. [4 marks} The burning of fossil fuels in industrialised countries emits sulphur dioxide as one of the ‘combustion products. (ONE reason why sulphur dioxide is considered to be a pollutant is that it produces acid rain. Write an equation to support this reason. [2 marks} (ii) Give ONE reason (other than the production of acid rain) why sulphur dioxide is considered to be a pollutant. [1 mark] ‘Total 15 marks END OF TEST IF YOU FINISH BEFORE TIME IS CALLED, CHECK YOUR WORK ON THIS TEST.* Foxy fo raw matetals - Reodhly accessible cneagy “Skilled Labour * Good transport b) Safely ° Hah cess can Cause explesions ~ Satehy drills * “Product spl in fransperhubn - Clean up measure c) ACO + ANDO — ACOg + Ng ACo+ Of — ACO, d) Acid Rain $0, \ yO = Hy 50. ti Prduchon : i Smog duc thes da on resprakry-16- MODULE 3 INDUSTRY AND THE ENVIRONMENT 6 (@)_ Destruction is one of the processes involved in the maintenance of the levels of czone in the stratosphere, (i) Explain, with the aid of relevant equations, the destruction of stratospheric azone. 15 marks} (ii) Identify a man-made activity which contributes to stratospheric ozone destruction. {1 mark} (iii) State TWO effects of stratospheric ozone destruction on human life. [2 marks} () (i) Describe, with the aid of an equation, the reaction which occurs during the fermentation process in the production of ethanol. [3 marks} (ii) State the process used to obtain ethanol of concentration above 95% from a fermentation batch. [1 mark} «) “The production of ethanol is a major contributor to the economies of Caribbean countries.” Comment on the statement above stating TWO reasons in support. 3 marks} ‘Total 15 marks sswer to Question 6 here. ® @ Deshuction inves Ye UV isto asaing —dounYhe ozone layer to Og enilecola ond” obyrs. GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE 02212020/CAPE 2014Write the answer to Question 6 here. @ Gi)-20- 7 (©) One of the major uses of chlorine is in the production of organic compounds known as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCS). (i) Assess the impact of CFCs on the environment, ‘eke te Tig tes loge i “Destnuckon of She..o2ore layer... * cadiabon.. ‘to. woh surfore...o8 . Eadh-21- 7] (ii) “Like CPCs, the products of the combustion of fossil fuels also have a negative sugges THREE rte hi sateen COq.18.0.“greenbnue. 908 ‘ove wl. an of C03. connbutes.... whe ges hase flea ie el our 50;, ait, ems cn lD,.. fBLD TS marks ‘Total 15 marks&) -17- 7 CCI, is an effective fire extinguisher but is no longer used because of its toxicity and its role in the depletion of the ozone layer. In the upper atmosphere, a bond in CCI, breaks and reactive species are formed. (i) Identify the condition that causes a bond in CCI, to break in the upper atmosphere. Deduce an equation for ihr formatign of the reactive species. Condition. ......4AWO.MEMAIL.....1 ston... Jose rouin Cl rei ey cieet mark] (ii) The reactive species formed from CCI, act as catalysts in the decomposition of ‘ozone. Write TWO equations to show how EACH of these species actsas catalysts. “C405 + ClO + Oo. Equation 2 “Clg +03 Clg + Cl + Oo. {1 mark} ii) State the name given to this upper atmosphere. here... {1 mark] (iv) Discuss the importance of the ozone layer to all life on planet earth. Ab yok a rebiaysg cs() (b) @ qi) @ di) -10- 7] MODULE 3 INDUSTRY AND THE ENVIRONMENT. Sate the reason why the presence of ozone in the stratosphere is beneficial to Sa Drmful.. UV. V Redan fom... Roth's... surfoee..... Write the relevant equations which show the formation of ezone in the stratosphere. ark] {4 marks} Ozone in the troposphere is harmful to humans and is therefore considered to be pollutant. List TWO effects of the harmful presence of ozone on humans. ....of...shin...concer moke_cf glchal_y_ , Soa The internal combustion engine of motor vehicles is responsible for the production of ozone in the troposphere. [2 marks} Describe, with relevant equations, the production of ozone as a result of the use of these engines. NOg.cg Vv GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE 02212020/CAPE 2017 L i au 0221202010 _I | DO NOT WRITE IN THIS AREA DO NOT WRITE IN THISAREAr “ 1 © ‘The carbon cycle describes the process in which carbon atoms continually travel from the atmosphere to the Earth and then back into the atmosphere. Figure | presents a simplified version of the carbon cycle with some processes, labelled A to E. Figure 1. Simplified version of the carbon cycle (Identify the eompon, vi B,C, Dand E in Figure | Awe Nhesis B c D .. Bia . [5 marks] GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE 02212020/MJ/CAPE 2023 L |ive will help main tain levels Misi he ema of oxen (Oh trl hope Oy 82 eeenhouse...gos Fosil Aids. dele... Oy. dung. .combuston By. ne aa p..svouatain —* a eet (@ —— @_ Define EACH of the following terms. “Deo oa. a. nt cuted sth. Hada ot new. mr fs