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    2023 Integration of New Domains

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    Journal of Hyérology 620 (2028) 129515 Contents lists lable at ScienceDirect Journal of Hydrology journal homepage: ww. clcov ELSEVIER comMocatejhydrol fis Recent advances in integrated hydrologic models: Integration of new domains A.B. Brookfield”, H. Ajami”, R.W.H. Carroll, C. Tague“, P.L. Sullivan‘, I.E. Condon® * Deparment of ant and tana! Sees, Une of Wala, Water, ON, Cade * Dertent of vont cee Un of Cla Rie Rie CA, USA * boson of Hoge Snes, Dest Rac st, Rena NV, USA ‘ren cht of treme! Sec nd Monagonen Unt of Clara Saea Boar, CA, USA S Cale of tank, Onan end Amar Soe Ore See Ue, Carli OR. USA "Deport of Holy an Apr Sienes, Uber of nT, AZ, USA “ie macrg was hadi ye Ns, ‘Over the pst several desnde, hydrologic modes have awanced from independent models of he surface and sufsurface to integrated models tat can capture the terest hydrologic eycle within ne framework. I recent ‘yeas, these coupled frameworks have see te incasion of biogeochemical processes, ead ology, sme ‘ation and erosion, cold region hydrology, anthropogenic aetvces, and atmosphere processes, This expansion i the result of increased compucationl data, nd modeling capabilites and apace, as wel as improved Un derstanding ofthe process that dive these integrated ystems. Here, we review these recent advances to Integrate new proces snd systems into existing terrestrial hydrologic models and highlight the spnifeant ctallenges and opportunites that remain. We identify that with so many moves currently available and in ‘evelopment selecting the most sppropriate models dilficlt and weragget path for new or novice modelers to find the mot appropiate code based on their needs In adliton, data Tied lo parameterize nd calbate ‘thee models can often contain ther aplicaility and neal. However avances in environment vor ‘od eoeurement technology, in addition to data easinlation of rowtaditional dala (eg. rote sesing, ‘qualtative data are providing new ways of aresing his sue. As we expand hydrologic modest negra ‘more processes and aytems, cur computational demands also increase. Recent and emerging advances in ‘ompatational platforms including cloud and quantum computing a addon to the ws of mache leaning to Capture some proces, wil continue to support the sea increasingly larger and more cumple, proces sed ‘model. Finally, we highlight that ii ential 9 develop staxe-ofshe-scence models that are scale to all, ‘model ses, Sot jst those aplied for eesearch and development. We encourage continued development of diverse madeing patorms, considering the user needs, dats avalailiy, and computational resource. 1, Introduction ‘Waters an integral part ofall systems and processes in our natural ‘and anthropogenic environments. Water sustains life and supports our quality of life, ané maintaining both requires the ability to quantify, Simulate, and predict water resources and the impact of water man agement strategies into the face, Larly efforts to simulate and predict the distribution and quality of water resources were compartmentalized into components of the hydrologic cycle eg. surface water, ground water, snow, and evapotranspiration), and/or processes (e8., geochemical ‘reactions, precpitation-lssolution, overland flow, * Corresponding autor. mal erent bso ‘\@vwteron cs AR. Broa), aps org/10.1016/) hydro 2023.129615 Asilabe online 13. Apt 2023 (9022:1694/6 2029 Bele BV, lights reserved vegetation water use and response to water availability) With increased ‘understanding of terrestrial hydrologic processes and computation ‘capacity, recent efforts have integrated many ofthese components and processes in a single computational modeling framework to improve representation ofthe hydrologie eyele. One such advance isthe inte aration of surface and subsurface hydcologie low and transport pro cesses which improved representation of the terrestrial water cycle. ‘These physiclly-based integrated models can take many different forms, but generally couple a representation of Richards’ equation for variably sutureted subsurface low with a version of the St. Venant's ‘equation for surface flow (Aquanty Inc, 2018; Brunner & Simmons, AB Broil cat 2012; Kollet eta, 2017; Kollet & Maxwell, 208; Manwel etal, 2014). "These equations are then coupled, or integrated, using one of several, different techsiques. in general, the term “ully-integrated’ is used to diferetiate those models that allow for simultaneous solution of the surface and subsurface equations, whereas the terms “integrated” oF “coupled is used to indicate models that iterate between solutions of the surface and subsurface (Furman, 2008). The connection between the surface and subsurface can also take many forms, including afistorder ‘exchange flux term that i similar tothe Dazey flux, andthe common or ‘equilbsium-based approech where the surface and subsurface nodes ‘that coanect the two regimes ae identical (Aquanty Inc, 2018; Liggett, ral, 2012). Due tothe integration of discrete surface and subsurface ‘ow equations, chese models sso require ‘spin up’ simulations to pro vide initia! conditions that ean be appropriately solved during further calibration or simulation uns (Aj et, 201). Several eviews and ‘model intercomparison stclies of these integrated hydrologic mode's hhave been completed in cecent years (ey Fan et al, 2019 Maxwe! tal, 2014), and the use of these models has evolved to applications that, include informing policy and management decisions, and guiding remediation and preventative efforts (eg, Brookfield & Gnau, 2016; Brookfield & Layzell, 2019; Thatch eta, 2020). Here, we build upon ‘these reviews and comparisons, eviewing recent expansion from the Inregrated hydrologic models representing the suface/subsurface hy Arologie system co include biogeochemistry, erosion and sediment ‘anspor, ecohydrology, anthropogenie activites, cold region hydeolo ‘ay, and atmospheric praceses that influence the global hydrologe ele (ig 12 Specifically, we focus this review onthe expansion of integrated hydrologic models that include: 2) Biogeochemistry - moving beyond basic solute transport to include representation of reactive processes such as complexation, precipi tation and dissolution, redox processes, microbial processes and {isotopic fractionation 2) Sediment and Erosion inclusion of some or all ofthe sediment budget within study regions, such as Huvial erosion, streambank stability, and depositional processes 8) Fcohydrology - representation of vegetation dynamics, including growth and mortality, and disturbances including wildfire, and invasive species that influence water and energy flats, 4) Anthropogenic activities - inclusion of human activities that diretly Impact the hydrologic system such as reservoir and dam operation, groundwater extraction, surface water diversion and frgation, Joa ef yg 6202025) 120515 5) Cold region hydrology - representation of processes and systems related to snow and ice, including accumulation, vapor los, melt, and permaost (6) Atmosphere processes - expanding representation ofthe hydrologle cycle beyond the terrestrial system, ineludng interactions between surface and subsurface hydrologic conditions to local and regional ‘weather patterns and climate Duc tothe prolific development of modeling approaches and apa cations, it is not possible to comprehensively include all specific ‘modeling frameworks and advances in thes areas. The goa sto present ‘examples of emerging concepts and techniques in order to provide 8 ‘road and robust overview of the expansion of integrated hydrologic ‘models and an assessment of ongoing challenges and future directions for further development. We expand onthe ongoing challenge of model selection, which was recently highlighted by else» (2022), wo discuss selecting a model based on a particular objective and data availabilty. ‘The scope of this work includes a review of the recent expansion of ‘existing integrated hydrologic models to include domains beyond su face water and groundwater systems, as well as innovations in appl ‘ation of these tool for water resources management. It is equally Important to develop methods of identifying what simplifications can be ‘made for any particular application to increase the efficiency and use ability asi sto develop complex models capable of simulating moze processes and systems. While this work focuses on recent advances made ‘with process-based numerical models, we highlight ongoing. and ‘emerging researc using machine learning approaches in conjunction ‘with process-based models leading othe development of hybrid model 2 Recent Expansion of Integrated Hydrologic Models ‘As previously discussed, significant advances In integrated hydro Togie mode's that simulate the terrestrial water system have been made Jnvrecent yeas, including expansion beyond water and solute movement across the surface and subsurface. Here, we identify and review ths ‘expansion of integrated hydrologic models into other domains (i. 1. 2.1, Chemisry/Blochemisiy/Geochemisry [A myriad of biogeochemical processes control the production, fate and transport of solutes and carbon from watersneds. Tracking how land ‘over, climate, and disturbance impacts solute production and mobility thas important implieations for water security and critical zone function, ‘Thecritical ne stretches fom the top of the canopy down tothe depths Fig. 1. The scope ofthis seview i to expand beyond iting literature on models represesting teresa hydrology to inchide biogeochemistry, eosin and sediment transport, ecobyology, anthropogenic activites, cold region hyology, and atmosphere processes that iuence the labal hydrologic cle AE Broke cat of irculating groundwater (Anderson etal, 2007; Brantey el, 20075, {Coodon etal, 2020; Council, 2000), and is intricately intertwined with the terrestrial hydrologic eyele (Singha & NavarreSitehler, 2022; Su: livan et a, In Revision). Reactive tansport models (RMS) are nu: merical representations of biogeochemiesl reaction processes such at respiration or carbonate weathering that allow us to understand how ‘external drivers (eg, meteoric precipitation) interact with the internal strueture ofthe ritieal zane (Dully etal, 20145 Li, 2019; etal, 20173 et al, 2017b; Li et al, 2021; Sullivan et al, 2020), Given the ‘numerous processes that may be represented, the dimensionality required to capture these interactions (eg, 1D-3D), and the timescales of interest, a diversity of RTMs have emerged over the recent decades ‘ith varying degrees of integration with hydrologic models ‘At the most basic level is the one way coupling between either ‘complex physially-based, spatially-expieit hydeologie models (e-., FluxcPIHM; Dao et al, 2017) or simpler Tumped-parameter mode's (QUBV; Hergsirm, 1995; Bergsizom & Lindstr6m, 2015) to geochemical box modes (e., WITCH-Weathering atthe Catchment Seale; Goddérs tal, 2006) Here, the hydrologic model passes sil moisture and water fluxes to the RTM to simulate biogeochemical reactions and thus, pro ‘cesses such as mineral dissolution/precipitation and solute generation and transport (eg., Sullivan et 3, 2019). One advantage of this approach isi simplifies the compucational demand for tuning the RTM fang allows the end wser to focus onthe degree of reaction complexity that they will choose to include. I the goal ofthe numerical simulations Isto understand how changes nthe slid phase, let say the dissolution of| ‘minerals, impact che generation of porosity and augments the perme. abil, then fully integrated models are needed. CrunchTope (or CCrunchFlow; Sicsil, 2009) is a widely used RT code that solves for saturated flow (Le, Darey flux) wail allowing reactions to influence the solid phase. CrunchTope is capable of representing a detailed distrib tion of soil and rock properties inthe subsurface, and has been used to simulate the long-term evolution of the subsurface under “averaged Ihydroclimatie conditions (Wien etal, 2021; Xiao e al, 2021), Moving ‘out of solely saturated condition, there are codes such as Min3P and PFlowtran that can solve for variably saturated conditions in the 3-D tetrahedral mesh (Liver etal, 2015; Mayer eta, 2002; Sv eta, 2021) and even include processes such as dynamic root architecture thus, our ability to represent critical zone processes and numerically explore how it responds to the shifts in the hydrologic cycle |S strengthening, ‘One limitation in RTMs, is their integration into spatially-explict watershed-scale hydrologic models. While some models do exist, the lack of spatially explicit information on soil, mineralogy, and biotie processes limits the degree to which these models ean be applied. One ‘such watershed.scale model {s BioRT-Flux-PIHM, which ean simulate ns between land surface, watershed hydrology, and reactive transport at a variety of temporal scales (80 et al, 2017), These watershed-scale models integrate watershed characteristics such as topography, vegetation, and temporal hydroclimatic variations and hhave some represeatation of subsurface structure to allow for pre dictions of precipitation/dissoluion reactions in addition to carbon dynamics (1), 2019; Xu et a, 2022; Zhi etal, 2019, 2022). But unlike ‘the capabilites in CrunehTope that can update the solid phase dist bution, and thus porosity and permeability, chese spatially explicit modes must first be paused and new parameters asigned to understand hhow changes in the subsurface could alter hydrologic and therefor, biogeochemical faxes, To this end, some integrated hydeologie mode's hhave begun to include reactive transport (Moulton et al, 2015; Usman Munir & Frei, 2021; 2. Xu et al, 2022), While these developments have limited reaction pathways and/or the limited hydrologic conditions (. 8, saturated vs variably saturated), they are one manner by which RTM fare growing to be more fully integrate in large watershed and even, regional sale models. ‘Recent advances in RTMS allow for the heterogeneous and dynamic nature of the critical zone to be better represented in numerical Joa ef yg 6202025) 120515 ‘experiments. For example, geologic heterogeneity can lead to complex ‘and variable Auld flow éynamies and thus, solute transpor, creating challenges in our ability to predict geochemical proceses (eg, Nave Sitchler & Jung, 2017; Wen & Li, 2017). Bflorts are underway to un derstand the discrepancies between laboratory and eld based dissls tion rates that arse from differences in physical heterogeneity, by providing correction factors to linear transition state theory (yn ft al,, 2022), elucdating the propagation of reaction fronts through fracture networks (Andrews & Navarte-Sitchler, 2021), and developing rate laws that account forthe overall degree of spatial heterogeneity in ‘the domain (Wen & Li, 2017, 2018). Advances in our understanding of isotope chemistry are now emerging ae reaction capabilities within [RTMs, particularly CrunehTope. Here the isotopic composition of bath fluid and solid phase shed light on the dominant controls of reactions (e {&, spatial variability in microbial growth, order of rate laws, and dominance of kinetic vs equllibrism fractionation; Dr et nl, 20125 Drala etal, 2013; Druas etal, 2014). Modeled isotopic signatures are improving our understanding of the interaction between critical zone structure and function, for example: 1) multiple fractionation pathways and flexible transit ime distributions are necessary to capture incrasite variability in silica stream water concentrations (Vem=nde2 er 8, 2022), 2) a fairy rapid supply of fresh bedrock is required t0 ‘reproduce the parabolic shape between dissolved lithium and weath ering intensity observed in global data (Winnick etal, 2022), and 3) unraveling the critical zoge’s past (eg, changes in climate and vege tation) recorded in speleothems Is possible dough the modeling of stable- and radio-carbon sotope data (Drala el, 2023). By including oot exudation processes into CrunchiTope (REWTCrunch; ogue-Malo cal, 2022), it is now also possible to vertically resolve rootsotl ricrobewater interaction and their influence on solute flutes at & daily time sale, (Overall the development of RTMs allows us to explore both the im- pacts ofthe Anthrapacene on eitical zane function (Kumar eta, 2018, Suva el, 2022) and to elueldate how long term ehanges in Earths atmosphere has controlled weathering rates (Goddess e° al, 20105 Maher et a, 2008; Moore etal, 2012). We ean now explore how Cebanges inland cover influence stream water chemistry (en etal 2021), bow variations and hydeologie connectivity influence the export of issolved organic carbon to streams (ene al, 2020),and theimpact of changing climate on solute export across environments of varying subsurface heterogeneity (Wen c= a, 2022), 2.2. Sediment and erosion Accurate representation of streamflow generation processes and near surface hydrologic dynamies impact the overall sediment budget of 8 catchment and are important for understanding sediment transport processes (ieppner et al, 2008; Hvang 4 Niewann, 2008). Many ‘empirical and physteally-based madels have been developed co simulate crosion and sediment transport processes with various levels of complesty and data requirement (Nierst etal, 2002) Whlle applica tion of empirical models such as the Universal oil Lass Equation is preferred due toa smaller number of parameters, these models assume that watershed properties are stationary (Zi ct 21, 2019). Physically ‘based models implement various formulations to represent detach ‘ment, transport and deposition processes, and use different model struetures for representing hydotogie processes. With the exception of few models such 8 GEOtopSed (etal, 2016), RIBS-OFM (Ki eta, 2012) and InfiM (Heppner etl, 2006), many erosion and sediment transport models simplify representation of subsurface hydrologic pro cesses due to diferences in temporal and spatial sales ofthe pheaom ‘ena end computational demand of solving surface water groundwater equations simultaneously (Francpane etal, 2012). Existing coupled surface water-groundwatersediment transport ‘models either simplify surface wate-groundweter coupling by using the first order exchange coefficient approach (eg, Integrated Hydrology AE Broke cat ‘Model; InHDM, Heppner eta, 2006), reducing subsurface heterogeneity by using soil classes and geological layers parallel to bedrock (e-., {GkOtopSed; 7! ctl, 2016), or simplifying Vadose zone and ground water processes by using @ gravity dominated formulation and the Boussnesq's equation under the Dupuit-Porchheimer assumptions, respectively (eg (RIBS-OFM; Kin et al, 2012 and tRIBS-Erosion; Francipane et al, 2012). Physically-based. integrated. hydrologic ‘models such as ParFlow.CLM (Collet & Maxwell, 2008) Maxwell & Mille, 2005) that simulate the terrestrial hydrologic eyele as a contin ‘uous system by solving the 3D Richards’ equation over the entire sub surface and has a full integrated overland low simulator and a land surface model (CLM 3.0, Dai ct al, 2003) to solve water and energy ‘budgets at the land surface are valuable tools for integrating erosion and sediment transport processes, The integrated hydrologic model, HydroGeosphere (HGS; Aunty Inc, 2018; Bunner& Simmons, 2012, Hang et all, 2014), whieh also simulates the terrestrial hydrologic ‘cycle as continuous system has been coupled to surface water opera tions model, OAS (ro ops, 2009), and was developed to solve for fluvial erosion using the excess shearstrese approach (irookticld & Layzell, 2019) and is linked to 2 streambank stability module (Wi, 2022), Despite these advances, inclusion or integration of edimentation and/or erosion processes into integrated hydrologic models remains limited and computationally challenging as changes in land surface elevation due to erosion ar deposition processes can lead to numerieal instability for continuous situations, 23. Keolydroogy Transpiration accounts for roughly 70 96 of precipitated water, although this proportion varies dramatically with space and time Cosechico etal, 2022), Given the importance of transpiration, most hydrologic models consider the direct impact of vegetation on evapo: ‘ranspireton, In simple, conceptual hydrologic models, vegetation may bbe implicitly represented asa parameter but in some integrated hydro logic models vegetation is explicitly represented via a combination of Parameters and submodels (Fatchi et al, 2016a) that can inelude transpiration partitioning (Niaxwll&¢ Coodon, 2016). These submodels ‘generally account for vegetatio’s direct contol on transpiration and indirect influences on evaporation, soil moisture, and snow accumula tion and melt via eanopy interception and shading but vary substantially in terms ofthe inclusion of ther coupled ecological processes (see re views in Brewer eta, 2018; Fatichi eal, 20164), Climate change is expected to alter not only vegetation fonction (ovate use) but 20 accelerate changes to vegetation composition and strueture (ste, density, rooting depths, heights, ete) (Hauser ot a, 2021; MeDowell et sl, 2022) as well as disturbances (eg, fire, disease: Seid) et sl, 2017), Disturbanee driven changes in species are also ex pected to intensify with climate change (eg Seiri-Di st sl, 2018), these changes to vegetation structure and fenton wail have substantia hydrologic impacts (eg, Makin et al, 2019) and thus there is a growing need to represent vegetation growth/mortlity, community ‘change and response to disturbances including fie in many integrated hydrologic model applications. Models of ecohydrology vary along several dimensions (Patch ctl, 20166). The realism of the relstionship between vegetation structure and radiative forcing varies from simple submodels, such as Beer's Law with @ leaf area index, to complex submadels where treespacing and 2p, height, overstory/understory and/or sunlit and shade leaves ace accounted for in estimates of the radiative foreing of plan transpiration (onan et, 2021), Plant hydrauies or how plants mediate the Dux of| water from soil to atmosphere similarly vary from simple models of stomatal conductance to models that rack vertial and horizontal root lstrbutions stem conductance and more complex stomatal physiology (ecg, Javoux etal, 2008, 2013; Lin etal, 2019; Trugman etal, 2019). Ecohyérology models also vary in how they account for changes in ‘vegetation structure and composition through time, including changes Joa ef yg 6202025) 120515 ‘that are coupled with hydrologic conditions eg, declines in leaf area with drought (eg. Garcia et al, 2016). Eeohydrology models that ‘couple hydrologic models with carbon and nutrient cycling to grow vegetation have been availble for decades and used within the land surface submodels in General Cieulation Models (GEMS) or Eaeth Sys tem Modes, These coupled earbor-hydrology models represent incre ‘mental changes to parameters that ae relevant to hydrology (such as Iheight, root depth and leaf area) with variation in the availability of light, water and nutrients (Arora, 2002). More recently coupled models, ‘that represent disturbances such as fire and disease are available (Soil ce al, 2017). These models can account for how climate drivers Including drought alter the probability and severity of disturbances such as fire and disease that have dramatic consequences for vegetation (e., Hanan eta, 2021) and ultimately hydrology (eg., Keo etal, 2023) Similarly several recent terestral biosphere models account fr shits in species disieiburions with climate (Visher etal, 2022), although the representation of hydrologic processes in these models remains limited Considering not only species differences but aso between species in teractions can have important hydrologic consequences (Prtzsc tal 2015) but this level of plant ecosystem complexity is rarely included in hnydrologie models. For hydrologic models that resolve channel low, ecohydrology in cludes the impact of riparian vegetation on hydrodynamics (eg, effects ‘of vegetation on flu flow) and morphodynamis (Including vegetation impacts on change in channel structure itself) (Caniporeale etal, 2013; Marjoibssks ets, 201). The representation of vegetation change in hhydzodynamic models is generally les well developed relative (0 coupled ecohytrology models used in the terestral environment. Approaches for accountng for in-stream vegetation impacts range from simple roughness parameters to models that represent changes in 1: parian vegetation communities asa function of hydrologic canditions (Camporeate etal, 2012). Similarly, modeling within channel biogeo chemistry, including hyporheie flow and exchanges, has advanced in recent years but these models of within steam and river ecological processes are rarely included in models that aecount for both upland and ‘within river flows (lan ea, 2021, Finally, the impact of human intervention on vegetation can be significant. Both simple and complex ecohydrology models typically represent human intervention as an exteral forcing (eg, prescribed land cover change, irigation, fuel treatments, ete) (Wagner cal, 2019; Yalew etal, 2018). 24. Anthropogenic activities Humans modify the terrestrial hydrologic cycle in numerous ways, Including construction and operation of dams and reservoirs, surface water diversions, groundwater extraction, irigation, and land use change ineluding wrbanization. Within the last millennium, 75 % of arth’s land surface has been modified by human activites (iyssiert ct al, 2014). These modifications ean substantially alter infiltration ‘capacity via impermeable surfaces and changes in evapotranspiration by altering the type, density and distribution of vegetation, Some processes related to these modifications have been included in hydrologic models for decades, inchuding groundwater pumping and land use change, yet challenges remain. For groundwater pumping, the inclusion of ‘numerous discrete groundwater wells and variable pumping rates, ‘common in agricultural regions, remains numerically challenging. The representation of land use change is challenged by the variety of ways it can Impact the hydrologic system, including changes to evapotransp- ration due fo changes in vegetation (see ecohydrology), and local sale routing of water in urban environments due to the construction of ‘impermeable surfaces and water collection and distribution systems (e. «som water management) Integrated hydrologic models that simulate the terrestrial water eyele (@g. ParFLOW; Kollet & Maxwell, 2006), HGS (Aquansy Inc, 2018), GSFLOW (Wiarstrom ca, 2008) were erginaly developed to AE Broke cat simulate natural hydsologi systems, with limited abilities to incoepo rate anthropogenic activities, Almost ll watersheds have anthropogenic activities and impacts, therefore including these processes is ertical for Droper representation of the hydrologle conditions. In adltion, these models ace ineceasingly being wsed for integrated water management planning, which also requires inclusion ofthe anthropogenic water uses and management infrastructure for proper assessment. In response, i tegrated hydrologic models have advanced to better include the i teractions between humans and the terrestrial water system. However, ‘one ofthe biggest challenges in integrated hydrologic model application fs limited data availability of human water use (eg, groundwater pumping, canal deliveries) ‘More recently, a number of packages have been integrated into hy- Arologie models to capture anthropogente activities, Building. upon fexising Frameworks that capture groundwater and surface water pumping, modules were developed to capture irigation application, including. variability in evapotanspiration and infiltration (often termed irvigation return flow) due to irrigation strategy (eg. flood irrigation, center pivot, subsurface drip) and water rights structure (¢8., Kilasten et al, 2021). These modules include specific agricultural packages for GSFLOW (Niswonger, 2020), and processes integrated directly ito the integrated hydrologic modeling codes such as ParFlow land HydroGeosphere (Aquanty Ine, 2018; Condon & Maxw!l, 2013), Hydrologic modeling in urban settings is particularly challenging due to the high resolution and spatial complenity of urban land cover Sal ‘dove ets, 2075), Flow networks in urban environments are also com plex, and hydrologie mode's applied to urban areas (eg SWRI Niazi (al, 2077) include submodels that integrate storm sewer networks, ‘green infrastructure and stormwater control measures (SCMs), and differentiate between connected and disconnected impervious areas (. ll ex al, 2015). High resolution data i increasingly available for turban areas and assimilation of this data is expected to improve hy

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