,

GLOSSARY
OF CONCEPTS AND TERMS
IN GOVERNANCE

2010

DDC
351014
-121

,

GLOSSARY OF CONCEPTS AND TERMS
IN GOVERNANCE

ISBN-978-99929-1-848-9



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, (governance), (corruption), (the rule of law),
(accountability)
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A
Abuse of functions
The performance of or failure to
perform an act, in violation of laws,
by a public official in the discharge
of his or her functions, for the
purpose of obtaining an undue
advantage for himself or herself
or for another person or entity.
(UNCAC: 2004)

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Accountability
Accountability is a concept in ethics
with several meanings. It is often used
synonymously with such concepts
as responsibility, answerability,
enforcement, blameworthiness,
liability and other terms associated
with the expectation of account-giving.
The term accountability has no exact
translation in many

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Access to information
Access to information is about
promoting and protecting rights
to information and channels
of communication that enable
people to voice views, participate
in democratic processes, and set
priorities for action. Freedom
of expression and the right to
information are different but
related concepts. Freedom of
expression, and the free flow of
information and ideas, includes the
right to information, while the right
to official information is a more
narrowly defined concept requiring
specific legislation. (UNDP, 2009)

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languages, therefore it is helpful

to unbundle it at the outset.
Effective accountability has two
components: (i) answerability
and (ii) consequences. First,
answerability (the original meaning
of the word responsibility) is the
requirement for public officials to
respond periodically to questions
concerning how they used their
authority, where the resources
went, and what was achieved
with them. Second, there is a need
for predictable and meaningful
consequences (not necessarily
punitive; not necessarily monetary;
not necessarily individual). Third,
because government must account
both for the use of authority and of
public resources and for the results,
internal administrative accountability
must be complemented by external
accountability through feedback
from service users and the citizenry.
(Schiavo & Sundaram, 2000)

The system of accountability has

four main pillars:
Financial accountability
is the obligation of anyone
handling resources, public
office or any other position
of trust, to report on the
intended and actual use of the
resources or of the designated
office.

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Administrative
accountability implies
systems of control internal
to the government, including
civil service standards and
incentives, ethics codes, and
administrative reviews.

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Social accountability
refers to civic engagement
in policy-making, budgeting,
expenditure tracking outside
of formal accountability
systems and actions of
ordinary citizens and groups
to exact greater accountability
for public actions and
outcomes.

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Political accountability,
which fundamentally begins
with free and transparent
elections. Through periodic
elections and control
mechanisms, elected and
appointed officials are
held accountable for their
actions while holding public
office. One mechanism that
can achieve more specific
oversight is to have executive,
legislative and the judiciary
watch over each other - a
system known as checks and
balances.

Administration
1. The management and direction
of the affairs of governments
and institutions.
2. A collective term for all
policy making officials of a
government.
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3. The execution and

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implementation of public policy.

4. The time in office of a chief
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executive such as president,
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Administrative due process
Term encompassing a number
of points in administrative law
that require the administrative
procedures of government agencies
and regulatory commissions, as
they affect private parties, be
based upon written guidelines that
safeguard individual rights and
protect against the arbitrary or
inadequate exercise of government
authority. (Carole, 2000)

Administrative law
That branch of law concerned
with the procedures by which
administrative agencies make rules
and adjudicate cases; the conditions
under which these actions can be
reviewed by courts.
Administrative reform
Administrative reforms improve the
quality of government by specifying
the procedures of bureaucratic
accountability, of decision making
by rule of law, and of the role of
the judiciary in maintaining them.
These include reforms aimed at
strengthening the efficacy and
transparency of

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financing, procurement,
contracting, accounting and other
management functions. (Rondinelli,
2007)
Administrative rules
Administrative rules are intended
primarily to provide predictability;
reduce the scope for arbitrary
behaviour; foster orderly and
efficient agency operation; and
provide a basis for accountability,
as well as a defensible position
for the agency when it regulatory
decisions are challenged. (Schiavo
& Sundaram, 2000)
Affirmative action
The term affirmative action refers
to policies that take gender, race, or
ethnicity into account in an attempt
to promote equal opportunity. The
impetus towards affirmative action
is to redress disadvantages due to
overt, institutional, or involuntary
discrimination.
Agency
Pollitt (2009) notes that there is
no agreed definition of agency
either in the academic literature
or official reports at the national
and international levels. Instead it
is termed differently in different
countries with differing concepts and
legal frameworks, for example, nondepartmental public bodies (UK),
crown entities (New Zealand), special
operating agencies (Canada),

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administrative corporations
(Japan), etc. Pollitt uses the
term arms length body and
suggests the following general
characteristics of an agency.
has its status defined
principally or exclusively in
public law;
is functionally disaggregated
from the core of its ministry;
enjoys some degree of
autonomy that is not enjoyed by
the core ministry;
is nevertheless linked to the
ministry.
in some way exercises public
authority (e.g. by regulating
activities, providing a public
service);
is not a commercial
corporation.

Anti-corruption agencies
Separate, permanent agencies with
the primary function of providing
centralised leadership in core
areas of anti-corruption activity,
including policy analysis and
technical assistance in prevention,
public outreach and information,
monitoring, investigation and
prosecution. (UNDP, 2008)
Apolitical
1. Outside of politics; not
concerned with political
dominance; apathetic toward

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voting or politics.
2. Non-partisan; not affiliated
with a political party

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Authority
Power defined according to a legal
and institutional framework, and
vested in a formal structure (a
nation, organisation, profession);
power exercised through recognised,
legitimate channels.

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Audit
The practice of fiscal scrutiny
the role of audit in its accounting
meaning is concerned to verify the
accuracy of financial statements and
to check whether money has been
spent for the purposes declared. In
this narrow sense, audit is an effort to
ensure sound financial management,
and to stop fraud and corruption.

In government, authority is often

used interchangeably with the term
power. However, their meanings
differ: while power refers to the
ability to achieve certain ends,
authority refers to a claim of
legitimacy, the justification and right
to exercise that power. For example,
whilst a mob has the power to punish
a criminal, such as through lynching,
many people consider only the courts
to have the authority to order capital
punishment.
Autonomy
The right or state of selfgovernment, freedom to
determine own actions, norms
and procedures, within the limits
defined by the state.

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B
Behaviour of civil servants
Civil servants are expected to
observe appropriate behaviour at
work by dealing with the public
sympathetically, fairly and promptly
and treating their colleagues with
respect.

Benchmarking
Benchmarking is the technique
of comparing business practices
and performance levels between
organizations to identify
opportunities for making
improvements in the efficiency and
effectiveness of an organizations
activities. There are two main
approaches to benchmarking:
metrics and process benchmarking.
Metrics benchmarking focuses
on the calculation of numerical
performance indicators such as unit
costs, response time, and number
of customer complaints, which can
then be compared with similar data
from other organizations in the
same field. Process benchmarking

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is the method of comparing the

performance of an organization

against performance of the same
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organization in the past. (Schiavo &
Sundaram, 2000)
Bribery
The act of offering someone money,
goods or services in order to
persuade him or her to perform an
action, often illegal, in the interests
of the person offering the bribe.
(UNDP, 2008)

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Bureacracy
The word bureaucracy itself stems
from the word bureau, used from
the early 18th century in Western
Europe to refer to an office, a
workplace where officials worked,
a writing desk. The Greek suffix kratia or kratos - means power
or rule. The modern meaning of
bureaucracy implies the structure
and set of regulations in place to
control activity, usually in large
organizations and government. It
is charaterised by standardized
procedure (rule-following) that
dictates the execution of most or all
processes within the organization,

Bureaucracy 18-

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Buildoperate transfer (BOT)

An arrangement, whereby
the private operator finances
the construction, recoups the
investment through an exclusive
concession, and transfers the assets
to the government at the end of
the period. (Schiavo & Sundaram,
2000)

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formal division of power, exercise

of authority through a vertical
hierarchy (chain of command), job
specification with no functional
overlap and record keeping.

Bureaucracy is also a general term

used to refer to the public service
- the administrative branch of
government. However, the term
bureaucrat today has largely
accepted negative connotations, so
those who are the members of a
governmental bureaucracy usually
prefer terms such as civil servant
or public servant to describe their
jobs.
Bureaucrat
An official or manager in a
bureaucracy. The pure type of
bureaucrat is appointed by a
superior authority. They follow a
career within the hierarchical order
of the public service. They move
from the lower, less important
and lower paid positions to the
higher positions. Tenure for life is
characteristic for bureaucrats.

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C
Cabinet
Collective of ministers chaired by
the Prime Minister that makes
government policy decisions. It is
the top-decision making body in the
executive arm of government. The
agenda for the Cabinet meetings
is prepared by the Office of the
Prime Minister and approved
by the Prime Minister. Members
of Cabinet take collective and
individual responsibility for their
joint decisions, as well as for the
decisions that are taken in their
name and the measures that they
propose. Cabinet decisions are
implemented by ministers through
departments or other agencies for
which they are responsible. (UNDP
LAO, 2001)

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Capacity
Describes the ability to solve
problems, perform functions,
and set and achieve objectives.
Capacities exist at individual, social
and institutional levels.

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Cabinet secretariat
The office that supports the cabinet
has a particular role in ensuring
that the rules of debate are credible
and efficient, and that there is a
realistic prospect of agreement.

Capacity building
Capacity building is understood in
its narrow sense as training and the
term has been applied to any

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change that affects administrative

organization or had an institutional
dimension. Capacity building has four
components:
Institutional development, i.e.,
a move from a less efficient
to a more efficient set of rules
and incentives, as reflected and
measured by a
Reduction in transaction costs
within the sector;
Organizational development, i.e.,
adaptation of the organizational
structure to the more efficient
rules, and/or rationalization of
functions and responsibilities;
Human resource development
by formation of sector-relevant
skills, i.e., training; and
Informatic development, i.e.,
the judicious introduction of
information and communication
technology. (Schiavo &
Sundaram, 2000)

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Checks and balances

Power is divided among three
branches of the government
(legislature, executive, judiciary),
each of which checks that is,
restrains and balances the others.

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Centralization
Centralization is the concentration
of authority or responsibility for a
function in a single office within an
organization or a single organization
within a sector or institution. Process
by which government services,
power (budgeting, taxation, policy,
etc.) are carried out at the central
or national level of government.
The retention of decision-making
authority and responsibility in the
upper echelons of an organization.

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The branches share certain powers

but also exercise some exclusive
powers. Such checks and balances
are essential to complement the
political accountability of the
government to the population,
which is exercised through periodic
elections.

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Citizens chapter
Citizens charter is an explicit and
public statement of service standards
and obligations to serve as a guide for
the government agencys

Citizenship
Citizenship is the condition or
status of a citizen, with its rights
and duties. Citizenship is the legal
relationship between citizens and
their government and country.
Citizens owe their government
loyalty, support, and service. The
government owes the citizens
the protection of constitutionally
guaranteed rights to life, liberty,
property, and equal justice under law.
Citizenship in a democracy entails
serious responsibilities. For example,
good citizens in a democracy exhibit
civic engagement, which means
they are ready, willing, and able to
use their constitutionally protected
political rights to advance the
common good. Citizens are expected
to be loyal and patriotic, to assume
responsibility for the defence of their
country against internal and external
threats or attacks. Citizenship
also entails certain duties, such as
paying taxes, serving on juries when
summoned, joining the countrys
armed forces if drafted, and obeying
the laws.

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behaviour and can vary from a

general statement of performance
standards to a detailed list of
rights of citizens. The charter is
based on the premise that since
citizens contribute to all public
services as taxpayers and have
basic rights as members of society,
they are entitled to public services
of a certain degree of quality,
responsiveness, and efficiency.
(Schiavo & Sundaram, 2000)

Citizens report cards

A citizen report card is a new way
to rate different service providers
from a user perspective and to
utilize the rating to make the
providers more accountable to the
people. User feedback is a costeffective way for a government to
find out whether its services are
reaching the people, especially the
poor.
Civil service /public service
A body composed of those public
servants that are subject to the
rules and regulations defined in the
Civil Service Statute.

Civil service commission

The mandate of a civil service
commission includes administering
competitive examinations and
selecting the successful candidates
according to transparent and
objective criteria. The central

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PSC also enforces the merit

principle in promotions and
senior appointments; assists the
government in recruiting and
managing a senior executive
service; regulates disciplinary
procedure; hears appeals from
employees; and is consulted before
major penalties for misconduct are
assessed. (Schiavo & Sundaram,
2000)
Civil service reform
Obligations of public employees,
pay levels, recruitment procedures,
incentives, training and career
development rules, and ethical
standards. (Rondinelli, 2007)

Civil society organization

Civil society fills the space
between the individual and the
state, and comprises voluntary
groups and associations of all
kinds professional, religious,
cultural, etc. A strong and active
civil society is the foundation
for good governance, providing
contestability for the government,
productive relationships among
people, opportunities to influence
policy, advocacy for the poor, and
mechanisms for participation. Civil
society organizations, however, are
not necessarily intended to act in
the public interest, and also include
associations and lobbies formed for
sectarian or vested business

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interests. Civil society organizations

can be formal (e.g., trade unions)
and governed by codified rules,
or informal (e.g., squatters
associations). (Schiavo & Sundaram,
2000)
Code of conduct for public officials
In an effort to hold its public servants
to standards of conduct, the United
Kingdom had in 1994 introduced a
broad code of behaviour for those in
public life. Although developed under
the stewardship of Lord Nolan in
the context of the United Kingdom,
the Seven Principles of Public Life can
be applied universally, regardless
of differences in politics, history or
culture. The principles, which have
since been adopted by a number of
countries, state:
Selflessness Holders of public
office should take decisions
solely in terms of the public
interest. They should not do so
in order to gain financial or other
material benefits for themselves,
their family, or their friends.
Integrity Holders of public
office should not place
themselves under any financial
or other obligation to outside
individuals or organisations
that might influence them in
the performance of their official
duties.
Objectivity In carrying out
public business, including
making public appointments,
awarding contracts, or office

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 recommending individuals for

rewards and benefits, holders
of public office should make
choices on merits.
Accountability Holders of
public office are accountable
for their decisions and actions
to the public and must submit
themselves to whatever
scrutiny is appropriate to their
office.
Openness Holders of public
open as possible about all the
decisions and actions that they
take. They should give reasons
for their decisions and restrict
information only when the
wider public interest clearly
demands.
Honesty Holders of public
office have a duty to declare
any private interests relating
to their public duties and
to take steps to resolve any
conflicts arising should be as in
a way that protects the public
interests.
Leadership Holders of public
office should promote and
support these principles by
leadership and example.
(Source: Committee on Standards
in Public Life, 1995)

Commission
A commission is more formal than
a committee. A commission usually
requires legislation from

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Parliament for its establishment

and terms of reference.
Commissions may be permanent
bodies (such as the Public Service
Commission) or temporary. (UNDP
LAO, 2001)

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Community
People who live in a local
administrative unit (such as a
village or a municipality), who
are associated ethnically (such as
in a tribe), who belong to a local
rural or urban ecosystem (such as
a neighbourhood), or who share
common interests (such as a
religious community) (WFP: 14).
(UNDP LAO, 2001)

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Committee
The words committee and
commission are often used
interchangeably, however
commissions are usually more
formal and short-lived (see above).
Committees may be permanent
(as in a standing committee) or
may have a fixed period of time in
which to do their work and after
which they are terminated (an ad
hoc committee). They may have
authority to take decisions or they
may be only advisory in nature.
(UNDP LAO, 2001)

Confidentiality
The requirement for public officials
not to disclose to any member
of the public, either orally or in
writing, any secret or confidential
information acquired by virtue
of their public position. Most
government information relating to
the delivery of programs and

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services is public information.

Confidential information is a
small portion of total government
information and it often relates to
military, trade, technology or public
bidding matters. Personal data (for
example information on revenues
and taxes to be paid by citizens)
are usually also kept confidential.
The need for confidentiality must
be balanced against the principle of
transparency and right of access to
information. (UNDP LAO, 2001)

Conflict of interest
This term refers to the situation in
which a person has a vested interest
in the outcome of a decision, but tries
to influence the decision making
process as if they did not. In other
words, they stand to benefit from a
decision if it goes a particular way,
but they participate in the decision
making process as if they were
neutral.
In carrying out ones duties, officials
must not allow themselves to be
improperly influenced by family,
personal or business relationships.
While conflicts of interest should
be avoided wherever possible,
conflicts often happen without
anyone being at fault. Public officials
are also individuals, and there will
be occasions when an officers
own private interests may come
into conflict with their public duty
to put the public interest first.
Conflicts of interest are not wrong
in themselves, but they should be
properly identified and declared,
and effectively and transparently
managed. It is when a conflict of
interest has been ignored, improperly
acted on, or

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has influenced actions or decision

making, that the conduct (not the
conflict itself) could be seen as
misconduct, abuse of office or even
corruption.

Constituency
1. The whole body of voters who
elect one representative to a
legislature.
2. Any group or organisation
interested in the work and
actions of a given official, agency,
or organisation, and a potential
source of support for it; also the
interest (sometimes geographic
area) served by an elected or
appointed public official.

Constitutional reform
The constitution is the basic set of
rules prescribing the institutions
and procedures of government.
Constitutional reforms restructure
and revise the basic principles and
institutions of governance; establish
the structure of government as a
federal, federation, or unitary system;
identify the purpose and powers
of the State; delineate the powers
and limitations of and relationships
among legislative, executive, and
judicial branches of government;
and clarify the responsibilities and
obligations of government and
citizens. (Rondinelli, 2007)
Contracting out
Contracting out is the transfer
to the private sector of the
implementation

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of activities financed and previously

delivered by the government.
Generally, under contractingout arrangements, the activities
transferred to the private
sector remain financed by the
government. (Schiavo & Sundaram,
2000)

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Coordination
It is the process by which two or
more parties take one another into
account for the purpose of bringing
their decisions and/or activities
into harmony.

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Control
A management function which
includes setting standards,
measuring actual performance,
defining the appropriateness of
decisions to the actual situation and
reasons for deviations and taking
corrective action.

Corporate governance
A set of processes, customs, policies,
laws, and institutions affecting the
way a corporation (or company) is
directed, administered or controlled.
Corporate governance also includes
the relationships among the many
stakeholders involved and the
goals for which the corporation is
governed. The principal stakeholders
are the shareholders, management,
and the board of directors. Other
stakeholders include employees,
customers, creditors, suppliers,
regulators, and the community
at large. Key elements of good
corporate governance principles
include honesty, trust and integrity,
openness, performance orientation,

28

,
,

,
,
,
.

,
, ,
, , ,
,
.


.
,
,
,
, , ,
, ,
.

,
, , ,
,

responsibility and accountability,

,
mutual respect, and commitment to ,
the organization.
.
Corporatization
Corporatization is the setting up
of an independent legal identity
for the enterprise, separate from
the identity of the state as owner,
and usually entails placing public
enterprise operations under the
rule of commercial law like private
enterprises. (Schiavo & Sundaram,
2000)

,

,


.
( & , 2000)

The World Bank (1997): Public

officials practice corruption when
they accept, solicit or extort a bribe.
It also occurs when private agents
actively offer bribes to circumvent
public policies and processes for
competitive advantage and profit,
for example, whenever firms or
individuals seek a licence or a
service from government. Public
office can be abused for personal
benefit even if no bribery occurs,
through patronage and nepotism,
the theft of state assets or the
diversion of state revenues.

(1997): ,

, ,
.
,

,
,
,
,

.
,

, ,

Corruption
The term corruption is used as a
shorthand reference for a large
range of illicit or illegal activities.
Although there is no universal
or comprehensive definition, all
definitions share an emphasis
upon the abuse of public power or
position for personal advantage.
Definitions of corruption:

,

.
,

,


. :

29

 ,



.

OECD (1996): the misuse of public (1996):

office, roles or resources for private , ,
benefit.

;
Transparency International:
Corruption involves behaviour
on the part of officials in the
public sector, whether politicians
or civil servants, in which they
improperly and unlawfully enrich
themselves, or those close to them,
by the misuse of the public power
entrusted to them.

:

,


,

;

UNDP (1998): the misuse of public

power, office or authority for
private benefit through bribery,
extortion, influence peddling,
nepotism, fraud, speed money or
embezzlement.

(1998): ,
,
, ,
, ,

,


.

ADB (2000) defines corruption as

behaviour on the part of officials
in both the public and the private
sectors, in which they improperly
and unlawfully enrich themselves
and/or those close to them, or
induce others to do so, by misusing
the position in which they are
placed.

The United Nations Convention

Against Corruption (2003) does not
provide a definition of corruption
as such. It lists a number of acts

30

A (2000):


,

,
;

2003
-

to be criminalized by signatories,
such as bribery, embezzlement,
misappropriation or other
diversion of property, trading in
influence, abuse of functions, illicit
enrichment but leaves the precise
meaning of corruption open to
national legislation.

Cronyism
Favouritism shown in treatment
of friends and associates,
without regard to their objective
qualifications.

Cultural norms
Cultural norms are standards of
conduct or acceptable behaviour
in any given culture. The way
people communicate, the way
they eat, gender issues, the work
ethic and many other situations
are influenced by cultural norms.
(UNDP LAO, 2001)

, ,
,
,
,





.
2006


,
, ,

,


.


,

.

: cronyism nepotism

cronyism- ,
nepotism-

.

,

.
,
, ,
,

.
(/, 2001)

31

D
Decentralization
The original Latin meaning
decentralization is away from the
centre. The dictionary definition
of decentralization is the removal
of certain centralized powers or
control to various areas, usually the
area where operations take place.
(Webster, 1995)

.

,
,

.

Dimensions of decentralization:

Decentralization involves the

transfer of political, administrative
and fiscal authority from the
central government to subnational
governments and authorities.
The transfer takes place down a
hierarchy of levels of subnational
authority.

Geographic decentralization
entails dividing the territory
of a state into smaller areas
and assigning jurisdictional
powers among them. The
geographic division depends on
the relevant criterion used: it
should be based on settlement
patterns if the criterion is to
minister to the needs of the
population; on language and
tradition, if the criterion is
to recognize different ethnic
groups and cultures; and on
scale economies, if the criterion
is efficiency.

32

Functional decentralization
is the distribution of states
authority and responsibility

,
,

,

.


.

-

,
.


;
,

, ;


.

-
,

among different functional

entities of government. It
involves determining the type,
amount, and mix of government
services and creating the
entities to dispense them.
Accordingly, subnational
government entities may be
regional offices of the central
ministries, service districts,
autonomous agencies, or local
units of government.

,
.
,
,

.


, ,
,

.

Administrative
decentralization involves the
identification of administrative
roles and responsibilities
roles and the assigning of
actors to perform these tasks.
Some generic administrative
roles are planning, financial
management, operational
management, and regulation
and oversight. Naturally,
the distinction between
political and administrative
decentralization is blurred in
practice.

-
,
,
,
.

,
,
, ,
.



.

Political decentralization
shifts decision-making powers
to lower levels of government,
encouraging citizens and
their elected representatives
to participate in decisionmaking processes. In a fully
decentralized structure,
lower levels of government
formulate and implement
policies independently, without
intervention from higher levels
of government.

-

,
,


.




,

.

33

Fiscal decentralization involves

transferring expenditure and
revenue responsibilities from
the central government to
subnational governments.

- ,


.

The degree of decentralization

(whether fiscal or administrative)
can be measured by the extent of
autonomy of the subnational entities
from the central government.
The following shows degrees of
decentralization:

.

. :

Deconcentration
Deconcentration shifts the
administrative workload from
central government officials located
in the capital to subordinate field
staff in the regions, provinces,
or districts. Deconcentration is
basically an efficiency measure
internal to the central government
entity, and therefore does not
involve a downward transfer
of decision-making authority
and autonomy from the central
government. However, since it
brings government closer to the
people, deconcentration can
be considered a first stage of
decentralization, especially in
highly centralized governments
such as those in transitional
economies.

, ,
,
.




,


.


,


.

Delegation
Decentralization by delegation
involves the transfer of authority
to organizations: (i) are technically
and administratively capable of
performing specialized functions; (ii)
may be exempt from central rules on
personnel; (iii) may be able to charge
users directly for services;

34

)

; )

;
)
; )

and (iv) have broad authority to

plan and implement decisions
without the direct supervision of
central ministries.

,

.

Democracy
Definitions of democracy differ and
evolve. Democracy is about the use
of power and the management of
conflict. It requires a set of political
institutions and processes based
on the principles of popular control
over public decisions and decision
makers, and equality of respect
and voice between citizens in the
exercise of that control. There are
no blueprints since every countrys
political institutions and practices
are shaped by its history, culture,
social and economic factors.
(Tommasoli, 2007)

.
,
.

,



,
.
,
, ,
,


.
(To, 2007)

Devolution
Devolution carries the highest
degree of decision-making
independence and involves
relinquishing certain functions
to subnational governments.
It entails creating autonomous
subnational governments that (i)
have corporate status; (ii) recruit
their own staff; (iii) occupy clear
and legally recognized geographic
boundaries; (iv) raise revenues to
finance their functions; and (v) can
interact reciprocally with other
units in the government system of
which they are a part.

,

. : )
; )
; )

; )

; )

,


.

35

Democratic governance
Rather than advocating for a specific
model of government, UNDP promotes
democratic governance as a set of
values and principles that underpin
state-society relations, allowing
people, in particular the poor and
marginalized, to have a say in how
they are governed, in how decisions
are made and implemented, in how
diverging opinions are mediated and
conflicting interests are reconciled
in a predictable fashion and in
accordance with the rule of law.
Democratic governance, practiced in
a variety of models of government,
means that peoples human rights and
fundamental freedoms are respected,
that they can hold their leaders to
account and that they are protected
from arbitrary action in their lives by
governments, private institutions and
other forces. Democratic governance
thus aims to make governing
institutions more responsive, inclusive
and accountable, and respectful of
international norms and principles.
Note: Like good governance, putting
the connotation democratic before
governance is one of the attempts to
establish normative standards for
governance processes. Within the
UNDP the concept of democratic
governance has emerged as a result
of realization of the importance
of protection of human rights and
improvements of the quality of
governance for the achievement
of the MDGs. Another way
defining democratic governance is
participatory governance.
36

: ,
,
, ,
,
,
,
,
,
,


,

.

,
,

, , ,


.

,
, ,

.

:
-


-

,



.

.

Deregulation
Deregulation aims at making
regulations simpler and less
burdensome for everyone. It
involves abolishing out-of-date
rules, and making sure that new
ones are introduced only when
strictly necessary and after
exploring alternatives. (Schiavo &
Sundaram, 2000)

,



,


.
( & , 2000)

Discrimination
A difference in treatment based on
age, sex, ethnicity, religion or other
factors, rather than on individual
merit (WFP: 19). Codes of ethics
and personnel management
regulations increasingly prevent
public employers from intentionally
discriminating on the basis of such
characteristics. All civil servants
have a duty to treat each other
and the public fairly and without
discrimination. (UNDP/LOA, 2001)

, , ,

.




.


,
. (/,
2001)

Disciplinary measures
Disciplinary measures refer to the
actions taken against an employee
who violates an organisations
rules or policies or falls short of
work expectations. Performance
evaluation is the most widely
used mechanism for assessing
deficiencies in behaviour at work.
Discipline usually progresses
through a series of steps warning,
reprimand, suspension, disciplinary
transfer, demotion and discharge
until the problem is solved or
eliminated. (UNDP LAO, 2001)
Disciplinary rules carry no greater
penalty than dismissal.

,
,

.



.


, , ,
,
.
(/, 2001)

.

37

E
Economies of scale
Reductions in the average cost
of a product, resulting from an
expanded level of output.

- .

Electoral reform
Electoral reforms create
new types of and bases for
representation; establish or revise
the qualifications for registration
and voting; modify election rules
and voting procedures; determine
the process of candidate selection;
prevent corrupt or unfair voting
practices; guarantee voting rights;
and determine how the public can
hold elected officials accountable.
(Rondinelli, 2007)

,
,
,
,
,
,
,


. (, 2007)

Elections
Competitive elections are the main
device whereby public officials are
rendered accountable and subject
to popular control. They also
constitute an important arena for
ensuring political equality between
citizens, both in access to public
office and in the value of their
votes. (Beetham & Boyle, 1995)

Employment policy
The goal of government
employment and wage policy is
neither to minimize employment
nor to compress wages but to
achieve a workforce with the size,
motivation, professional ethos, and
accountability needed to

38

,

.

,


. ( & ,
1995)

,

,


,

provide quality public services;

reduce transaction costs for
the private sector; design and
implement economic policy;
execute budgets and investment
projects; and preserve the
key assets of society. A skilled,
motivated, and efficient civil service
with a professional ethos is one
of the key requirements for good
government. (Schiavo & Sundaram,
2000)

Empower (Empowerment)
The verb empower means to give
ability to; enable or permit. It also
means that peoples efforts to form
relationships between themselves
and the world so that they may be
better able to change the things
that are causing them problems.
This involves the creation of new
ideas, new understandings and new
knowledge. (UNDP, 2007)
Equality
Concepts of equality and inequality
are fundamentally political concepts
that have become institutionalized
in the public sector in particular
ways . In recent years, the language
has tended to shift away from
redistributive meanings of equality
and towards the more cultural
interpretations implied in the idea
of social exclusion; and from the
formalised concept of equality to
more fluid notions of social diversity.

,
,
, ,
,

,
, ,

.
,
,
,

. ( & ,
2000)

[]

Empower
,
,
.
,

,

,
, ,
. (, 2007)

.



,



.

39

Equality legislation and equality

policies are the product of struggles
by particular groups to overcome
patterns of structural inequality
around social divisions such as
class, gender, race, disability and
sexuality. In recent years, there has
been an increasing emphasis on
diversity that is, a recognition of
the need to respond to difference
and to pursue a more active and
dynamic concept of social justice.
(Newman & Ashworth, 2009)

,
, , ,
,

,

.




,


. (
& A, 2009)

Equity
/
Just, fair and impartial treatment of , ,
all.
.


.
Ethics
Ethics are the moral principles
or values that guide officials in
all aspects of their work. Ethical
behaviour encompasses the
concepts of honesty, integrity,
probity, diligence, fairness, trust,
respect and consistency. Ethical
behaviour includes avoiding
conflicts of interest, and not making
improper use of an individuals
position.
Evaluation
A process of determining, as
systematically and objectively as
possible, the relevance, effectiveness
40

, .

,
, ,
, , ,

.
,

.

, ,

and impact of activities, in light of

their objectives and to identify any
needed administrative or policy
changes.
While monitoring verifies progress
on a daily basis, evaluation
questions whether the stated
objectives/results are being or have
been attained. Evaluation usually
takes place at specific milestones.
Executive
A high-ranking official in an
organisation who has major
decision-making authority and
responsibility for executing the
affairs of an organisation.

Executive agencies
In the mid-1980s a number of
OECD countries, generally in the
British administrative tradition
(e.g., UK, Australia, Canada, and
New Zealand) began a move to
formally separate the organizations
and the personnel in charge
of policy or implementation.
Executive agencies were thus
created for the delivery of public
services, under policies and service
standards formulated by the
regular organs of government.
Executive government
The branch of government
empowered to administer a countrys
laws and deliver government
programs and services to the people.

,



.

,
.
,
,

.


,

.

- ,

, ,
,
1980-
,


.
,



.
/


,

.

41

Externality
Market transactions often have
effects on third parties, or on the
environment, that only government
action can alleviate. For example,
it is possible to buy a car and its
fuel through the market, but the
externality or spill-over effects
on air quality or vehicle accidents
are not captured by the price paid
for the items causing the problem.
Environmental effects are usually
seen as requiring some kind of
government action, as there is no
market way of coping with these
effects. (Hughes, 2003)
E-government
E-government, as a term, may
refer to the use of information
technology, in particular Internet,
to deliver public services in a
much more convenient, customeroriented, cost-effective, and
altogether different and better
way. A broader definition of
e-government is the adoption of any
information and communication
technology by government.
The technologies include video
conferencing, touch-tone data
entry, CD-ROMs, the Internet and
private Intranets, as well as other
technologies such as interactive
television and Internet access via
mobile phone and personal digital
assistants. (Hughes, 2003)

42

,


. ,
,
.
,
,


.



. (, 2003)

,
,
,
,

,

.



.
, ,
CD-ROM, , ,
,

,
.
(, 2003)

F
Fairness
Free from bias, dishonesty, or
injustice: a fair decision; a fair
judge.

,
:
,

Fraud
The false representation of facts
with an intention to deceive or
enable some person or organisation
to gain an unfair advantage.
This includes the falsification of
documents and the certification
as to the trueness of statements
known to be wrong.

,


.

,

.

Favouritism
Abuse of power to favour friends
and relatives over others.

,
.

43

G
Gender and Sex
Usually, sex is understood to refer
to the biological difference between
male and female bodies. Gender,
on the other hand, refers to the
social attributes associated with
being male and female and the
relationship between women, men,
girls and boys. Because gender
is not biologically given, they are
context- and time-specific and
changeable. The concept of gender
also includes the expectations
about the characteristics, aptitudes
and likely behaviours of both
women and men (femininity and
masculinity).
Gender equality
The equal rights, responsibilities
and opportunities of women and
men. Equality does not mean that
women and men will become the
same but that womens rights and
mens rights, responsibilities and
opportunities will not depend on
whether they are born male or
female. Gender equality implies that
the interests, needs and priorities
of both women and men are taken
into consideration, recognising
the diversity of different groups of
women and men.
Gender mainstreaming
The official UN definition of gender
mainstreaming is the process of

44

,


,

,
, , ,

.

,
,
.
,
, ,
(,
, ,
)
.

,
, , . ,


, , ,
,

.
,
, ,
, ,


.
,

,

assessing the implications for

women and men of any planned
action, including legislation, policies
or programmes, in all areas and
at all levels. It is a strategy for
making womens as well as mens
concerns and experiences an
integral dimension of the design,
implementation, monitoring
and evaluation of policies and
programmes in all political, economic
and societal spheres so that women
and men benefit equally and
inequality is not perpetuated. (UN/
ECOSOC, 1997)
Gender relations
The social relationships between
men and women, which shape
how power is distributed between
women and men and how that power
translates into different positions
in society. Gender relations vary
depending on other social relations,
such as class, race, ethnicity, etc. They
will greatly impact how an individual
man or woman experiences
processes and institutions and how
they interact with other individuals
within those institutions.
Global governance
Global governance is about how to
cope with problems that transcend
the borders of nation states (such
as air pollution, the sex tourism
industry or the exploitation of child
workers), given the lack of a world
government. (Bovaird & Lffler,
2009)

,
,

,
,
. ,
,

, ,
,
, ,
,
,
,

.

,
,


.
, ,

.

,
,
,
.




(
, ,

..)
. ( & ,
2009)

45

Globalization
Globalization the movement
toward greater interaction,
integration, and interdependence
among people and organizations
across national borders is
increasing transactions among
countries in trade and investment
and in the international flows of
capital, people, technology, and
information. (Rondinelli, 2007)

,
, ,


,
,
, ,

. (, 2007)

Governance
The word governance derives from
the Greek verb [kuberno] which
means to steerand it then passed
on to Latin and to many languages.
The dictionary definition of govern
is to direct and control the actions,
affairs, policies, functions etc., to
exercise restraint over, regulate,
direct, rule, whereas governance
is defined as government, control,
authority.
The concept of governance was
first introduced in the field of
public administration in the late
1980s and early 1990s.

[kuberno]
,

.

, , ,
, ,
, ,
,
-
, , .

1980 , 1990-
.

Good governance
UNDP has defined characteristics
of good governance as widespread
participation by all citizens,
decision making by rule of law,
transparency in the actions
of governance institutions,
responsiveness to the needs and
desires of citizens, equity in the
treatment of citizens, effectiveness
and efficiency in the use of public
resources, public accountability,
and the exercise of strategic vision
in planning for development.
(UNDP, 1997)

46

-

,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,

.
(, 1997)

Different definitions of governance:

UNDP defines Governance as

a system of values, policies, and
institutions by which a society
manages its economic, social, and
political affairs through interactions
within and among the State, civil
society and the private sector. It
comprises the mechanisms and
processes through which citizens
and groups can articulate their
interests, mediate their differences,
and exercise their legal rights and
obligations. It provides the rules,
institutions, and practices that
set limits and provide incentives
for individuals, organizations and
firms.

,
,


, ,

, ,
.

,

,
, ,
.
, ,

,

, ,
.

Political governance means

the range of processes
through which a society
reaches consensus and
implements regulations,
human rights, laws, and
policies.
Economic governance is
the architecture for national
and international economic
activities, including processes
to manage the production
of goods and services and to
marshal and protect natural,
fiscal and human resources.

, ,
,
,
,

.

,

,
, ,
,
,
.

47

Social governance is the set of

norms, values, and beliefs that
guide societys decisions and
behaviours.

,
, ,
.

The World Bank (1992) defines

governance as the form of
political regime; the process by
which authority is exercised in
the management of a countrys
economic and social resources for
development; and the capacity of
governments to design, formulate,
and implement policies and
discharge functions.

(1992)
,



,
, ,

.

Governance reform
Governance reforms delineate the
units of government at national,
regional and local levels, their
roles and responsibilities, and the
relationships among them that can
strengthen mechanisms for decision
making, interaction, coordination

,
,

, ,
, ,
,

In the book Governance in a

Globalization World (2000) by
Joseph Nye, governance is defined as
the processes and institutions, both
formal and informal, that guide and
restrain the collective activities of
a group. Government is the subset
that acts with authority and creates
formal obligations. Governance
need not necessarily conducted
exclusively by governments.
Private firms, associations of firms,
non-governmental organisations
(NGOs), and associations of NGOs
all engage in it, often in association
with governmental bodies, to create
governance; sometimes without
governmental authority.

48

(2000)

,

,

,
.

,

,
,
,
,

.

and cooperation and create

procedures for dispute resolution
and settlement. (Rondinelli, 2007)

. (, 2007)

Forms of Government
The form of government is
prescribed in the constitution. Forms
of government are determined
according to the distribution of
powers among levels of government,
and within the central government
among the different organs of state.
Governments can be classified as
federal or unitary, and parliamentary
or presidential. In a presidential
system, the elected president
combines the ceremonial function
of Head of State with the executive
function of head of government
(as in Russia, the USA, and most
Latin American countries). In a
parliamentary

.
,
,



.

, , ,
.





(,

Government
Government is the totality of
structures and organisational
arrangement of those exercising
sovereign authority. Government
consists of three distinct organs,
each with an assigned role essential
to the exercise of sovereign power:
the legislature, to make the laws;
the executive to implement the laws
and run the administration; and the
judiciary, to interpret and apply the
law. (Schiavo & Sundaram, 2000)

,
. ,
,


,



.
( & , 2000)
: government



, , ,

.

49

republic, the Head of State will be

a non-executive president, elected
either directly or by parliament
(as in Germany, Ireland, India, etc.)
In a constitutional monarchy, the
Head of State will be determined by
heredity and will hold office for life
(as in Belgium, Spain, and the UK).

Government intervention
Most government intervention
can occur through four available
instruments: (i) provision, where
the government provides goods and
services through the government
budget; (ii) subsidy, where the
government assists someone in
the private economy to provide
government-desired goods and
services; (iii) production, where
governments produce goods and
services for sale on the market; (iv)
regulation, which involves using
the coercive powers of the state to
allow or prohibit certain activities
in the private economy. (Hughes,
2003)
Grand corruption
Corruption involving substantial
amounts of money and usually
high-level officials to secure
commercial contracts or some
business advantage. (UNDP, 2008)

50

,
).




(,
,
).



(, , -
).

: (i) ,

,
; (ii) ,


; (iii)
,
,
; (iv) , ,


,

. (, 2003)

,

, ,

.
(, 2008)

H
Hierarchy

A characteristic of formal
1.
bureaucratic organisations; a clear

vertical chain of command in

which each unit is subordinate to
,
the one above it and superior to the

one below it.

.
2.
Honesty
Honesty is the human quality
of communicating and acting
truthfully related to truth as a value.
While this value is fundamental and
is expected in all sectors of society,
it takes on a particular meaning in
the public service, as it implies the
ability to hold a public trust and to
put the common good ahead of any
private or individual self-interest.
(Schiavo & Sundaram, 2000)
Human resource management
(HRM)
The terms human resource
management and human
resources (HR) have largely
replaced the traditional term
personnel management. In simple
sense, HRM means employing
people, developing their resources,
utilizing, maintaining and
compensating their services in tune
with the job and organizational
requirement. A major difference
between the traditional model of
personnel management and HRM
that the latter regards human
resources as a

,
,
.



,


. (
& , 2000)

()




.


,
, ,
, ,

.



51

vital investment and focuses on

people-centered policies such
as staff development, training,
communication, motivation and
leadership.

52

,
, ,
, ,

.

I
Immunity
It is generally accepted that there
should be some form of immunity
for senior public figures and judges
to enable them to perform their
tasks. Such protection is designed,
not to bestow a personal favour on
the office holder, but to facilitate
his or her ability to perform the
functions of office. It is not meant
to enable a senior public official to
conduct private business without
having to pay rent or creditors or
avoid contractual obligations of a
personal nature. Rather, immunity
from prosecution is meant:
To safeguard freedom of
expression in the legislature;
To protect elected
representatives from being
arbitrarily detained and so
prevented from attending the
legislature; and
To act as a shield against
malicious and politicallymotivated prosecutions being
brought against them. (Pope,
2007)

Impartiality
Impartiality is a principle of justice
holding that decisions should be
based on objective criteria, rather
than on the basis of bias, prejudice,

.





.


, ,


.
:


;


,
,
,

;




. (, 2007)
,
,
,

53

or preferring the benefit to one

person over another for improper
reasons.

Innovation
Innovation is a deliberate
change in the course of action of
governments or other institutions
in society that alter the status
quo in more than an incremental
way. Innovations introduce new
ideas or ways of doing things that
strongly depart from convention
or that require new or unfamiliar
forms of behaviour and interaction.
(Rondinelli, 2007)

,

.
()




,

.

, ,


,
.
(, 2007)

Institution

1. Institutions are structures and

1.
mechanisms of social order

and cooperation governing the
,
behavior of a set of individuals.
, .
Institutions include both

sustainable organizations
, ,
and widely accepted rules of

behaviour in both the public

and private sectors. (Rondinelli,

2007)
. (, 2007)
2. Organization
2.
Integrity
It is defined as incorruptibility, an
unimpaired condition or soundness,
and is synonymous with honesty.
In terms of public service, integrity
requires that holders of public office
should not place themselves under
financial and other obligation to
outside individuals or organizations
that may influence them in the
performance of their official duties.
(UNDP, 2008)

54

,
,
,
.


,



. (, 2008)

Integrity system
Integrity system is a political and
administrative arrangement that
encourages integrity (adherence
to a set of moral or ethical
principles). A countrys National
Integrity System (NIS) comprises
the whole of government and nongovernmental institutions, laws and
practices that can, if functioning
properly, minimize levels of
corruption and in a given national
context. The concept of NIS has
been developed and promoted by
Transparency International as a
framework with which to analyze
corruption in a given national
context, as well as the adequacy
and effectiveness of national
anticorruption efforts. (UNDP,
2008)
Interest group
A private organisation representing
a portion (usually small) of the
general adult population; it exists
in order to pursue particular public
policy objectives and seeks to
influence government activity so as
to achieve its particular objectives.
(Carole, 2000)

(

) ,
.

()

,


,
. -


,

,


.
(, 2008)


( )
,
,



.
(, 2000)

55

J
Judiciary
The branch of the government
responsible for securing the
observance of the law, by
determining whether it has been
infringed and sentencing those
found guilty of its infringement.

,

,

.

Justice
Justice is the concept of moral
rightness based on ethics,
rationality, law, natural law,
fairness, or equity.

, ,
, , ,


.

Jurisdiction
1. In bureaucratic politics,
the area of programmatic
responsibility assigned to an
agency by the legislature or
chief executive
2. A term used to describe the
territory within the boundaries
of a government entity (as a
local jurisdiction)

56

1.



.
2.


(
).

L
Legislature
The branch of the government
responsible for the approval of
legislation and taxation and the
scrutiny of the executive.

Legitimacy
The degree to which a
governments procedures for
making and enforcing laws
are acceptable to the people. A
legitimate system is legal, but more
important, citizens believe in it
appropriateness and adhere to its
rules. (UNDP, 1997)
Fair elections or litigation based
on socially-accepted laws are
generally considered legitimate.
On the other hand, elections where
voters are harassed or forced to
vote a particular way are usually
considered illegitimate. Legitimacy
of decision making procedures is
important, because illegitimate
procedures almost always escalate
conflicts, making their ultimate
resolution more difficult.

Lobbying
An attempt to influence an outcome
in favour of or against specific cause
typically directed at government
and elected officials. (UNDP, 2008)

, ,


.

,
,

.

,

. (,
1997)


,

,

.



,

.

,



. (, 2008)

57

Local government
A local government is a governing
institution which has authority over
a subnational territorially defined
area. A local governments authority
springs from its elected basis, a factor
which also facilitates considerable
variation in its behaviour both
between and within countries.An
unelected local governing institution
is typically referred to as a local
administration.
Five main features of the classical
model of devolved local government
(Mawhood, 1987, p.12 in Turner &
Hulme, 1997, p.160):

()



.
,



.



.
,

:

It should be a local body that

is constitutionally separate
,
from central government and


responsible for a range of
;
significant local services.

, ,
It should have its own treasury,

budget and accounts along with
;
substantial authority to raise its
,
own revenue.
, ;
It should employ its own

competent staff who it can hire,

fire and promote.
,
A majority-elected council,

;
operating on party lines, should


decide policy and determine

internal procedures.

Central government
,
administrators should serve

purely as external advisors and

inspectors and have no role

within the local authority.
.
The question of local autonomy

which powers the local government

has, or should have, and why is a
key question of public administration ,
.
and governance.

58

Local self-governance

1. Local self-government denotes
1.
the right and the ability of

local authorities, within the

limits of the law, to regulate

and manage a substantial share

of public affairs under their
,
own responsibility and in the
,
interests of the local population.

2. This right shall be exercised
,
by councils or assemblies
.
composed of members freely
2. , ,
elected by secret ballot on

the basis of direct, equal,
,
universal suffrage, and which

may possess executive organs
,
responsible to them. This
,
provision shall in no way affect

recourse to assemblies of

citizens, referendums or any
.
other form of direct citizen
,
participation where it is

permitted by statute.

(Article 3 Concept of local self
government, European Charter of
.
Local Self-Government, the Council (
of Europe, Strasbourg, 1985)
3- :

, ,
, 1985)
The notion ability must include
the legal right to regulate and
manage certain public affairs, and
must be accompanied by the means
to do so effectively.
The Charter does not precisely
which public affairs local
authorities should regulate
and manage. It establishes
general principles upon which
responsibilities of the local
authorities and the nature of their
powers should be based:

,

.




,

59

 The basic powers and

responsibilities of local
:
authorities shall be prescribed

by the constitution or by
,
statute.
,
Public responsibilities shall
;
generally be exercised, in

preference, by those authorities

which are closest to the citizen.

(the principle of subsidiarity)

In the interest of clarity and of

avoiding any tendency towards
( ).
a progressive dilution or
,
overlapping of responsibilities,
,
powers given to local

authorities shall normally be

full and exclusive.

Where powers are delegated to
, ;
them by a central or regional
,
authority, local authorities shall,

insofar, as possible, be allowed

discretion in adapting their

exercise to local conditions.

(Explanatory Report on the

European Charter of Local Self
Government, the Council of Europe,

Strasbourg, 1996)
.
(
,
, , 1996)
Loyalty
In a democratic context, loyalty to
the political leadership is a duty of
civil servants, but reaches its limit
when it would imply unethical
behaviour. This is obvious when
the order given is illegal. But
loyalty also ends when obedience
could seriously jeopardize a public
interest or require unethical
behaviour (even if not formally
illegal). (Schiavo & Sundaram,
2000)
60

.

.

,
(
)

. ( &
, 2000)

M
Mandate
An act through which a person
gives another person the power
to act in his place and in his name
(Pepermans 1990: 248).
In politics, a mandate is the
authority granted by an electorate
to act as its representative.
Elections, especially ones with
a large margin of victory, are
often said to give the newly
elected government or elected
official a mandate to implement
certain policies. Also the period
a government serves between
elections is often referred to as a
mandate and when the government
seeks re-election it is said to be
seeking a new mandate.
Market failure
Inability of the market to allocate
goods and services effectively and
efficiently, because of substantial
externalities and because the
exclusion principle cannot be
applied. The market mechanism
alone cannot perform all economic
functions; public policy is needed
to guide, correct, and supplement
it in certain respects. Market failure
is one way in which government
intervention can be justified.
Marketing
Marketing is often thought of

( )
,


.


.
,


,


.






.

,


, ,
.



, ,

.


.

61

as essentially commercial, i.e.

oriented towards making profits.
This clearly is not relevant to
most aspect of public services and
public sector organizations. In
public administration, the role of
marketing is to mediate between
those needing the service and the
organization hoping to provide the
service. (Bovaird, 2009)
Media
The role of media is essential for
transparency in government, both
as a chance to communicate to
the public and explain relevant
information, and as a watchdog
on government actions and
misbehaviour of elected officials
and civil servants. Of course, the
media cannot perform these roles
unless it is free to do so free from
both government interference and
the influence of corporate interests
in countries where the media is
dominated by a few large owners.
(Schiavo & Sundaram, 2000)

Merit goods and services

Those goods with high personal
and external benefits, socially
desirable such as education and
health care, but which markets
may not provide optimally. Demerit
goods are the opposite, having high
personal and external costs, so that
without restriction people may
consume too much of them (e.g.
Alcohol, tobacco abuse).

62

. ,


.


,

. (,
2009)

,
,
,




.

,
, ,


.
( & , 2000)

,
,
,


. ,


,

(,
). ,

Merit principle
Concept that selections of
government employees should
be based on merit or competence
rather than personal or political
favouritism. A professional system
of personnel administration,
free from political interference,
in which selection and progress
in the service are based upon
the performance, expertise, and
technical qualification of each
employee, measured objectively
(often through open, competitive
examinations), accompanied by
the development of a position
classification and salary
standardisation system and
administered through a central civil
service commission. (Carole, 2000)
Metropolitan government
Metropolitan areas and megacities
are economically larger than most
of the counties in their respective
regions. Their administrative
structures are different ranging
from a separate governmental
structure to a regional authority
supervising local councils. (Schiavo
& Sundaram, 2000)

Minitsry
A ministry is a primary level grouping
of governmental functions, headed
by a major political officer known
as a minister. In some countries, e.g.,
the US, such a grouping is called a
department. More often,

,
.
,

, ,
,
(
,
)

,

,
,


. (, 2000)

( )

,

.




. ( & , 2000)

,


.

63

a department is a subdivision of a
ministry, and is in turn divided into
divisions, branches, and sections, in
descending order of hierarchy.

.

(),
, ,
.

Municipality
Urban is different from municipal.
A municipal agency is an
administrative entity, while urban
services could be, and often are,
performed by a variety of nonmunicipal agencies. Nevertheless,

Monitoring
The systematic collection and
analysis of information as a project
or program progresses. It is
based on targets set and activities
planned during the planning phases
of work. It helps to keep the work
on track, and can let management
know when things are going wrong.
If done properly, it is an invaluable
tool for good management, and
it provides a useful base for
evaluation. It enables to determine
whether the resources available are
sufficient and are being well used,
whether an organisations capacity
is sufficient and appropriate and
whether it does what it planned to
do.

64

-
()
,


.
,

.

,

.




.

,
, ,


.





( ).

urban government has historically

been treated as synonymous
with municipal administration
in many countries. The status of
municipalities in different countries
varies between the statutory and
the permissive. Urban government
has no constitutional status in
countries like the UK and the US,
but has been granted such status
in most Asian, African, eastern
European, and Latin American
countries, and in continental
Europe. (Schiavo & Sundaram,
2000)

.

.

. ,

, , ,
, ,

. (
& , 2000)

65

N
Nation
A nation is a cultural and social
community. Nationhood is an
ethical and philosophical doctrine
and is the starting point for the
ideology of nationalism; a nation is
a form of self-defined cultural and
social community. Members of a
nation share a common identity,
and usually a common origin, in the
sense of history, ancestry, parentage
or descent. A nation extends across
generations, and includes the dead
as full members. Past events are
framed in this context: for example,
by referring to our soldiers in
conflicts which took place hundreds
of years ago. More vaguely, nations
are assumed to include future
generations.
Though nation is also commonly
used in informal discourse as a
synonym for state or country, a
nation is not identical to a state.
The people of a nation-state
consider themselves a nation,
united in the political and legal
structure of the State.

Natural monopoly
Goods or services where economies
of scale are so high as to prevent
any competitor from entering the
market once the first company has
begun production in large enough
amounts. The existence of natural
monopolies is a justification for

66

,
.

,

.
,

.

, ,

.


,
. ,



.
.




.
,

.







.

government intervention.
Completely insulated from
competition, natural monopolies
also systematically underproduce,
to keep prices at the profitmaximization level, and stifle
technical progress. Government
direct production, or regulation of
price and access, or a breakup of
the monopoly company, is needed
to approximate the outcome of a
competitive market.
Nepotism
Granting offices, contracts and
benefits to friends and relatives,
regardless of merit.

Neutrality
Political neutrality, i.e.
nonpartisanship is the requirement
for public servants to serve equally
any political leader to the best
of their ability, act impersonally
and objectively. In return to this
service, public servants receive
certain benefits in their conditions
of service, such as security of
employment, despite changes of
government, and a decent pension.
Moreover, they are subject in
their personal political expression
to constraints not applicable to
persons in private employment.

.

,

,
.
, ,
,



.


,
,
,
.
: cronyism nepotism

cronyism- ,
nepotism-

.

,
,

.



,

.

67

New public management

New Public Management (NPM)
is the term used to describe a new
model of public sector management
that had emerged in most advanced
countries (the UK, New Zealand,
Australia, the United States and
Canada) and many developing
ones by the beginning of the
1990s. Initially, the new model
had several names, including
managerialism (Pollitt, 1993); new
public management (Hood, 1991);
market-based public administration
(Lan and Rosenbloom, 1992) or
entrepreneurial government
(Osborne and Gaebler, 1992). The
literature is settled on new public
management, often abbreviated
as NPM. There is a view among
academics that the new should be
dropped from the title, as NPM is no
longer new and well established as a
model. (Hughes, 2003)
The new model aimed at introducing
private sector management
principles in public administration
focused on increased flexibility,
efficiency, and competitiveness
in public service, introducing
performance management,
performance measurement and
performance related incentives for
civil servants, transfer of centralized
control to agencies, introducing
contractual relationship into public
affairs, contracting out service
delivery functions.
68

1990-
( ,
, , ,
)



.
(1993),

(1991),
(1992),
(1992)



New Public Management,
NPM
.
,



. (, 2003)




,
,
,

,
,
,

,

Note: See also Public Management

Non governmental
organizations
The term non-government
organization (NGO) is broad
and ambiguous, as it covers by
definition a variety of different
entities with different purposes.
Generally, however, the term NGO
has come to be understood as
comprising only organizations with
a public interest orientation (as
opposed, for example, to a trade
union or a cooperative, which
provides services limited to its
members). NGOs are, of course,
part of civil society.
As usually understood,
NGOs possess four defining
characteristics: they are voluntary,
independent, non-profit, and aim
to improve the circumstances of
disadvantaged people or address
broad public problems, such as
environmental protection. (Schiavo
& Sundaram, 2000)
Non-profit organizations
Organisations prohibited by law
from distributing surplus revenues
to individuals.

,


.
:
.

()

,

,
.


( ,


)
.

. -
:
; ; ;

,


. ( &
, 2000)



.

69

O
Oath of office
An oath by which a civil servant or
an elected official solemnly swears
that he will exercise his official
duties with loyalty and honesty.

,
,

.

Oligarchy
Oligarchy is a form of government
where political power effectively
rests with a small elite segment of
society distinguished by wealth,
family, military powers or occult
spiritual hegemony. This type of
power by its very nature may not
be exercised openly; the oligarchs
preferring to remain the power
behind the throne, exerting control
through economic means.

,
,
,


.





.

Objectivity
In carrying out public business,
including public appointments,
awarding contracts, or
recommending individuals, for
rewards and benefits, holders of
public office should make choices
on merit.

Ombudsman
The ombudsman (literally,
representative) is a person (or
group) of unimpeachable integrity
and merit who receives and
investigates citizens complaints
against actions of public officials,
with a view of achieving equitable
settlement. This independent
institution, with its origin in the
Scandinavian countries, is a means
of requiring government

70

,
, ,
,

,
,
.

,
,




, .


,
,

bureaucracies to respond to public

complaints of bad or inefficient
administration, or failure to follow
due process. (Schiavo & Sundaram,
2000)
Open government
An open government is understood
as one where businesses, civil
society organisations and citizens
have gained in their relative
powers: to know what has
been decided (transparency), to
obtain their legitimate service
entitlements (accessibility), an
to be heard (consultation and
participation) (OECD, 2005)
Open society
Open society recognizes that no
one has a monopoly on the truth.
The concept was advanced by
the philosopher, Karl Popper, in
The Open Society and its Enemies
(written between 1938 and 1943
while he was a refugee from
Nazism).In such a society, citizens
are able vigorously to debate
government policies and the future
direction of their country, and
freedom is maximized, but the
weak and the poor are protected.
Legal guarantees of freedom of
association and freedom of speech
are assured. (Pope, 2007)

.
(
). ( & ,
2000)

,


( ),
(),

(, )

.
(, 2005)

.

1938-1943



.
,


,
, ,

,

. (,
2007)
71

Openness
In public service, openness means
that holders of public office should
be as open as possible about all
the decisions and actions that they
take. They should give reasons
for their decisions and restrict
information only when the wider
public interest clearly demands.
(Pope, 2007)

72

,

,

,



. (, 2007)

P
Paradigm
Paradigm is a philosophical and
theoretical framework of a scientific
school or discipline within which
theories, laws, and generalizations
and the experiments performed in
support of them are formulated.
(Webster dictionary) A paradigm
shift changes the conceptual
framework that allows large
numbers of people to perceive
problems and opportunities in
very different ways than in the
past, or to conceive of responses
to problems and opportunities in a
new context. (Rondinelli, 2007)
Participation
There are three main forms of
participation:
Economic participation, that
provides people, including
women, the disabled, and
marginalized groups, with
opportunities to use their
capabilities and gain income to
increase their choices.
Political participation, which
includes freedom of speech
and association, guarantees
of human rights, free and fair
elections, a multi-party system,
and the rule of law.
Social and cultural participation,
which implies the rights of all
people and their communities
to shape their own social and
cultural environment, including
language, art, and music.

,
,
, ,
,
. (
).


,

,

.
(, 2007)

:
,
,
,
,
,
,
;
,
,
, ,
,

,
.
,
, , ,
,
,

.

73

These forms are complementary

progress in one can positively
affect progress in the other. Public
administration structures and
processes provide anchors to
facilitate each of the above forms of
participation. (Cheema, 2007)
Partcipatory governance
It implies the introduction or
strengthening of mechanisms to
encourage the direct involvement
of those who find it difficult to
participate in state structures
and processes. In almost all
circumstances, this includes
those with limited incomes; it
also includes those groups facing
discrimination based on gender or
ethnicity. Participatory governance
differs from good governance
in its emphasis on the inclusion
of groups whose interests and
priorities tend to get marginalized
in representative democracy.
(Satterthwaite, 2007)

Patronage
The support or sponsorship
of a patron (i.e., a wealthy or
influential guardian). The practice
where a winning political party
rewards individuals for their
electoral support by appointing
to government offices, granting
contracts, etc., using state
resources. Patronage transgresses
the boundaries of political
influence, and violates the
principles of merit and competition.
74

.
,

.
(, 2007)

,



.

, ,

.




-
.

,
, .




,
.


.

,
.

Performance management
Performance management can
be broadly defined as acting
upon performance information.
Performance information can be
used for different purposes in
policy preparation, decision,
implementation and evaluation,
for accountability purposes or in
financial management.
Accurate performance
information is needed for the
implementation of management
instruments such as performance
pay, performance contracts or
performance budgets. The focus
of performance measurement
and management has changed
through time in accordance with
the dominant understanding of
what constitutes government
performance. In times of shrinking
public budgets and a discourse of
less government, as in the 1980s,
performance measurement and
management tends to focus on
inputs and efficiency. Minimizing
the public sector was no longer the
dominant public administration
reform strategy. Outcomes
and quality concerns gained
importance in many countries.
More recently, the decline in trust
in public institutions has pushed
performance measurement systems
towards measurement of qualityof-life indicators and the quality-ofgovernance.
(Bovaird & Lffler, 2009)

.
,
, ,

,

.
,
,
, ,


.



,


.
,

1980-
,
.




,
. ,





. ( & , 2009)
75

Performance measurement
Performance is usually measured
in terms of results. Results can be
specified in terms of inputs (the
resources used to produce a public
service); or outputs (the service
itself); or outcomes (the purpose
achieved by producing the service);
good process.

Performance Indicators:
Inputs are the resources used
to produce the service, e.g.
number of employees, money
spent, number of hospital
beds, number of public buses.
The social value of inputs
is measured by their cost.
The performance criterion
corresponding to inputs
is economy, i.e., the timely
acquisition of good-quality
inputs at the lowest costs.
Output is the service itself
e.g. number of pupils taught,
number of discharged patients.
The social value of outputs is
approximated by the market
price for the same or the closest
equivalent service (or, in its
absence, by total unit cost).
The performance criterion
corresponding to outputs is
efficiency, i.e., minimizing total
input cost per unit of output
(or maximizing the quantity
of output in relation to a given
total cost of inputs).
Intermediate outcomes e.g.
new knowledge, increased
skills, number of recovered
patients, user satisfaction with
services.

76

.
(
);
( );
(

);
.

:
:

,
,
,
,
.

,
,
, ,
,

.

,
,

, - .

,

(

)
.



.

 End ooutcomes the purpose

: ,
that is achieved by producing
,
the service - e.g. increased
,
grades achieved in schools,

reductions in unemployment,
.
increased health and well :
being. The social value of

outcomes is difficult to assess,
,
except as revealed by public
,
reaction in the political arena.
,
The performance criterion
,
corresponding to outcomes is
.
effectiveness, i.e., maximizing

outcomes in relation to the

outputs produced.

Process is the manner in

which inputs are procured,
.
outputs produced, or

outcomes achieved. The value

of good process is high but

undetermined. For inputs,

good process consists of

intelligent compliance with
.
input acquisition and utilization ,
rules and, of course, integrity.
,
In some areas of public activity,

as in our example of law

enforcement, due process
.
has its own independent

validity and is a key element of

good governance. (Schiavo &
.
Sundaram, 2000)

,
,
,

.
,



.
( & , 2000)

77

Personal management
Government personnel
management consists of four
fundamental functions: planning,
recruitment, development,
and sanction. Planning refers
to the definition of personnel
requirements, jobs, and pay
and benefits. The objectives
of personnel planning are: to
monitor and control the growth
of government employment
according to fiscal targets; to
ensure that existing staff are
utilized and effectively deployed
in response to government policy
and development priorities; and to
enable the government to achieve
its strategies for staff acquisition,
retention, development, and exit.
The recruitment process entails:
identifying the post to be filled;
completing the job description;
attracting suitable candidates
for the post; and assessing and
selecting the most suitable
candidates. Development is the task
of orienting, training, motivating,
and evaluating employees.
Sanction is the establishment and
maintenance of expectations and
obligations; dealing with discipline
and grievances; and ensuring that
organisations operate within the
regulatory frameworks set down
by the law. (Schiavo & Sundaram,
2000)

78

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Petty corruption
Corruption involving smaller
sums and typically involving more
junior officials. It covers everyday
corruption that takes place at the
implementation end of policies,
where public officials interact with
the public.

,

.


.

Policy analysis
Process of researching or analyzing
public problems to provide policy
makers with specific information
about the range of available policy

Policy
The word policy can refer: the
intentions declared by parties
in an election; a rather precise
programme than an intention;
general rules such as foreign
policy; government decision in a
policy document; an to even larger
things such as everything the
government does (Hughes, 2003).
Policy differs from rules or law.
While law can compel or prohibit
behaviors (e.g. a law requiring the
payment of taxes on income) policy
merely guides actions toward those
that are most likely to achieve a
desired outcome.
As a process, policy can be defined
as a long-term matter starting with
the issues and moving through
objective setting, decision-making
to implementation and evaluation.

,

,

,


( 2003).
,
.

,
(
)

.


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79

options and advantages and

disadvantages of different
approaches. However, policy
analysis can be divided into two
major fields. Analysis of policy is
analytical and descriptive i.e., it
attempts to explain policies and
their development. Analysis for
policy is prescriptive i.e., it is
involved with formulating policies
and proposals (e.g., to improve
social welfare).
Political commitment
Political commitment is the
decision of leaders to use their
power, influence, and personal
involvement to ensure that political
commitment in the broadest sense
means leadership commitment.

Political parties
Political parties bring together
those who share similar views and
interests to campaign for political
office and influence. They perform
a number of different functions. For
the electorate they help simplify the
electoral choice by offering broad
policy positions and programmes
between which to choose. For
governments they provide a
reasonably stable following of
political supporters to enable them
to achieve their programmes once
elected. For the more politically
committed they provide an
opportunity for involvement in
public affairs, a means of political
education and a channel for
influencing public policy. (Beetham
& Boyle, 1995)
80

,


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Power
Power is the ability to get what you
want and a measure of a persons
ability to control the environment
around them, including the
behavior of other people. The term
authority is often used for power,
perceived as legitimate by the social
structure.
Predictability
Predictability results primarily
from law and regulations that
are clear, known in advance, and
uniformly and effectively enforced.

Private goods and service

Those best allocated by the market,
i.e. those having a high degree of
excludability and rivalrousness in
consumption.

Private interests
The term private interests includes
not only the personal, professional
or business interests that an officer
may have, but also the personal,
professional or business interests
of the individuals or groups that
the officer associates. This might
include relatives, friends or even
rivals and enemies. In other words,
private interests are those interests
that can bring either benefits or
disadvantage to the officer, or to
others whom the officer may wish
to benefit or disadvantage.

,
.
( & , 1995)

,
,
.
: power, authority

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,

81

Such interests can involve an

actual or potential financial gain
or loss and can involve property,
shares, unpaid debts, or some
form of gift or benefit including
a job opportunity or secondary
employment. Other private
interests may not have a financial
component, but could involve
personal or family relationships or
sporting, social or cultural activities
that could influence an officers
judgement or decision.
Private sector
The private sector is that part of
the economy which is both run for
private profit and is not controlled
by the state.

Privatization
Privatization is the process of
moving assets out of the public
sector, and by definition is not part
of the management of the public
sector. Moreover, privatization
entails special processes, skills, and
considerations, and is in many ways
a separate area in its own right.
(Schiavo & Sundaram, 2000)
Probity
Probity is the evidence of ethical
behaviour in a particular process.
Probity is defined as complete and
confirmed integrity, uprightness
and honesty.

82

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2000)

Probity



.
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Process
It includes a series of actions or
steps which produce a result.
Professionalism
The term professionalism embraces
a set of attitudes, skills and
behaviours, attributes and values
which are expected from those to
whom society has extended the
privilege of being considered a
professional.
Propriety
Conformity to established
standards of good or proper
behaviour or manners.
Appropriateness to the purpose or
circumstances; suitability

Public
Public, adjective, is of pertaining to
the people, relating to, or affecting,
a nation, state, or community;
opposed to private; as, the public
treasury, a road or lake. Public,
noun is also defined as the people
of a nation not affiliated with the
government of that nation.

Public administration
Public administration refers to :
1. The aggregate machinery
(policies, rules, procedures,
systems, organisational
structures, personnel, etc.)
funded by the state budget and

()


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83

2. in charge of the management

and direction of the affairs
of the executive government,
and its interaction with
other stakeholders in the
state, society and external
environment.
3. The management and
implementation of the
whole set of government
activities dealing with the
implementation of laws,
regulations and decisions
of the government and the
management related to the
provision of public services.
(UNDP, 2009)
4. Public administration refers to
the study of the public sector.
(Hughes, 2003)

2. ,

(,
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3. , ,

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(, 2009)

Public domain
1. public property, with no legal
restrictions on use;
2. a field or scope of knowledge
or activity within government
spheres.

/

1.

;
2.
,
.

Public administration reform

(PAR)
PAR refers to structural and/
or process changes in areas
such as organizational design,
decentralization, personnel
management, public finance,
results-based management, access
to information, and interaction with
civil society and the private sector.
Reforms can be comprehensive,
covering a wide range of areas, or
targeted, such as the revision of a
civil service statute. (UNDP, 2009)

84

4.
(,
2003)

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,
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Public enterprise
A public enterprise is an enterprise
of which more than half is owned
by the state, directly or indirectly.
This definition was arrived at in the
late 1980s after much international
debate, and is important insofar
as it is based on ownership rather
than control. Public enterprises
are expected to operate like private
companies and are therefore part
of the public sector but not of
government. (Schiavo & Sundaram,
2000)
Most public enterprises are in the
non-budget sector, and operate with
substantial independence. Public
enterprises provide many services
such as telecommunications,
electricity, water and sewerage,
transport such as rail, airlines and
urban public transport; financial
services, notably banks and
insurance companies. The only
point in common of all these is their
government ownership. (Hughes,
2003)
Public financial management
(PFM)
PFM includes financial planning,
budget formulation and
implementation, payments to and
from public bodies, accounting,
financial reporting and internal
evaluation. There is, however,
no general agreement about the
scope of financial management.
Here, budget specialists think that
financial management starts after a
government agency receives

(51%-
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85

appropriations. The classical PFM

model cannot solve two problems:
intentional budget deficit (e.g.
stimulating production and
employment in order to achieve
macroeconomic objectives or for
political reasons such as populist
promises to spend more) and
operational efficiency. Therefore in
addition to the traditional financial
management function of PFM,
there is more emphasis is now on
management functions such as
performance management and
increasing efficiency, governance
elements such as budget
transparency, accountability, and
political responsibility.
Public goods and services
Private goods are enjoyed by
whoever paid for them. Once
someone pays the asking price, the
property becomes theirs by the
process of exchange and no one else
can use it unless the owner gives
permission. Public goods are quite
different as they benefit all users
whether or not they have paid the
price. They are non-excludable and
non-rival, that is if provided to one,
they are available to all. The classic
example is clean air - nonrival
because everyone can breathe as
much of it as needed regardless
of how many others are breathing
it; and nonexcludable because
it is impossible to monitor and
charge for individual consumption.
(Hughes, 2003)
86

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(, 2003)

Hence, the concept of public goods

and services is a key justification
for government intervention.

,


.

Public interests
The public interests is the
collective interest of the entire
community not the sum of
individual interests or the interest
of a particular group. All public
sector officers have a public duty to
put the public interest above their
own personal or private interests
when carrying out their official
duties. This principle applies
to anyone engaged to deliver
government programs and services,
whether as a full- or part-time
employee, casual or contract staff
member, board member, consultant
or volunteer.

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Public hearings
Public hearings are a well known
mechanism for eliciting the views
and concerns of the people on a
variety of issues. Public hearings,
which are often mandated by law
for proposed land use or major
project proposals, give experts and
the general public a structured
opportunity to question public
officials. (Schiavo & Sundaram,
2000)

Public management
Public Management, focused on
the application of management
principles, including efficiency in

,

. ,

,



. ( &
, 2000)

,
,

87

utilization of resources, effectiveness,

customer orientation, reliance on
market forces, and greater sensitivity
to public needs. The main features of
public management:
A major shift from traditional
public administration with
attention paid to the achievement
of results and the personal
responsibility of managers;
To move away from classic
bureaucracy to make
organisations, personnel,
and employment terms and
conditions more flexible;
Organisational and personal
objectives are to be set clearly
and this enables measurement
of their achievement through
performance indicators, similarly
more systematic evaluation of
government programmes to find
out whether they are achieving
their goals;
Senior staff are more likely to
be politically committed to the
government of the day rather
than being non-partisan or
neutral;
Government functions are
more likely to face market tests;
in separating the purchaser
of government services from
the provider. Government
involvement need not always
mean government provision
through bureaucratic means;
A trend towards reducing
government functions through
privatization and other forms of
market testing and contracting.
88

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Public policy
1. It is not possible to define public
policy in any pricese way (Hughes,
2003). It can be generally defined
as the course of action or inaction
taken by governmental entities
with regard to a particular issue
or set of issues. Other scholars
define it as a system of courses of
action, regulatory measures, laws,
and funding priorities concerning
a given topic promulgated by
a governmental entity or its
representatives.

2. Public policy is also considered

an academic discipline studying
and characterizing the interaction
between government and its
clients.

Public private partnerships

(PPPs)
Public-private partnership (PPP)
describes a government service
or private business venture which
is funded and operated through a
partnership of government and one
or more private sector companies.
These schemes are sometimes
referred to as PPP, P3 or P3.
PPP involves a contract between a
public sector authority and a private
party, in which the private party
provides a public service or project
and assumes substantial financial,
technical and operational risk in the
project. In some types of PPP, the
cost of using the service is borne
exclusively by the users of the

1.

.



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,
,


.
2.
,


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.
PPP, 3P, P3
.

,



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,

89

service and not by the taxpayer.

In other types (notably the
private finance initiative), capital
investment is made by the
private sector on the strength
of a contract with government
to provide agreed services and
the cost of providing the service
is borne wholly or in part by
the government. Government
contributions to a PPP may also
be in kind (notably the transfer of
existing assets). In projects that
are aimed at creating public goods
like in the infrastructure sector,
the government may provide a
capital subsidy in the form of a
one-time grant, so as to make
it more attractive to the private
investors. In some other cases,
the government may support
the project by providing revenue
subsidies, including tax breaks or
by providing guaranteed annual
revenues for a fixed period.
Public procurement
Government procurement is the
acquisition of goods, services,
and public works in a timely
manner that results in best value
to the government and the people.
The performance criterion for
evaluating procurement activities
is economy, i.e., acquisition at the
lowest price without sacrificing
quality and timely delivery. Public
procurement gives substance to the
tasks of government. (Schiavo &
Sundaram, 2000)
90

,
.
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( & , 2000)

Public relations (PR)

The deliberate, planned and
sustained effort to establish and
maintain mutual understanding
between an organisation and its
customers.
Public sector
The public sector is the part of the
economy which is fully controlled
and owned by the state. It includes
education, health and social
services, public transport, national
and local authorities, and state
enterprises.
Public service
Public services is a term usually
used to mean services provided by
government to its citizens, either
directly (through the public sector)
or by financing private provision
of services. The term is associated
with a social consensus that certain
services should be available to all,
regardless of income. Even where
public services are neither publicly
provided nor publicly financed, for
social and political reasons they are
usually subject to regulation.

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91

Q
Quality management
In public administration
quality management implies
somewhat different from quality
management in manufacturing
where it originated. An excellent
public agency is not simply one
that has characteristics of an
excellent service provider, but
also be excellent on the way in
which it discharges its political
and social responsibilities to its
constituency. As a consequence,
quality indicators should not only
focus on measuring service quality
as provided by an individual
organization, but also the quality
of services provided by the overall
system, and the overall quality of
life in a specific area. A high quality
public administration must not
only be able to increase customer
satisfaction with public services
but also build trust in public
administration through transparent
processes and accountability and
through democratic dialogue.
(Bovaird & Lffler, 2009)

.




,

,

.



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.



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,



. ( & , 2009)

Quality of governance

Quality indicators for governance

processes:
:
Strength of political

institutions voting, party
,
membership, activism.
,
Strength of civic institutions
.

92

 membership,
volunteering, office-holding,
fundraising, donations.
Strength of sharing and
collective behaviour
environmental protection,
social care, crime
prevention, sharing of
household work.
Achievement of equality
and equity of opportunity,
income, outcome, etc.
Level of openness
and transparency in
organizations in public,
voluntary, private sectors.
Levels of honesty and
integrity in public domain.
Ability of community to
manage itself and meet
needs not met by the state.
(Bovaird & Lffler, 2009)

Quality of life
Key quality of life indicators:
Combating unemployment
Encouraging economic
regeneration
Tackling poverty and social
exclusion
Developing peoples skills
Improving peoples health
Improving housing
opportunities
Tackling community safety
Strengthening community
involvement
Improving management of
the environment

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,

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93

 Improving the local

environment
Improving transport
Protecting diversity of
nature
Audit Commission, UK, 2002

Quality of services
For services, the following quality
dimensions influence a customers
view of quality:
Tangibles
Reliability
Responsiveness
Competence
Courtesy
Credibility
Security
Access
Communication
Understanding the
costumer

Quango
The term has its origin in a
humorous shortening of quasi-NGO,
an ostensibly non-governmental
organisation performing
governmental functions, often
in receipt of funding or other
support from government, while
mainstream NGOs mostly get their
donations or funds from other
organisations that support their
activities. Numerous quangos were
created from the

94

, 2002



. :

Quango quasi-NGO
. -
,




. 1980-

.

1980s onwards. Quango is used

notably in the United Kingdom,
Ireland, Australia and elsewhere to
label colloquially an organisation
to which government has devolved
power. In the United Kingdom the
official term is non-departmental
public body or NDPB. (Pollitt,
2009)

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2009)

95

R
Red tape
Originally, the term was used to
describe the red string used to
tie together official documents in
the British bureaucracy. Now, this
term refers to any complicated
rule, regulation or government
procedure that takes unnecessary
time and effort. For a business,
red tape can significantly reduce
economic competitiveness. (UNDP/
LAO, 2001)
Reform
Reform means beneficial change,
or sometimes, more specifically,
reversion to a pure original state.
Reform is generally distinguished
from revolution. The latter means
basic or radical change; whereas
reform may be no more than fine
tuning, or at most redressing
serious wrongs without altering the
fundamentals of the system. Reform
seeks to improve the system as
it stands, never to overthrow it
wholesale.
Regulation
Regulation is an indirect form of
government intervention in the
economy by allowing or prohibiting
certain activities through the legal
system, for example, setting tariffs,
granting licences or permits and
96

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regulating the labour market.

Regulation can vary from the
minor and non-intrusive the
collection of statistics, for example
to blanket prohibition with very
high penalties such as smuggling
illegal drugs. Regulation can be
either economic or social with
the former aimed at encouraging
business and other economic actors
to undertake certain activities and
to avoid others. Social regulation
is usually seen as attempting to
protect the interest of citizens and
consumers, especially in regard to
quality standards, safety levels and
pollution controls. Regulation of
the business sector is widespread:
there is financial regulation which
can include interest rates, exchange
rates, foreign investment and rules
for company registration. (Hughes,
2003)
Regulatory agencies
Agencies or separate bureaus
under regular ministries with
delegated responsibility for central
government regulations, or fully
separate agencies exercising
powers of licensing, rate fixing and
safety regulation (e.g., in the United
States, the Occupational Safety and
Health Administration, and the
Interstate Commerce Commission,
respectively).

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97

 ,

,
.

Reinventing government

1. The title of a book written by
1.
David Osborne and Ted Gaebler
1992
in 1992.
.
2. Term referring to ideas
2.
used in government that are

entrepreneurial in nature

whose purpose is to improve

government services.

(Carole, 2000)
.
(, 2000)
Rent seeking
Rent seeking generally implies
the extraction of uncompensated
value from others without making
any contribution to productivity,
such as by gaining control of
land and other pre-existing
natural resources, or by imposing
burdensome regulations or other
government decisions that may
affect consumers or businesses.
(UNDP, 2008)

Responsibility
The term responsibility is not
a single-meaning term, in public
administration, it has mainly three
different meanings (Cendn, 2000):
Responsibility as capacity:
It refers to the ability or the
authority of the public servant
to act. Responsibility in this
sense implies the existence of
a set of laws and regulations
that define the capacity or the
authority of the public official
to perform his

98

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: responsibility,
accountability




.
.

or her duties. A set of rules and

regulations that operate both as an
obligation to act functions, duties
and as a limit for this action.
Responsibility as accountability:
It refers to the obligation that
public officials have of providing

information, explanations and/or
justifications to a superior authority
internal or external for their
performance in the execution of their
functions.
Responsibility as liability: It
refers to the assumption of the
consequences of ones own acts and,

sometimes, also of acts carried out
by others, when these acts take place
within the field of authority of the
ultimate responsible administrator.
The consequences of this dimension
of responsibility are normally fixed
by law and can vary a lot, depending
on the legal order of the country. In
general terms, these consequences
may imply the imposition of a
sanction resignation, dismissal,
disciplinary, penalty, etc. and
the compensation for the damage
caused, but they may also have
positive implications for the
official that acted correctly or in an
exemplary manner.

Responsibility also implies a moral

obligation to refuse taking actions that
are illegal or violate the public interests.

99

Responsiveness
The capacity of the public service to
respond to the needs and demands
of the public, political institutions,
government departments and
other bodies. In order to be
responsive, government services
must be sensitive to the needs
and requirements of the different
communities and to the particular
circumstances of certain groups in
society. (UNDP/LAO, 2001)

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Rubber stamp
Originally, rubber stamps were
seals with a persons name or the
name of an organisation or a date.
The stamp was put on a letter or
form to indicate official approval.
The term has come to mean
automatic or routine approval
given without assessing the merit
or legality of the request. It is
also used to refer to a person or
institution which grants

, ,

, ,

.
, ,

Restructuring
The deliberate modification
of the formal reporting and
authority relationships between
organisational components.
Organisational restructuring
can be accomplished by adding,
eliminating, splitting, or merging
components (within a structure)
or by strengthening, weakening,
reversing or redefining the
relationships among organisational
components. Organisational
restructuring usually involves
delayering (removal of hierarchical
layers), redesigning work processes
(re-engineering), outsourcing,
downsizing, etc. (UNDP/LAO, 2001)

100

,

.
,
, ,
, , ,
,


.
,

, ,

. (/, 2001)

approval but has no real power

or authority to refuse the request.
(UNDP/LAO, 2001)

Rule of law
The rule of law embodies the
simple principle that all state
officials, whether elected or nonelected, should act within the law
and the constitution, on the basis of
powers that are legally defined and
circumscribed. (Beetham and Boyle,
1995)
Within the context of democratic
governance, the rule of law is
understood as government limited
by law, making its actions and
decisions predictable for the
individual citizens. (Brand, 2006)
The Report of Secretary-General of
the United Nations to the Security
Council, 23 August 2004 uses a
broader definition: The Rule of Law
is a concept at the very heart of the
Organizations (United Nations)
mission. It refers to a principle of
governance in which all persons,
institutions and entities, public and
private, including the State itself, are
accountable to laws that are publicly
promulgated, equally enforced

. (/,
2001)



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2004 8- 23
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.
,
,
,

101

and independently adjudicated,

and which are consistent with
international human rights norms
and standards. It requires, as well,
measures to ensure adherence
to the principles of supremacy
of law, equality before the law,
accountability to the law, fairness
in the application of the law,
separation of powers, participation
in decision-making, legal certainty,
avoidance of arbitrariness and
procedural and legal transparency.

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102

S
Separation of powers
In democracies government is
divided into three branches: the
executive (sometimes called the
government), which is responsible
for the formulation of and execution
of policy; the legislature (also
called parliament, representative
or national assembly), which
is responsible for the approval
of legislation and taxation and
the scrutiny of the executive;
the judiciary (or the courts),
which is responsible for securing
the observance of the law, by
determining whether it has been
infringed and sentencing those
found guilty of its infringement. This
separation of the three branches
has proved essential to secure the
different forms of accountability.
Thus, if the courts are not
independent of both legislature and
executive, they cannot act without
fear or favour to ensure that public
officials operate within the law.
Similarly, if parliament does not have
independent powers to approve
legislation and taxation and to
scrutinize the executive, the political
and financial accountability of the
government to the electorate will
be seriously impaired. (Beetham &
Boyle: 1995)

Social capital
Social capital refers to the reservoir
of trust and cooperation habits that
are generated by the functioning of
voluntary networks of reciprocity
from trading associations to
cooperatives, sports clubs, etc.

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103

Social capital is economically

beneficial as it facilitates the
transmission of information about
others behaviour and about
technology and markets, thus
lowering transaction costs and
encouraging collective action.
Unlike physical capital, social
capital grows the more it is used.
(Schiavo & Sundaram, 2000)

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Spoils system
A system of hiring personnel based
on political loyalty and connections;
can also extend to government
contracts and the like; usually
takes the form of rewarding party
supporters with government jobs.
(Hughes, 2003)

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Social justice
Social justice is the concept in
which a subjective notion of justice
and/or equality is achieved in every
aspect of society, rather than the
administration of law. It involves
a greater degree of economic
egalitarianism through progressive
taxation, income redistribution,
policies aimed toward achieving
that which developmental
economists refer to as equality
of opportunity and equality of
outcome.
Social justice is also a concept that
some use to describe the movement
towards a socially just world. In this
context, social justice is based on
the concepts of human rights and
equality.

104

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Stakeholders
The many different persons or
interest groups that are involved in
a policy decision and are affected
by the results.

State
State is an association of
individuals in a defined territory
that is supreme over all other
associations and individuals
residing in the same territory. The
essence of the state is its monopoly
of coercive power. This monopoly
of coercive power is known as
sovereignty, and its exercise can
be delegated by the state to other
entities on its own terms. The
political process revolves around
the acquisition of this sovereignty;
the administrative process revolves
around its executive utilization. The
state operates through the medium
of an organised government.
The legitimacy of the exercise of
government power derives from
the consent of the governed,
normally expressed through open
and free elections. (Schiavo &
Sundaram, 2000)
State capture
Where the state is held captive
to the actions of individuals,
groups, or firms who influence
the information of laws, rules,
and regulations to serve their
private interests by offering private
benefits to public officials, changing
the rules of the game. It is a way
of legalising corruption. (UNDP,
2008)

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105

Strategic management
Strategic management is guided
by four principles: i) concern with
the long term; ii) integretion of
goals and objectives into a coherent
hierarchy; iii) recognition that
strategic management and planning
are not self-implementing; iv) an
external perspective emphasizing
not adapting to the environment
but anticipating and shaping the
environmental change. Strategic
public management adds an
additional ingredient: strategic
thinking must be cognisant of
the exercise of political authority.
(Hughes, 2003)
Structural adjustment
programmes
Structural adjustment programmes
were implemented in the mid
1980s in efforts at reforming the
public administration in developing
countries, supported by the IFIs,
focused on reducing the overall
costs of the government, mainly
through privatization of state
owned enterprises and reduction of
the wage bill to bring government
spending down to sustainable
levels and free resources for other
uses more beneficial to the overall
economy. (UNDP, 2008)
Subsidiarity principle
The term subsidiarity principle is
used by the European Union to mean
the rule, according to which taxing,
spending, and regulatory functions
should be exercised by the lowest

106

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possible level of government unless

a convincing case can be made for
assigning these functions to higher
levels of government. A clearer
term is correspondence principle
used by Oates (1972) in his
decentralization theorem, which
states that a public service should
be provided by the jurisdiction
having control over the minimum
geographic area that would
internalize the benefits and costs of
provision of that service. (Schiavo &
Sundaram, 2000)

System
System is a set of interacting or
interdependent entities forming
an integrated whole. Most systems
share common characteristics,
including:
Structure, defined by parts and
their composition;
Functioning, which involves
inputs, processing and
outputs of material, energy or
information;
Interconnectivity: the various
parts of a system have
functional as well as structural
relationships between each
other.

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107

T
Think tank
Literally, it means a tank filled with
ideas. In management it is used as
a metaphor to describe a group of
experts who provide advice and
ideas to organisations on different
subject matters. The main function
of a think tank is research, analysis
and advice, usually related to
developing longer-term strategies
based on possible future scenarios
developed by the think tank.
(UNDP/LAO, 2001)

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Trust
Trust, the process by which
government policies are carried
out through the cooperation of
citizens with public officials, is
of fundamental importance for
governance. While implementing
popular decisions is easy, leaders
need the governance capital that
trust provides in order to carry
out unpopular decisions. If major
political institutions are deemed
trustworthy, citizens are more
likely to cooperate with

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Transparency
Transparency in public
administration means that relevant
information is made available to the
general public in usable form, and
that government regulations and
decisions are clear and adequately
disseminated. Transparency
is a prerequisite for genuine
accountability and reinforces
predictability.

108

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unpopular decisions necessary for

the long-term benefit of a society.
If institutions are distrusted,
citizens may refuse to cooperate or
ignore laws and regulations, and
the effectiveness of government
is thereby reduced. (Tommasoli,
2007)

Trust building
Political distrust is not due to
shortcomings of individuals,
such as a lack of education, or to
a national political culture. High
levels of political distrust reflect
low levels of political and economic
performance by governors. Many
of the measures required to
increase political trust are within
the hands of governors: improving
adherence to the rule of law and
reducing high-level and lowlevel corruption; making officials
conform to bureaucratic principles
of fairness in treating citizens;
improving the responsiveness of
central democratic institutions
such as parties and parliament;
and promoting economic growth.
(Tommasoli, 2007)

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109

U
Urban government
What urban government does, who
does it, and with what resources
vary from country to country, and
from town to town. Generally,
however, urban public services in
most countries comprise
garbage collection/waste
management;
water supply/sewerage;
environmental services,
streetlight maintenance, parks
and recreation;
primary health care and
education (in some countries
only, usually to complement
central government services);
some social welfare (e.g.,
shelters for the homeless);
internal transport;
urban planning and regulatory
enforcement;
local public works and housing;
fire fighting and other
emergency services;
traffic regulation.
(Schiavo & Sundaram, 2000)

110

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W
Welfare state
A welfare state is one where the
governing system assumes primary
responsibility for the economic and
social benefits of each of its citizens.
Characteristic of a welfare state is
the existence of a national medical
fund, national unemployment
insurance and a pension benefit
scheme. At the very least, it makes a
minimum income for all its citizens
one of its highest priorities. (UNDP/
LAO, 2001)

Whistle-blowing
The expression is taken from sports
where neutral referees detect and
penalise illicit behaviour of opposing
teams. Making any disclosure of legal
violations (especially within public
organisations), mismanagement,
a gross waste of funds, an abuse of
authority, or a danger to public health
or safety, whether the disclosure is
made within or outside the formal
chain of command.
Whistle-blower protection
Measures (administrative or
legislative) to protect people who
alert the public or the authorities
about corruption transactions
they have witnessed or uncovered.
Whistle-blower protection shields
these people from reprisals, from
those they expose. (UNDP, 2008)

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111


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, (2008),
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113