Sixsigma wk1

402-108
SIX SIGMA TRAINING FOR GREEN BELTS WEEK 1
16Feb04 Rev C EC 0990-0196-04
D M A I C
Six Sigma Operational Excellence

Literature PN 1654520
Order from Literature Distribution Phone 717-558-1495 Document # 402-108 Literature Distribution # 1654520
Tyco Electronics Six Sigma Operational Excellence 2100 Paxton Street Harrisburg, PA 17111 USA All rights reserved. This material is company confidential and is intended for internal use in Tyco Electronics only.
Revision C, February 2004 Changes are made periodically to this document. Changes and technical updates will be added in subsequent editions.
Rev C February 16, 2004
INTRODUCTION
Process Improvement Methodology

Operations Green Belts
Introduction
Rev. A Printed 3/10/2004 2003 by Sigma Breakthrough Technologies, Inc.
GB101-1
SPACER
S - Safety P - Purpose A - Agenda C - Code of Conduct E - Expectations R - Roles and Responsibilities
GB101-2
Six Sigma Training for Green Belts Week 1 Tyco, Six Sigma Operational Excellence
Page 1 402-108, Rev. C
INTRODUCTION
Safety
Safety is always our first priority ! Please be careful of all work hazards, trip hazards, and bio-hazards! Specific safety issues including:
Safety equipment Emergency exit procedures Any other safety related issues
GB101-3
Purpose
Provide an overview of the Green Belt training program Explore the Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve, Control (DMAIC) process improvement methodology. Construct a plan and use the tools and methods on the project that has been assigned
GB101-4
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INTRODUCTION
Agenda 1st Session

Monday 8:00 - 8:30 Introduction Use of the Reference Guides Basic Quality Tools and Using Minitab (cont.) Measurement System Analysis FMEA Sampling Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday
8:30 - 9:00 9:00 - 9:30 9:30 - 10:00 10:00 - 10:30 10:30 - 11:00
Introduction to Six Sigma Introduction to SPC Capability Studies Kappa Studies & Attribute MSA Interpersonal Management Skills and Dealing with Resistance
Introduction to Lean 11:00 - 11:30 Team Building LUNCH
11:30 - Noon Noon - 12:30
LUNCH LUNCH
LUNCH
LUNCH
12:30 - 1:00 1:00 - 1:30 1:30 - 2:00 2:00 - 2:30 Basic Statistics 2:30 - 3:00 Process Mapping And Value Stream Mapping Introduction to Minitab
Capability Studies (cont.)
Effective Team Meetings and Presentation Skills
Action Planning
3:00 - 3:30
Introduction to Multi Vari Analysis

Basic Quality Tools and Using Minitab
3:30 - 4:00
C&E Matrix
Summary Week 1
4:00 - 4:30
4:30 - 5:00
GB101-5
Agenda 2nd Session

Multi Vari Analysis Central Limit Theorem and Minitab Confidence Intervals Focused Area Improvement Event Hypothesis Testing t Tests ANOVA Chi-Square Correlation and Regression Control Plans Quick Changeover Project Management Introduction to Design of Experiments Techniques for Preparing Presentations Error Proofing
GB101-6
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INTRODUCTION
Guidelines / Code of Conduct

Try to visualize what the DMAIC process should look like for your project issues If you have a question at any time - ask! Listen as an ally - How can I apply the DMAIC effectively in my process? Parking Lot will be set up to capture ideas There will be a lot of team activities - well be moving fast! Housekeeping
GB101-7
Expectations & Roles

Expectations You will have a better understanding of the DMAIC process and the utilization of the various statistical tools and Lean methodologies You will have a plan for use of the tools in your project areas by Friday What are your expectations? Roles Instructors: Participants - You
GB101-8
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STATISTICS REFERENCE GUIDE
Quality Tools and Statistics Reference Guide
QUALITY TOOLS AND STATISTICS REFERENCE GUIDE
402-105
GB102-1
Purpose of the Reference Guide

Provide a supplement to the Power Point slides that are used during the weeks / sessions of Belt training Provide Tyco Electronics employees with a convenient reference resource for use when working independently or as a team Provide consistent training and resource material
GB102-2
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Obtaining Additional Copies

Controlled through Tyco Electronics Literature Distribution Ordering information:
Document Number 402-105 Literature Distribution Number 1307319
Maintained under document control
GB102-3
Major Topics
There are 6 major sections within the Quality Tools and Statistics Reference Guide The 8 Discipline Model for Problem Solving The DMAIC Process Lean Techniques Basic Tools Variability Glossary of Terms
GB102-4
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The 8 Discipline Model for Problem Solving

What is 8-D?
A systematic process that describes, analyzes and identifies the root cause(s) of a problem Most frequently prescribed format for responding to customer complaints
When is it used?
When the product or process does not meet the documented standards When a process is operating out of control To resolve incidents of customer reported failures
GB102-5
The 8 Steps
CT
8 1 Celebrate and Define concern, Communicate Organize and Success Plan
PL AN
Problem Solving 6 Process 3 Implement & (8D) Contain Verify Problem Corrective 5 4 Action Develop Identify & Corrective Verify Root Action Plan Causes
7 Prevent Recurrence
2 Describe Opportunity/ Problem
EC CH K
DO
GB102-6
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8D: Example Details

STEP 1: Define concern, organize, and plan
Define Concern Organize and Plan
1.Collect
data on production, sales, employee/customer, surveys and feedback, reports, memos, etc. that would establish that a problem exists in a particular area. Determine if data indicates patterns or trends. Are the standards being adhered to? 2.Identify problem topic or opportunity. What is the issue? 3.Relate topic to objectives, business impacts and processes. 4.Define purpose, objective, and scope of project.
1.If
needed, assemble a small team of 4-6 people. 2.Ensure that the team has a designated champion. 3.Identify problem topic or opportunity. 4.Define purpose, objective, and scope of project. 5.Reach consensus on: - Charter/Key operating boundaries 6.Gather team's ideas and opinions about the problem area. 7.Identify/define action plans.
Reference Guide: Section 1-9 Reference Guide: Section 1-9

GB102-7
Use For This Section on 8 - D

Can be used for training individuals or teams on this problem solving model Provides detailed guidance for teams attempting to apply the process to resolve problems
Suggests various tools to apply within the 8 steps Assists with selecting tools for data collection and decision making Provides a series of questions to ask at the end of each step
GB102-8
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The DMAIC Process

The DMAIC model Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve and Control is a rigorous, disciplined process used by Six Sigma Project Teams.
D M A I C
GB102-9
When To Use DMAIC

Black Belt Projects:
When there is a need to implement breakthrough improvement to a process of strategic importance to the Business When there is a need to introduce a new product design
Green Belt Projects:

When there is a need to implement breakthrough improvement on projects identified by service or process inefficiencies or product defects When there is a need for continual improvement on an established process
GB102-10
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Step 1: Define
Step 1: DEFINE Description: Leadership identifies a process that is not meeting the strategic objectives, establishes the scope and boundaries for the project and commissions a Black Belt to lead a Six Sigma project team.
Guidelines process owner has accountability and authority to make changes in the process. 2. Standards are being followed. 3. Identify the current state, the entitlement state, and GAP. 4. Team consists of a Black Belt, process employees, process owner and finance. 5. Process defined as an output statement. Boundaries should be established by identifying suppliers, inputs, customers, and output. 6. Identify internal customers by name.
1. The
Tasks to do / Questions to Ask Are the wasteful processes defined as an output? Which process requires improvement the most? Who is the process owner? Who are the subject matter experts? Who should participate in the improvement effort? What are the boundaries for the process? Who are the customers for this process? What are the customers requirements? What is to be produced? Draft specific description of each requirement in terms of physical and measurable attributes of the output. Review agreed-upon customer requirements. Validate the detailed description with the customer Define the project goals and savings.
GB102-11
What is the Result Of the Define Step?

Project commissioned by Executive Champion Project Charter completed Improvement opportunity identified Goals and savings identified Savings agreed to by Finance Subject matter experts identified The improvement team members identified The customers of the process identified
GB102-12
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Checklist Define Step

Is this process the most critical facing your organization? Has the Project Charter been completed? Has a Black Belt been assigned? Has a process owner been identified? Have the team members been identified? Have the boundaries, inputs and outputs been identified for the project? (Initial Value Stream Map) Has Finance endorsed the projected savings?
GB102-13
Define Step Leadership Questions

Identify wasteful process 1. How have you determined the boundaries to your process? 2. How does this process support external customer requirements? 3. What documented standards are being followed for the wasteful process? Commission Team 1. Who is the Black Belt? 2. Who are the subject matter experts? 3. Who will be responsible for implementation of this improvement? 4. What are the teams next steps?
GB102-14
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Reference Guide Lean Technologies

Topics include: Lean strategies and building blocks 8 wastes (value added vs. non-value added) Continuous improvement teams (Kaizen) Cycle time One-piece flow (JIT) Pull system (Kanban) Quality at the source: error proofing (Poka Yoke) Quick changeover
GB102-15
Reference Guide Lean Technologies, cont.

Topics include: Standard work; standard operations Takt time Total productive maintenance (TPM) Value Stream mapping Work flow: visual control and cell design Workplace organization: 5S
GB102-16
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The Basic Quality Tools

Tools for collecting, analyzing and displaying data Tools for generating ideas Tools for reaching consensus Tools for documenting processes and planning actions
GB102-17
The Basic Concepts of Statistics

Types of data Managing a process Process Control charts Process Capability Measurement System Analysis
GB102-18
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Glossary of Terms
Provides a convenient reference to the terms that are used most frequently within the Six Sigma Performance Excellence initiative Provides a guide to consistent use of terms
GB102-19
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INTRODUCTION TO SIX SIGMA
Training for Operations Green Belts
Climbing to Operational Excellence: Black Belt Training: Introduction to Six Sigma

GB103-1
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
Introduction To Six Sigma

History of Six Sigma Basic Definitions What is Six Sigma? Why is Tyco Electronics deploying Six Sigma? What is the implementation strategy for Tyco Electronics?
GB103-2
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
Page 1 402-108, Rev. C
So many choices, too many buzz words
GB103-3
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
The History of Six Sigma

First publicized in the mid 1980s by Motorola as a means of organizing their Malcolm Baldrige initiative Jack Welch adopted in 1994 and implemented within GE
Gained notoriety in 1999 when GE reported that Six Sigma goals were tied to all executive compensation and that promotions within the executive ranks required the achievement of Black Belt status 1999 annual report stated that GE saved $2 Billion over 5 years because of Six Sigma projects
GB103-4
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
Page 2 402-108, Rev. C
The History of Six Sigma, cont.

1985 - 1992 1993 1994 1994 1995 1996 1997 Bombardier 1997 - 1998 1999 - 2002
TI
Motorola
ABB
Allied Signal
Sony Crane Polaroid

Avery Dennison ECM Wirecraft
Dupont AMEX Ford

Lockheed Martin
GE
Nokia Siebe
Merrill Lynch
Broad Acceptance
Design
Refinement
Results
Competitive Awareness
New Technologies
GB103-5
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
The History of Six Sigma, cont.

Motorola Texas Instruments IBM / DEC / Kodak ABB Allied Signal GE Whirl Pool, Siebe, Polaroid 3M
Manufacturing
Research & Development Service
GB103-6
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
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Basic Definitions
Sigma A mathematical term used to designate the distribution or spread of any process around the average (mean) as expressed in standard deviations For a business or manufacturing process, the sigma value is a metric used to indicate how well the process is performing
GB103-7
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
Basic Definitions, continued

Six Sigma Process
A disciplined methodology of defining, measuring, analyzing, improving and controlling the quality of products, processes and transactions with the goal of eliminating virtually all defects
Six Sigma Process Improvement

A comprehensive, flexible, but essential system to make our business processes more responsive, competitive and profitable
GB103-8
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
Page 4 402-108, Rev. C

Entitlement
The optimal performance level that can be achieved by a process How would the process operate if it was centered and did not move
Lean
A series of qualitative tools that focus on process optimization through cycle time reduction and the elimination of waste
DMAIC
Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve, Control: disciplined methodology utilized to manage Six Sigma projects
GB103-9
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control

Process
The defined way by which all work gets completed Any activity or group of activities that takes an input, adds value and provides an output
Manufacturing Process
The defined way utilized to produce the physical product that must conform to a defined set of requirements
Transactional Process
All non-manufacturing processes
GB103-10
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
Page 5 402-108, Rev. C

Six Sigma Champions
Organizational executives who are responsible for:
Sponsoring the Six Sigma project Launching the Six Sigma project Making site visits to see the team in action Attending the project review report-out meetings Removing barriers that are impeding project success, such as
Capital Human resources Red tape
GB103-11
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control

Master Black Belt
The highest level of technical and organizational proficiency Provides the training for and assists the Black Belts
Black Belt
Key technical leaders responsible for organizational change and development ideally this would be a full time position Must have a comprehensive knowledge of statistical techniques, quality management systems, project management techniques and must have excellent problem solving and facilitation skills Responsible for oversight of several Six Sigma projects
GB103-12
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
Page 6 402-108, Rev. C

Green Belt Provide the leadership for the Six Sigma Project Teams from concept to completion - rotate back to normal assignment when the project is completed, or is assigned to another project Must have statistical training Must have good facilitation and problem solving skills
GB103-13
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
Six Sigma Qualitative Tools

Audits Benchmarking Brainstorming Cause and Effect Diagrams Design Review FMEA Housekeeping Process Mapping Quality Function Deployment Total Employee Involvement Workplace Organization
GB103-14
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
Page 7 402-108, Rev. C
Six Sigma Quantitative Tools

Capability Analysis Check Sheets Control Plans Design For Six Sigma Design Of Experiments Gage Reliability and Reproducibility Studies Histograms Lead Time Analysis Pareto Analysis Statistical Process Control Statistical Tolerance Analysis
GB103-15
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
Six Sigma Implementation Tools

Cellular Manufacturing DMAIC Design For Manufacturability Focused Area Improvement Event Just In Time (JIT) Kan Ban One Piece Flow Poka Yoke (Error Proofing) Predictive Maintenance QOS Quality Operating System Reviews Quick Changeover Supply Base Development
GB103-16
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
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What is Six Sigma?

An approach to sustainable improvement that:
Moves us toward our goal of being a world-class company Fosters a common language and interplant cooperation Uses a disciplined process to drive capability improvement and eliminate waste Helps Tyco:
Develop expert personnel and future managers Increase capacity with minimal capital Meet productivity goals Improve customer service
GB103-17
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
Six Sigma Is
A Business Improvement Process That Is Lead By Organizational Executives and Senior Management A Holistic Approach To Management Must Be Applied In All Areas Of The Company
Manufacturing Transactional
Service / Administrative Engineering / Design
6
Improve Control
Communications Intensive Fact Based And Results Oriented

GB103-18
Define
Measure
Analyze
Page 9 402-108, Rev. C
Six Sigma New and Old

Whats new
Some analysis tools (C&E matrix, Multi-vari studies) Software (Minitab) DMAIC process integrates the use of the tools Train - Apply - Review format Application to Non-manufacturing and Design
Whats not
Some tools (DOE, Gage R&R) Team structure Continuous Improvement methods (Kaizan)
GB103-19
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
Why Six Sigma Fails

Lack of visible support from Executive and Senior Managers
Lack of understanding of the Six Sigma process Business metrics not clearly defined Viewed as another quality program or a manufacturing program Reward system not linked to the outcomes of Six Sigma Inadequate / infrequent communications Not requiring the disciplined process (shortcuts) Insufficient resources
GB103-20
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
Page 10 402-108, Rev. C
The Inspection Exercise

Count the number of times the 6th letter of the alphabet appears in the following text: The necessity of training farm hands for the first class farms in the fatherly handling of farm live stock is foremost in the eyes of the farm owners. Since the forefathers of the farm owners trained the farm hands for first class farms in the fatherly handling of farm live stock, the farm owners felt they should carry on with the family tradition of training farm hands of the first class farmers in the fatherly handling of farm live stock because they believe it is the basis of good fundamental farm management.
GB103-21
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
Theory of Escaping Defects
Escaping Defects
Total Defects Per Unit

No matter how good your inspection and test processes are, the more defects you create, the more defects escape to the customer
GB103-22
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
Page 11 402-108, Rev. C
Six Sigma .. A Process Improvement Methodology Based on Statistical Thinking

GB103-23
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
Statistical Thinking
A habitual way of looking at work that: Recognizes all activities as processes Recognizes that processes have inherent variability and probably have non-value adding steps Uses data to understand variation / waste and to drive decisions to improve these processes
GB103-24
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
Page 12 402-108, Rev. C
Six Sigma As a Statistical Concept

The Normal Curve +/- 3 : The Traditional Quality Standard
34.13% 34.13% 2.1% 3 2.1% 3
13.6% 2 1 1
13.6% 2
68.3% 95.5% 99.7%

GB103-25
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
Sigma refers to the number of standard deviations between the center of the process and the nearest specification limit.
Three-Sigma Process
LSL
3 standard deviations
USL
Four-Sigma Process
LSL
USL
Five-Sigma Process
LSL
USL
Six-Sigma Process
LSL
Define Measure
GB103-26
USL
Improve Control
Analyze
Page 13 402-108, Rev. C
The Sigma Level
PPM
2 3 4 5 6
Process Capability
308,537 66,807 6,210 233 3.4

Defects per Million Opp.
GB103-27
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
The Sound of Quality
Close your eyes and listen to a 6 sigma process, followed by a 4 sigma process.
GB103-28
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
Page 14 402-108, Rev. C
Dissecting Process Capability

Inadequate Measurement Capability Inadequate Process Capability Supplied Material Variation Inadequate Design Margin
LSL
USL
Defects
Defects
Process Capability GB103-29

Measure Analyze Improve Control
Define
Why Deploy Six Sigma? Process Improvement That Is: Methodical Significant essentially error free Abundant
3.4
GB103-30
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
Page 15 402-108, Rev. C
Sigma Level and Cost of Quality

6
33
Cost of Quality :: 10-15% of Sales Cost of Quality 10-15% of Sales
Sigma Level
2
5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30%
Cost of Quality (% of Sales)
Whats Your Cost Reduction Opportunity ? Whats Your Cost Reduction Opportunity ?
GB103-31
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
Why Deploy Six Sigma?

Customers Want Price Delivery Quality We Focus On Cost Cycle Time Reduction of Defects
GB103-32
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
Page 16 402-108, Rev. C
The Basic Approach
The Right Projects
+
The Right People
= Better, Faster The Right Roadmap Results

+
and Tools
+
The Right Support
GB103-33
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
A Proven Approach
Aimed at infrastructure to produce institutionalization
Leadership training to create understanding, goals, process review Champions form guiding coalition Black Belts lead projects and become coaches and trainers
Well documented, step-by-step roadmap that works

Process analysis Application of tools Establishment of process control
Training with aggressive project selection and results

Action learning: Plan - Train - Apply - Review format
GB103-34
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
Page 17 402-108, Rev. C
Overall Approach Practical Problem Practical Problem Statistical Problem Statistical Problem
f ( x1 , x2 ,..., xk )
Statistical Solution Statistical Solution
Practical Solution Practical Solution
GB103-35
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
The Six Sigma Process
Define Measure Analyze
D M A I C
Improve Control
GB103-36
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
Page 18 402-108, Rev. C
Step 1: Define
Identify the gap in meeting the Business strategy or objective Establish the scope and boundary for the project Identify the Black Belt and the project team members Establish the project goals and savings Obtain approval of the Senior Leaders
GB103-37
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
Step 2: Measure
A functioning project team lead by a Black Belt A detailed process map reflecting the key process variables Measurement capability has been determined Baseline short term and long term process capability has been determined Initial determination of the appropriate qualitative, quantitative and implementation tools Confirmation of the project goals and savings Confirmation that the team consists of the right members
GB103-38
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
Page 19 402-108, Rev. C
Step 2: Measure Typical Activities

Process mapping Process FMEA Evaluate / implement a data collection process Evaluate / implement a control plan Process characterization / identification of the primary sources of variation Measurement R & R studies Process capability determination
GB103-39
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
Step 3: Analyze
Comprehensive analysis of the process variables and the relationship to the product requirements Understanding of which inputs affect which output
GB103-40
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
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Step 3: Analyze Typical

Update process map, process FMEA and control plan Identification of the root cause of the variation through
Pareto Charts that analyze the data from several perspectives Cause and Effect Diagrams SPC Charts Multi-Vari Studies Correlation and Regression
GB103-41
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
Step 4: Improve
Key process variables have been confirmed through the use of data and statistical experimentation Trial solutions are identified the efforts required and risks involved are documented
Trial solutions must attack the root cause
Solution must solve the problem / close the gap Project plan to transfer the revised process into sustaining operation
GB103-42
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
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Step 4: Improve Typical Activities

Process optimization using implementation tools Focused area improvement
One piece flow Kan-Ban Poka Yoke (Error Proofing) Design of Experiments (DOE)
Determination of the new process capability Updated process map, FMEA, and control plan
GB103-43
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
Step 5: Control
The Six Sigma Operational Excellence project has been completed and has met the stated goals and savings Long term capability has been established Operational control plans have been developed and implemented The process is returned to the process owner for sustained maintenance Team final report includes identification of lessons learned and future improvement opportunities Team recognition
GB103-44
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
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Step 5: Control Typical Activities

Update all required documentation to ensure compliance with Quality Management System requirements Inspection plans / control plans Process specifications Quality specifications Product prints Workmanship documents Local documents work instructions Routings FMEA On going measurement collection defined / implemented
GB103-45
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
Why Deploy Six Sigma?

Basic Tools Wall Design Wall
Seven Basic Quality Tools Green Belts
Statistical Tools For Process Improvement Black Belts

3 Sigma
Measure
Design For Six Sigma Master Black Belts
2 Sigma
Define
4 Sigma
GB103-46
5 Sigma
Improve Control
6 Sigma
Analyze
Page 23 402-108, Rev. C
Six Sigma Improvement Focus

People Skills Capabilities Knowledge Material Reduce Variability Improve Delivery Reduce Cost Processes Reduce Variability Improve Capability Improve Cycle Time Reduce Errors / Defects Increase Yields Match Process to Design
GB103-47
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
Some Benefits of Six Sigma

Cost Reduction Productivity Improvement Market Share Growth Customer Retention Cycle Time Reduction Reduction in Errors / Defects Culture Change Improved Product and Service Development
GB103-48
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
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Why 3 Sigma Isnt Good Enough

20,000 lost articles of mail per hour Unsafe drinking water for 15 minutes each day 2 unsafe landings at most major airports each day 5,000 incorrect surgical procedures each week No electricity for almost 7 hours each month 22,000 checks deducted from the wrong account each hour 200,000 prescriptions filled incorrectly each year 50 newborns dropped at birth each day
Source: QCI International
GB103-49
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
Six Sigma Will Improve EBIT
Lower Total Cost of Quality
Improve Rolled Throughput Yield
Meet Customer Expectations At A Lower Cost Improve Throughput Volume and Delivery
Increased Revenue Increased Margins Lower Cost of Capital
Improved EBIT
GB103-50
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
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Areas of Opportunity Within Tyco Electronics

Design Manufacturing Defects Scrap Rework Variance Suppliers Administrative Activities Cycle Time Reliability
GB103-51
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
What Six Sigma Is Not

The Program Du Jour An Easy Fix A Broad Brush Approach The Universal Answer To All Business Problems A Self-sustaining Initiative A Statistical Program Free
GB103-52
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
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Integrating Six Sigma

Operational Excellence
New Standard
ent provem ous Im u Contin
Breakthrough Six Sigma

New Standard
ent provem ous Im u Contin
Breakthrough
Time
Define Measure
GB103-53
Analyze
Improve
Control
Six Sigma Operational Excellence

Along with recognized industry standards will provide the baseline for a common approach to Quality Management and continual improvement Will provide increased emphasis on business process improvement during Operations reviews Will allow us to Plan For Quality Reduce the variability in our processes Improve the design process
GB103-54
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
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Six Sigma Operational Excellence Implementation Strategy: Phase 1

Back To The Basics to drive immediate improvement
Preventative control plans for every major manufacturing process are to be reviewed, updated and enforced Operator certification to be reviewed and updated as required Utilize the Deployment Champions to manage the corrective action commitments for customer complaints Formalize analysis of material returned due to a Tyco Electronics error Implement a manufacturing process audit program Implement a shipping / dock audit program
GB103-55
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control

Launch Six Sigma Projects
Completion of the Executive awareness training Deploy Champion training on a Regional / Country level Complete initial training sessions for Black Belts on a Regional level Initial Six Sigma Black Belt projects completed and assessed
GB103-56
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
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Breakthrough Improvement
Each Business achieves self-sufficiency Master Black Belts within the business are leading the organization to higher levels of proficiency Master Black Belts are training Black Belts Black Belts are training Green Belts Black Belts are managing multiple projects Design for Six Sigma is developed and launched
GB103-57
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
Six Sigma Roles And Responsibilities Summary

Executives Lead change Own strategy, direction, results Champions Project Team Members Work on assigned projects All Employees Apply concepts within work area Work on assigned projects Key project leaders Black Belts Responsible for selecting the right tools
Control
Green Belts
Approve, launch, monitor projects Responsible for project activities Master Black Belt
Train & coach Tools expert

Define Measure
GB103-58
Analyze
Improve
Page 29 402-108, Rev. C
Six Sigma Operational Excellence Conclusions

Remember ----Six Sigma is more than the answer to a mathematical formula for calculating variability Six Sigma is a comprehensive approach to Business Process Improvement
GB103-59
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
Primary Benefits of Six Sigma
Reduced process variation Outputs match customer requirements and expectations Measurable continual improvement Reduced costs Enhanced profitability
GB103-60
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
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Secondary Benefits of Six Sigma

Quality of products and service is improved Process investigation evaluates value-added status of each element (inputs, raw materials, operations) Mistake-proofing added to processes Better flow of inputs/materials toward output means less money tied up in inventory/WIP. Company can react more quickly to customer requests
GB103-61
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
Obstacles to Success
Here comes another one

Cycle of doomed programs
Program launched with outward blessing of management Provision made for training Upper managers disappear after launching Program demands peoples time, but no time authorized Results fall short of promises Program pushed aside for next get-well-quick program
GB103-62
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
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Overcoming the Obstacles

Senior Management visibly involved. Champion has the responsibility for removing roadblocks & authority to make changes. Black Belts and Green Belts receive training to lead teams to implement the data-driven improvement changes. Personal and project accountability and regular reporting to management.
GB103-63
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
Page 32 402-108, Rev. C
INTRODUCTION TO LEAN STRATEGIES
D M A I C
LEAN Strategies for Operations Improvement

Rev C February 2004 2003 by Tyco Electronics
GB104-1
What Is Lean?
Cycle Time Reduction

through
Waste Elimination
WHAT IS WASTE?
Anything that does not add value

Reference Guide, Lean, Page 1, 1 - 2
Rev C January, 2003 2003 by Tyco Electronics
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Value and Non-Value Added Activities
VALUE-ADDING ACTIVITY
Changes the information or product Done right the first time
Q uo te #1
Customer is willing to pay for it (Customer cares)
NON-VALUE-ADDING ACTIVITY
Process/Operation that take time, resources or space, but do not add value to the product or service
Reference Guide, Lean, Page 2, 1 - 3
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8 Wastes Over-Production Waiting Transportation Processing Inventories Motion Defective Products Unused Creativity
Reference Guide, Reference Guide, Lean, Page 2, middle Lean, Page 2, middle
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Reference Guide, Lean, Page 2, Bottom

All work is a process of adding value. The value can be physical (manufacturing) or information (transactional). If you are the thing or data going through the process, what is your journey like? How often do you wait, take useless trips, or get reworked? What percent of your total time in the process would be for adding value? 95% Value Adding 5%
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Non-Value Adding
Why Lean Implementation? What are the Opportunities for Six Sigma Projects?
Delivery Performance from cycle time reduction Labor savings from standard work, cells Manufacturing space from layout improvements Increased capacity from quick change-over Reduced scrap from error-proofing Reduced inventory from 1-piece flow, kanban
$ or $ ?
Reference Guide, Lean, Page 1, 2 Reference Guide, Lean, Page 1, 2
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Reference Guide, Lean, Page 1, 1

Traditional Six Sigma deals with quality and capability: How can we eliminate defects? By adding Lean strategies, we also look at capacity: How can we do the work faster and more efficiently? Lean strives for the best combination of human skill and machines in an elegant process flow. Not all projects need both. The measure step in DMAIC will lead you to a good balance. To have the data to decide, measure the Lean factors of: Cycle time with value-added percent, Yield compared to theoretical, and Inventory.
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Lean Measures
Total Process Cycle time ( Throughput time ) Process step cycle time Worker cycle time ( + total for all workers ) Machine cycle time Value added percent ( time ) TAKT time (customer demand ) Yield percent of theoretical ( parts ) Inventory levels before/after each step, + finished goods Change-over time
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LEAN METHODS:
JIT + Autonomation Category Improvement Method
Value Added Operation Transportation Inspection Delay Process Delay Lot Delay
Operations Improvement Location & Layout Source Inspection & Error-Proofing Continuous Flow Synchronization (JIT) 1-Piece Flow
5% 10% 5% 80%
Reference Guide, Lean, Reference Guide, Lean, Page 1, mid --bottom Page 1, mid bottom
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Lean Tools: Improvement Step Applications

Error Proofing Poka Yoke Focused Area Improvement Event
Standard Operations
Workplace Organization (5-S)
LEAN METHODS:
JIT + Autonomation Kanban
Quick Change-Over
Reference Guide, Lean, Page 1, bottom Reference Guide, Lean, Page 1, bottom
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Lean Strategies
As a combined team, implement Lean strategies based on the data and analysis. Include:
TAKT Time p. 8 Standard Operations p. 7 Cycle time p. 3 Pull system, one-piece flow p. 6 Inventory levels p. 5 Cell design and workplace layout p. 9
Plan your improvements, implement the changes, re-run production, measure.
Reference Reference Guide, Lean: Guide, Lean:
GB104-11
TAKT Time=Customer Demand in Time Per Piece
Total Daily Operating Time TAKT Time = Total Daily Requirement 60 sec x 60 min x 7.5 hrs x 2 shifts TAKT Time = 3,600 pieces / day TAKT Time = 54,000 sec. 3,600 / day
= 15 sec./ pc.
Reference Guide, Lean, Page 8 Reference Guide, Lean, Page 8

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Standard Operations
The objective of Standard Operations is to provide balanced production among all processes, with minimum labor and WIP inventories, through the best combination of people and machines.
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Number of Workers Required
Total of Worker Cycle Times TAKT Time 5 + 10+ 8 sec. = 1.7 (2) Workers Required 15 sec.
That is machine time without any operations improvement. Is worker time different? Could the work be done with one person?
Reference Guide, Lean, Page 4 --5 Reference Guide, Lean, Page 4 5
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Improved Measures
Lot size 6 Floorspace, equipment _______ Production (min./piece FG) _______ Scrap _______ Inventory WIP _______ FG _______ Operators _______ Utilization of 1, 2, 3 _______ Total cycle time 1 pc (Red block time) _______ TAKT time (set by customer demand) 15 sec.
1 _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ 15 sec.
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Change-Over Time
Changeover time is a hidden waste. It is included in standard costs. Changeovers of < 10 minutes is the Lean goal. Set in + adjust = Changeover. (Good part to good part) Adjust is typically 90 %. 50% of the savings can be attained with no costs.
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Workplace Organization (5S)
WPO is sometimes referred to as 5S, from five Japanese words for organizing the workplace:
Japanese 5 S
Seiri Seiton Seiso Seiketsu Shitsuke
5 S Translation
Organization Orderliness Cleaning up Cleanliness Discipline
Tyco Electronics 6 Ts (tools)

Proper arrangement Orderliness Clean up Cleanliness Discipline Safety

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Lean Tools:
Linkage to Business Objectives
Look first at the business objectives, then use the matrix to determine the most likely Lean tool to apply to that measure. Use in combination with Six Sigma statistical tools. The Lean tools will often be the how to fix for the problems identified in the statistical analysis.

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Six Sigma + LEAN
Balance the tools and strategies based on data. LEAN requires capable processes. One-piece flow only works with good pieces. Capable processes are no good if the cycle times create late shipments and unprofitable processes.
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INTRODUCTION TO MINITAB

Introduction to Minitab Release 14
Rev. C February 2004 2003 by Sigma Breakthrough Technologies, Inc.
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Objectives
Introduce basic Minitab functions
Rev. C January 2004 2003 by Sigma Breakthrough Technologies, Inc.
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Background
Minitab first introduced at Penn State in the late 70s
Started as a DOS based program and migrated to Windows
Heavily used in the academic world Reason for its use in our Six Sigma training
The industry standard for Six Sigma applications Used in other Six Sigma companies (GE, AlliedSignal, Motorola) Ease of use for beginning students Very strong user base in the former Tyco Electronics companies
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Starting Minitab
Desktop Icon Desktop Icon Start Menu Start Menu
Windows 2000 Quick Launch Toolbar Windows 2000 Quick Launch Toolbar
Minitab Icon Minitab Icon
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Main Screen
Session Window: Session Window:

The Output The Output
Data Window: Data Window:

A Worksheet, not an Excel Spreadsheet A Worksheet, not an Excel Spreadsheet Column names are above first row Column names are above first row Everything in a column is considered to Everything in a column is considered to be from the same group be from the same group
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Data Windows
Column Name Column Name Column Headers Column Headers T = Text // D = Date T = Text D = Date
Data Direction Arrow Data Direction Arrow
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Data Window
Enter Data into Minitab by

Typing it in Cutting & pasting from other programs Random number generators in Minitab Importing it
Excel, Text, ASCII, Dbase files, etc.
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Minitab File Types

Minitab Operating Files
Minitab has training files in its data subdirectory
C:\Program Files\MINITAB 14\Data
Minitab File Extensions

MPJ for Data Files (Projects)
Ex: Data.mpj
MTW For Data Files (Worksheets)

Ex: Data.mtw
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Worksheet Files versus Project Files

Worksheets = just data can be added to existing projects use Open Worksheet to open multiple worksheets must be saved as a project to keep together Projects = data, command line history, graphs, and analyses can store multiple worksheets and all aspects of analysis retain last settings used in dialog box hold all previous analyses from last save, as well as any graphs that were created use Open Project or toolbar button to open
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Opening / Saving Worksheets and Projects
Projects
Worksheets
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Opening / Saving Worksheets and Projects
Save Project (Saves with same file name. Use Save Project (Saves with same file name. Use save as to save as aadifferent file name.) save as to save as different file name.)
Open Project (opens to Open Project (opens to

your default directory) your default directory)
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Pull Down Menus

DATA menu CALC menu
STAT menu
GRAPH menu
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The Pull Down Menus - Data

Manipulate Worksheets
Copy Columns Stack / Unstack Columns
Sort Data
Code Data
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The Pull Down Menus - Calc

Calculator
Make Patterned Data
Create Random Data
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The Pull Down Menus - Stat
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The Pull Down Menus- Graph
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The Pull Down Menus - Window
Moving Between Minitab Windows
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The Pull Down Menus Help

Help StatGuide
Tutorials
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Editing Preferences
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Editing Preferences
Increase the value of this number Increase the value of this number (200 is the maximum allowable value) (200 is the maximum allowable value)
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Short Cut Keys

Control C / Control V
Copies data / Pastes data

Control E
Same function as Ctrl E
Pulls up previous menu

Alt Tab
Moves you from one Windows application to another Ex:

Minitab to PowerPoint for making presentations Excel to Minitab for copying data
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Paste with Existing Column Names

When pasting a column with a name that already exists in the worksheet, Minitab automatically resolves the conflict by adding an extension (_#)
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Description Indicators
Indicates there is a Indicates there is a worksheet description worksheet description Indicates there is a Indicates there is a column description column description
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Other Easy-to-Use Features

Project Manager ReportPad StatGuide
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Project Manager
Tree-like navigator to view your entire Minitab Project or browse different windows Better able to associate session output, graphs and worksheets
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Project Manager Example

Components of Components of your project your project Results of all data analyses and Results of all data analyses and graphs that you have created graphs that you have created Worksheets associated with Worksheets associated with your analyses and graphs your analyses and graphs
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Project Manager
Within Project Manager, Pop-up menus let you access convenient functions. (Right mouse-click on item to access
pop-up menu)
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Project Manager: Tool Bar
A Project Manager toolbar allows easy browsing of several types of windows
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Browse Session
Jump to session output by double-clicking title See graphs associated with session output Edit titles Open StatGuide Delete specific output etc
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Browse Session Example

All data analyses and graphs All data analyses and graphs created during the Minitab session created during the Minitab session Results of one specific data Results of one specific data analysis performed during the session analysis performed during the session
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Browse Worksheets
Replaces Manage Worksheets Tile worksheets Rename worksheets Bring worksheet to front Save worksheets Close worksheets etc
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Browse Worksheets Example

All worksheets associated All worksheets associated with the project with the project The selected worksheet The selected worksheet
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Browse Graphs
Replaces Manage Graphs Tile graphs Tile graph with associated worksheet Rename graphs Save graphs Close graphs etc
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Browse Graphs Example

All graphs associated All graphs associated with the project with the project The selected graph The selected graph
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Browse Information
Provides information about the current worksheet: Column names Column counts Number of Missing Values Data type (numerical, text, date, or time) Column description etc
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Information Example
Information about aaspecific worksheet Information about specific worksheet
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Browse History
Provides a history of all the commands you have used - in command language format Replaces separate History window
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History Example
Complete history of your work in Minitab command language format Complete history of your work in Minitab command language format
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StatGuide
Provides statistical guidance after you run a procedure in Minitab The StatGuide icon will only be available after a calculation has been performed in Minitab The tone is informal and practical, not like a textbook
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StatGuide Topics
Version 14 Covers
Basic Statistics Regression ANOVA DOE Control Charts Quality Tools SPC & Quality Tools Reliability/Survival Multivariate Time Series Power and Sample Size
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StatGuide Layout Example Example Detailed description Detailed description
Relevant output Relevant output highlighted highlighted Hot-linked definitions Hot-linked definitions Links to in-depth topics Links to in-depth topics
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Exercise in the Use of Minitab
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Opening the Worksheet
Under Menu Bar, FILE OPEN PROJECT (for opening your previously saved projects) OPEN WORKSHEET (for opening just the worksheet with the data) File >> Open Worksheet >> Wine.mtw >> Open Note: Multiple worksheets can be open at the same time
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Calculations and Transformations

Transformations are typical requirements in many analyses (both engineering and statistical) Some typical transformations of data needed include : natural log, square root, exp, log (base 10), and linear/nonlinear combinations Transformations are the result of simple mathematical calculations simple or complex Transformations and calculations are performed with CALC >> CALCULATOR
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Lets look at the WINE.MTW data Suppose we want a new variable: Natural Log of Aroma CALC > CALCULATOR Store result in variable: (type c8 or a variable name) Expression: (click in this box; then under Functions, scroll down to find Natural log and double-click on it; then doubleclick on the variable Aroma) Click on OK and your transformed data appears in column c8 If you didnt name the column previously, you can type in a variable name for the new column.
GB105-45
Suppose we want a new variable that is a function of several of the variables. Well make column c9 = Quality 2 (Aroma)3 Re gion This can be done similar to the previous transformation, only now we can include either typing in the necessary numbers and symbols or using the calculator keyboard with our mouse clicks.
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Click here to close the worksheet Click here to close the worksheet
Click No Click No
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Creating Patterned Data
You can easily generate columns in the worksheet containing patterned or random data. This will be useful when creating data matrices for various types of analysis. Calc >> Make Patterned Data >> Simple Set of Numbers
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A total of 200 measurements have been taken on 10 samples of product. These measurements have been placed into one column of your worksheet. The first 20 measurements are for the first sample, the second 20 are for the second sample, etc. To identify these measurements with the correct sample you will need a column of numbers consisting of the value 1, repeated 20 times to identify the first 20 measurements as belonging to sample 1, followed by the value 2, repeated 20 times to identify the next 20 measurements as belonging to sample 2, etc. Calc >> Make Patterned Data >> Simple Set of Numbers Enter the values as shown in the dialog box at the right and review the result in the Worksheet.
GB105-49
This tells Minitab to start with the value 1, end with the value 10, and list each value 20 times. This will result in a column containing the value 1 repeated 20 times, followed by the value 2 repeated 20 times, followed by the value 3 repeated 20 times, etc.

Instead of grouping all of the measurements for each sample together, suppose that your 200 measurements are arranged so that the first measurement in the data column belongs to sample 1, the second measurement to sample 2, the third to sample 3, , the tenth to sample 10. Then this pattern of data entry repeats 20 times. To identify these measurements with the correct sample you will need a column of numbers consisting of the values 1 10 in sequence, repeated 20 times. Calc >> Make Patterned Data >> Simple Set of Numbers Enter the values as shown in the dialog box at the right and review the result in the Worksheet.
This tells Minitab to start with the value 1, end with the value 10, and list each value 1 time. Then repeat the list 20 times. This will create a column of numbers consisting of the values 1 thru 10, repeated 20 times.
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Creating Random Data

Minitab has the ability to create random data from many statistical distributions including Uniform, Normal, t, Chi-Squared, Lognormal, Weibull, and more. This is often of interest or need to perform Monte Carlo simulations or to create an image of an assumed population from estimated sample parameters.
100
1000 observations from a simulated Normal distribution with m (mean) = 200 and s (standard deviation) = 35.
r equency F
50
0 50 150 250 350
simulated data
GB105-51

Generate 1000 observations from Generate 1000 observations from a Normal Distribution with a Mean a Normal Distribution with a Mean of 200 and a Standard Deviation of 200 and a Standard Deviation of 35. Store the results in column 3. of 35. Store the results in column 3.
Generate the Generate the data and review data and review your results in your results in the Worksheet the Worksheet
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Column 3 will consist of 1000 random observations. Column 3 will consist of 1000 random observations. The distributions of these observations will be The distributions of these observations will be normal with a mean of 200 and a standard normal with a mean of 200 and a standard deviation of 35. deviation of 35. Note: Your results will not be identical to what is Note: Your results will not be identical to what is shown here. These are random observations, shown here. These are random observations, therefore your set of 1000 random observations therefore your set of 1000 random observations will be different, but they will have the same mean will be different, but they will have the same mean (200) and the same standard deviation (35). (200) and the same standard deviation (35).
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Plotting the Data - Dotplot
Click OK Click OK
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Plotting the Data - Dotplot
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Descriptive Statistics
View descriptive statistics for the View descriptive statistics for the data. data. Stat > Basic Statistics > Display Stat > Basic Statistics > Display Descriptive Statistics Descriptive Statistics Select C3 as the Variable (your Select C3 as the Variable (your random observations) random observations)
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Your results will be similar, but not identical, to Your results will be similar, but not identical, to these. The mean should be very close to 200 these. The mean should be very close to 200 and the standard deviation should be very close and the standard deviation should be very close to 35. to 35.
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Generate a graphical Generate a graphical summary of the descriptive statistics summary of the descriptive statistics
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Descriptive Statistics Graphical Summary
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Introduction to Minitab
This concludes the basic introduction to Minitab. Additional capabilities of the software will be explored as we move through your weeks of Belt training.
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BASIC STATISTICS

Basic Statistics
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Objectives
Introduce the concepts of Shape, Center, and Spread of distributions Learn about the Normal distribution
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BASIC STATISTICS
Basic Statistics Fundamentals of Improvement

Stability
How does the process perform over time? Stability is represented by a constant mean and predictable variability over time.
Variability
Is the process on target with minimum variability? We use the mean to determine if process is on target. We use the Standard Deviation ( to determine variability
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Variation
While every process displays Variation, some processes display controlled variation, while other processes display uncontrolled variation (Walter Shewhart) Controlled Variation is characterized by a stable and consistent pattern of variation over time
Associated with Common Causes
Uncontrolled Variation is characterized by variation that changes over time

Associated with Special Causes
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BASIC STATISTICS
Variation Examples
Process A shows controlled variation Process B shows uncontrolled variation
X-Bar Chart for Process A X-Bar Chart for Process A
UCL=77.20 UCL=77.20
X-Bar Chart for Process B
80 UCL=77.27
Sample Mean Sample Mean
Sample Mean
75 75
70
X=70.98 LCL=64.70
70 70
X=70.91 X=70.91
60
65 65 0 0 5 5 1 0 1 0 1 5 1 5 20 20 25 25
LCL=64.62 LCL=64.62
50 0 5 1 0 1 5 20 25
Sample Number Sample Number
Sample Number
Special Causes Special Causes
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Can We Tolerate Variability?

There will always be variability present in any process We can tolerate variability if:
The process is on target The total variability is relatively small compared to the process specifications The process is stable over time
LSL LSL Nom Nom USL USL
Cost
Acceptable Acceptable
Traditional Traditional View View
LSL LSL Cost
Nom Nom
USL USL New View New View
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BASIC STATISTICS
Cost of Off-Target Production

Mazdas process Manufacturing of Manufacturing of Automobile Automobile Transmissions Transmissions
Fords process
LSL
USL
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Process Improvement Data Analysis Tasks

Determine if process is stable
If process is not stable, identify and remove causes of instability
Determine the location of the process mean - Is it on target?

If not, identify the variables which affect the mean and determine optimal settings to achieve target value
Estimate the magnitude of the total variability - Is it acceptable with respect to the customer requirements (spec limits)?
If not, identify the sources of the variability and eliminate or reduce their influence on the process
We will now review statistics that help this process

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BASIC STATISTICS
Basic Statistics
Types of Data Measures of the Center of the Data
Mean Median
Measures of the Spread of Data

Range Variance Standard Deviation
Properties of a Normal Distribution
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Types of Data
Attribute Data (Qualitative) Categories Good / Bad Machine 1, Machine 2, Machine 3 Shift number Counted things (# of Errors in a document, # units shipped, etc.) Variable Data (Quantitative) Continuous Data (Decimal subdivisions are meaningful)
Time (seconds) Pressure (psi) Conveyor Speed (ft/min) Rate (inches) etc.
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BASIC STATISTICS
Selecting Statistical Techniques

There are statistical techniques to cover all There are statistical techniques to cover all combinations of data types combinations of data types
Outputs Attribute Attribute Inputs Chi-square Variable Analysis of Variance Correlation Multiple Regression
Variable
Discriminate Analysis Logistic regression
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Sample Statistics vs. Population Parameters
= Sample Average
= Population Mean
= Sample Standard Deviation
= Population Standard Deviation
Statistics
estimate
Parameters
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BASIC STATISTICS
Measures of Central Tendency

Mean: Arithmetic average of a set of values Reflects the influence of all values The balance point or center of gravity for the data Strongly Influenced by extreme values
n
x x =
i=1
Median: Reflects the 50% rank - the center number after a set of numbers has been sorted Splits the data in half. 50% of the data points will be higher than the median and 50% will be lower than the median. Robust to extreme values. A large change in the data may have very little, if any, effect on the median.
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Mean and Median Example

As head of the universitys Communications Dept. you are asked to summarize the average starting salaries of Communications graduates.
$10, 20, 30, 40, 50 ($ in thousands) $10, 20, 30, 40, 50 ($ in thousands)
What is the average income (or center of gravity)?
What is the median income?
However, under the advice of the Public Relations Dept. you consider to including one of your former Communications majors: Shaquille ONeal (a rather wealthy rookie basketball star)
$10, 20, 30, 40, 5000 ($ in thousands) $10, 20, 30, 40, 5000 ($ in thousands)
What is the average income (or center of gravity)?

What is the median income?
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BASIC STATISTICS
Measures of Variability
Range: the distance between the extreme values of a data set (Highest - Lowest) Variance ( ): the Average Squared Deviation of each data point from the Mean Standard Deviation ( ): the Square Root of the Variance The range is more sensitive to outliers than the variance The most common and useful measure of The most common and useful measure of variation is the standard deviation --why? variation is the standard deviation why?
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Computational Equations
N
Population Mean
Xi =
N
i 1
Population Standard Deviation
(Xi =S=
i =1
)2
n
Sample Mean
x x =
n
i=1
n
2
Sample Standard Deviation

xi s
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x 1
i 1
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BASIC STATISTICS
Calculating Sigma
X
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Mean square
X - X (X- X)2
(Xi X )2
i=1
n- 1
N
Problem: Using the form above, calculate the standard deviation for the numbers: 21354
(Xi X )2
i=1
n- 1
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Example
X
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Mean square 2 1 3 5 4
X - X (X- X)2
-1 -2 0 2 1 1 4 0 4 1
N
(Xi X )2
i=1
n- 1
15 3
10 2.5 1.581139
(Xi X )2
i=1
n- 1
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BASIC STATISTICS
The Normal Distribution

The Normal Distribution is a distribution of data which has certain consistent and predictable properties These properties are very useful in our understanding of the characteristics of the underlying process from which the data were obtained Most natural phenomena and man-made processes are distributed normally, or can be represented as normally distributed
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The Normal Distribution

Property 1: A normal distribution can be described completely by knowing only the:
mean, and standard deviation
Distribution One Distribution One Distribution Distribution Two Two Distribution Three Distribution Three
What is the difference among these three normal distributions?

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BASIC STATISTICS
The Normal Curve and Probability Areas Associated with the Standard Deviation
Property 2: The area under sections of the curve can 2 be used to estimate the cumulative probability of a certain event occurring
Probability of sample value Cumulative Cumulative probability of probability of obtaining a value obtaining a value between two between two values values
40% 30% 20% 10% 0% -4 -3 -2 -1
68%
95%
99.73%
Number of standard deviations from the mean

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Empirical Rules for the Standard Deviation

The previous rules of cumulative probability apply even when a set of data is not perfectly normally distributed Lets compare the values for a theoretical (perfect) normal distributions to empirical (real-world) distributions
Number of Standard Deviations +/- 1 +/- 2 +/- 3
Theoretical Normal 68% 95% 99.7%
Empirical Normal 60-75% 90-98% 99-100%
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BASIC STATISTICS
Summary Introduced the concepts of Shape, Center, and Spread of distributions Introduced the properties of a Normal distribution
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BASIC QUALITY TOOLS

Basic Quality Tools
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Objectives
To introduce you to the 7 Basic Quality Tools
Dotplots / Histograms / Normal Plots Run charts / Time Series Pareto Diagrams Stratification (2nd Level Pareto) Boxplots Scatter Plots Marginal Plots
Show application of these techniques for Data Mining
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BASIC QUALITY TOOLS
Plotting Your Data

The first three rules of data analysis
Rule # 1 Rule # 2 Rule # 3 Plot your data Plot your data Plot your data
Very little can be learned from looking at a long list of numbers. Statistics, such as mean and standard deviation, can be deceptive if only presented as numbers. Your data will be much easier to understand and to explain to others if it is plotted as a graph.
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Statistical Distributions
We can describe the behavior of any measurable feature by plotting multiple data points for the variable:
over time across products on different machines, etc.
The accumulation of these data can be viewed as a distribution of values The data can be represented in:
dot plots histograms normal curve or other smoothed distribution
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BASIC QUALITY TOOLS
Dotplot Distribution
14
19
24
29
Thickness
Imagine a painting operation which is engineered to provide a Imagine a painting operation which is engineered to provide a thickness of 21 mils of paint. The actual thickness is measured thickness of 21 mils of paint. The actual thickness is measured on 150 separate samples and plotted above. Each dot represents on 150 separate samples and plotted above. Each dot represents one event of output at a given value. As the dots accumulate, one event of output at a given value. As the dots accumulate, the nature of the painting operations actual performance can be the nature of the painting operations actual performance can be seen as a distribution of thickness values. seen as a distribution of thickness values.
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Creating a Dotplot
Lets take a look at the Thickness of paint applied by a sprayer Open file DM Basic Tools.MPJ, worksheet Painting.MTW Use the column Thickness.MTW as the variable
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BASIC QUALITY TOOLS
Histogram Distribution
Now imagine the same data, grouped into intervals with the Now imagine the same data, grouped into intervals with the number of times that a thickness data point falls within a given number of times that a thickness data point falls within a given interval determining the height of the interval bar. interval determining the height of the interval bar.
GB107-7
Creating a Histogram
Once again we will use the column Once again we will use the column Thickness as the variable Thickness as the variable
GB107-8
Page 4 402-108, Rev. C
BASIC QUALITY TOOLS
Smoothed (Normal) Distribution
Finally, we can view the data as a smoothed distribution (red line), in this Finally, we can view the data as a smoothed distribution (red line), in this example using the normal distribution assumption (well discuss this example using the normal distribution assumption (well discuss this later). It provides an approximation of how the data might look if we were later). It provides an approximation of how the data might look if we were to collect an infinite number of data points. to collect an infinite number of data points.
GB107-9
Creating a Histogram with a Normal Curve
GB107-10
Page 5 402-108, Rev. C
BASIC QUALITY TOOLS
Normal Probability Plots

We can test whether a given data set can be described as normal with a Normal Probability Plot If a distribution is close to normal, the Normal Probability Plot will be close to a straight line Minitab makes the normal probability plot easy Lets do one for the Painting.MTW data set
GB107-11
GB107-12
Page 6 402-108, Rev. C
BASIC QUALITY TOOLS
Example Probability Plot
GB107-13
Exercise
Open the worksheet Distributions.MTW Produce a normal plot of each of the columns of data
Which appear to be normal?
Produce a histogram of each of these columns of data

Notice anything?
You have 5 minutes
GB107-14
Page 7 402-108, Rev. C
BASIC QUALITY TOOLS
GB107-15
Time Series
So far we have looked at the data lumped together Another way to review the data is over time Lets review some commonly used time series methods:
Run Charts Individuals Charts
Lets switch back to the Painting.MTW worksheet
GB107-16
Page 8 402-108, Rev. C
BASIC QUALITY TOOLS
Run Charts
A Run Chart applies some initial statistical diagnostic tests to the series
GB107-17
Run Chart
29
Thickness
24
19
14 50 Observation
Number of runs about median: Expected number of runs: Longest run about median: A pprox P-Value for Clustering: A pprox P-Value for Mixtures: 70 76.00000 9 0.16278 0.83722 Number of runs up or down: Expected number of runs: Longest run up or down: A pprox P-Value for Trends: A pprox P-Value for Oscillation: 102 99.66667 3 0.67530 0.32470
100
150
GB107-18
Page 9 402-108, Rev. C
BASIC QUALITY TOOLS
Run Chart Tests for Randomness

Test Number of Runs About the Median Number of Runs About the Median Number of Runs Up or Down Number of Runs Up or Down Condition More runs observed than expected Fewer runs observed than expected More runs observed than expected Fewer runs observed than expected Indication Mixture (mixed data from two populations) Clustering of Data
Oscillation (data varies up and down rapidly) Trends in the data
GB107-19
Run Chart
29
Thickness
24
19
14 50 Observation
Number of runs about median: Expected number of runs: Longest run about median: Approx P-Value for C lustering: Approx P-Value for Mixtures: 70 76.00000 9 0.16278 0.83722 Number of runs up or down: Expected number of runs: Longest run up or down: Approx P-Value for Trends: Approx P-Value for Oscillation: 102 99.66667 3 0.67530 0.32470
100
150
GB107-20
Page 10 402-108, Rev. C
BASIC QUALITY TOOLS
Individuals Chart
An Individuals Chart looks like a Run Chart but now they apply some Process Control Limits to the data
GB107-21
Individuals Chart
I Chart of Thickness
30 UCL=30.57
Individual Value
25 _ X=22.03 20
15 LCL=13.48 1 50 Observation 100 150
GB107-22
Page 11 402-108, Rev. C
BASIC QUALITY TOOLS
Data Mining
So far we have looked at all data together, giving us an overall look at the shape and trends of the data However, we still havent looked into why the data may be shaped the way it appears We can use some other graphical techniques to start mining the data for the reasons as to WHY
GB107-23
Boxplots
There is another method of looking at the data that may be easier to see differences in the distributions Boxplots show the spread and center of the data BE CAREFUL!
The center of the Boxplot is the MEDIAN, not the MEAN MEDIAN
GB107-24
Page 12 402-108, Rev. C
BASIC QUALITY TOOLS
Boxplot of Thickness
Maximum value
Q3 (75%) Median (50%) Q1 (25%)
Minimum value Outlier (extreme value)
GB107-25
Boxplots
We can also generate boxplots by a variable to look at the variation due to that variable
Boxplot of Thickness vs Nozzle

30.0 27.5 25.0 Thickness 22.5 20.0 17.5 15.0 1 5 Nozzle 10
GB107-26
Page 13 402-108, Rev. C
BASIC QUALITY TOOLS
Pareto Diagram
Pareto Diagrams are an essential tool to help prioritize improvement targets Paretos allow us to focus on the 20% of the problems that cause 80% of the poor performance Lets open worksheet Quality Control.MTW
GB107-27
Pareto Diagram
Defects Counts Missing Screws 274 Missing Clips 59 Defective Housing 19 Leaky Gasket 43 Scrap 4 Unconnected Wire 8 Missing Studs 6 Incomplete Part 10
GB107-28
Page 14 402-108, Rev. C
BASIC QUALITY TOOLS
Second Level Paretos

We can generate a second level Pareto using the By statement This breaks down the overall Pareto by time of day
GB107-29
Second Level Pareto

Flaws Scratch Scratch Peel Peel Smudge Scratch Other Other Peel Peel Peel Peel Scratch Scratch Peel Scratch Smudge Scratch Peel Peel Peel Peel Other Other Scratch Scratch Peel Scratch Smudge Scratch Other Scratch Scratch Peel Peel Peel Smudge Smudge Smudge Other Period Day Day Day Day Day Day Day Evening Evening Evening Evening Evening Evening Evening Night Night Night Night Night Night Night Night Night Night Night Night Night Night Night Night Night Night Night Weekend Weekend Weekend Weekend Weekend Weekend Weekend
GB107-30
Page 15 402-108, Rev. C
BASIC QUALITY TOOLS
Relational Plots
Many times we wish to graphically review the relationship between two variables Scatter Plots and Marginal Plots are two effective methods for accomplishing this task
GB107-31
Scatterplot
Scatterplots study the relationship between two variables Lets look at an example where the both the Customer and our QC department measure the temperature of ovens set at 350 degrees Open worksheet Temperature.MTW
GB107-32
Page 16 402-108, Rev. C
BASIC QUALITY TOOLS
Scatterplot
Scatterplot of Customer vs QC
390
380
Customer
370
360
350
340 330 340 350 360 QC 370 380 390 400
GB107-33
Marginal Plots
Marginal plots allow you to combine a Scatterplot and one of three other plots Histograms Boxplots Dotplots
GB107-34
Page 17 402-108, Rev. C
BASIC QUALITY TOOLS
Marginal Plot (Scatterplot with Histogram)

Marginal Plot of Customer vs QC
390 380 Customer 370 360 350 340 340 350 360 370 QC 380 390 400
GB107-35
Marginal Plots
GB107-36
Page 18 402-108, Rev. C
BASIC QUALITY TOOLS
Data Mining
All of the methods introduced have provided insight on how to graphically represent data Use of the data to answer the question of WHY is the product / process performing in that fashion is Data Mining Data analysis should follow some basic steps:
Look at the data (raw) to identify any abnormalities (errors, unexpected values) Analyze the data graphically to get a visual sense of the data Analyze the data statistically to get a numerical sense of the data
Lets look into this last point a little deeper

GB107-37
Review
When we looked at the three different distributions in the Distributions.mtw worksheet, we saw three totally different distributions (graphically) Lets look and see what these three distributions look like numerically We can use Descriptive Statistics to accomplish this task easily
GB107-38
Page 19 402-108, Rev. C
BASIC QUALITY TOOLS
Lets look at the different data sets using some other techniques We will start with some Descriptive Statistics This will give us some insight as to the Center, Spread, and Shape of the data
GB107-39
Center Spread Center
|<--- Shape Indicators --->| (Mean, Median and TrMean) What observations can we make from these numbers? Look at the Center, Spread, and Shape indicators The three distributions have the same values for their Mean and Standard Deviation, yet they are not the same
GB107-40
Page 20 402-108, Rev. C
BASIC QUALITY TOOLS
Histograms and Normal Probability Plots
GB107-41
Mystery Distribution
Open worksheet Mystery.MTW Generate a Normal Probability Plot for the Mystery variable What is your conclusion?
GB107-42
Page 21 402-108, Rev. C
BASIC QUALITY TOOLS
Normal Probability Plot for Mystery Data

Probability Plot of Mystery
Normal
99.9 99 95 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 5 1 0.1 Mean StDev N AD P-Value 100.0 32.38 500 27.108 <0.005
Percent
50
100 Mystery
150
200
GB107-43
Boxplot for Mystery Data
150
Mystery
100
50
GB107-44
Page 22 402-108, Rev. C
BASIC QUALITY TOOLS
Histogram for Mystery Data

60
50
40 Frequency
30
20
10
0 40 60 80 100 Mystery 120 140 160
GB107-45
Dotplot for Mystery Data
50
100 Mystery
150
GB107-46
Page 23 402-108, Rev. C
BASIC QUALITY TOOLS
Graphical Descriptive Statistics

Looking at the numbers alone can be confusing Lets take a look at the data graphically and add the numbers to the output
GB107-47
Graphical Descriptive Statistics

Summary for Mystery
A nderson-Darling N ormality Test A -S quared P -V alue < M ean S tDev V ariance S kew ness Kurtosis N M inimum 1st Q uartile M edian 3rd Q uartile M aximum 97.15 82.78 27.11 0.005 100.00 32.38 1048.78 0.00716 -1.63184 500 41.77 68.69 104.20 130.81 162.82 102.85 117.66 34.53
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
95% C onfidence Interv al for M ean 95% C onfidence Interv al for M edian 95% C onfidence Interv al for S tDev 30.49
Mean
95% Confidence Intervals
Median 80 90 100 110 120
GB107-48
Page 24 402-108, Rev. C
BASIC QUALITY TOOLS
Time Series Plot for Mystery Data

175
150
125 Mystery
100
75
50
50
100
150
200
250 Index
300
350
400
450
500
GB107-49
Summary
Introduced some graphical and analytical tools for Data Mining
Data breakdown (Pareto, Dotplot, Histogram, Boxplot, Descriptive Statistics) Time Series methods (Individual Charts, Run Charts) Relational graphical techniques (Scatter Plots, Marginal Plots) Pareto diagrams
ALWAYS PLOT YOUR DATA ALWAYS PLOT YOUR DATA

GB107-50
Page 25 402-108, Rev. C
INTRODUCTION TO SPC

Intro. to Statistical Process Control (SPC)
GB108-1
Objectives
Link Control Chart methods to the Process Improvement Discuss different types of variation Introduce a few basic Control Charting methods Discuss the interpretation of Control Charts
GB108-2
Page 1 402-108, Rev. C
INTRODUCTION TO SPC
The DMAIC Process

Define Identify the gap Establish Scope and Boundary Assign Black Belt and Team Establish Project Charter
Analyze Root Cause Analysis Multi level Pareto Diagrams

5 Why Diagrams Identification of Waste
Multi Vari Studies ANOVA Correlation and Regression Improve Implement Process Optimization Design of Experiments Identify Root Cause of Variation Confirm Results Finalize Value Stream Map Control Error Proof and Implement SPC Update Control Plan Update all Documentation Return to Process Owner
GB108-3
Measure Level 0 and Value Stream Map Determine Baseline Performance Initial Capability Studies
Process Capacity Initial Control Plan
Detail Process Map Measurement System Analysis C & E Matrix FMEA
The Funneling Effect

MEASURE MEASURE
All Xs
1st Hit List
ANALYZE ANALYZE
Screened List
IMPROVE IMPROVE
Found Critical Xs
CONTROL* CONTROL*
Controlling Critical Xs
**Myth --SPC Is Only Used As A Control Tool Myth SPC Is Only Used As A Control Tool
GB108-4
Page 2 402-108, Rev. C
INTRODUCTION TO SPC
We Need Ways of Interpreting Data

Everyday we are flooded by data and we are forced to make decisions:
Plants Output Decreases By 4% US Trade Deficit Rises By $40 Billion Company Xs Earnings Are Off $240 Million From Previous Quarter
Should We Take Action ?
GB108-5
How Do We Manage Data Historically

Pain & Suffering
Lower Customer Requirement (Lower Spec)
Leave It Alone It Aint Broke
Pain & Suffering

Upper Customer Requirement (Upper Spec)
THIS METHOD
Tells you where you are in regards to customers needs It will NOT tell you how you got there or what to do next
Pressure To Achieve Customer Requirements Will Cause One To :
1. Actually fix the process 2. Sabotage the process 3. Sabotage the data (integrity)
GB108-6
Page 3 402-108, Rev. C
INTRODUCTION TO SPC
Variation Example:
Special vs. Common Cause
The factory scrap level is at a year low of 1.5% Manager presents an award to the plant Ceremony in the cafeteria: pizza and refreshments for all! Everyone should be proud of what youve accomplished Scrap Level (%) Scrap Level (%) 3
2 Party Time Party Time 1 JJF M A F M A 1996 1997
Derived from Understanding Variation: The Key To Managing Chaos, Donald J. Wheeler, SPC Press. 1993.
GB108-7
Variation Example:
Three consecutive months of scrap increases Manager wishes he could take back the award Instead of holding the gains, scrap went right back up 3 Manager decides: Recognition has backfired. This group needs tough management!
Scrap Level (%) Scrap Level (%)
2 1 JJ F M A M JJ JJ F M A M 1996
Manager wants to take back award Manager wants to take back award
1997
GB108-8
Page 4 402-108, Rev. C
INTRODUCTION TO SPC
Variation Example:
By November, scrap has risen to a value of 2.6% - Year High Manager decides to take action A special meeting is called to solve this problem once and for all After a sound lecture on the importance of scrap, the manager leaves. Employees arent sure what to do. Besides, they have other metrics which are more important. So they do nothing.
2 1 JJ F M A M JJ JJ A S O N D F M A M A S O N D 1996
No more Soft Management No more Soft Management
1997
GB108-9
Variation Example:
Manager has seen reduced scrap levels since the end of last year. Things are looking-up! (REMEMBER: Nothing had been done to change the system) His take away: A tough management style gets results! Manager concludes: Manager concludes: Tough Love Makes Things Happen Tough Love Makes Things Happen 3
2 1 JJ F M A M JJ JJ A S O N D F M A M A S O N D 1996
JJF M A M JJ F M A M 1997
GB108-10
Page 5 402-108, Rev. C
INTRODUCTION TO SPC
Variation Example:
What might this data look like on a control chart?
GB108-11
The REAL Story!!

The Voice of the Process
UCL
2 1 JJ F M A M JJ JJ A S O N D F M A M A S O N D 1996 JJF M M JJ JJA S O F M M A S O 1997
LCL
Let the Process do the talking! !

GB108-12
Page 6 402-108, Rev. C
INTRODUCTION TO SPC
The Control Chart Tells A Different Story Why?

Manager Hey, I made my decision based on data - How can I be wrong ? Belt Your decisions were made from observing high and low points as signals, when in reality, it was all noise (Common Cause Variation). Look at the data, there has been no significant change in the process.
Manager concludes, Tough Manager concludes, Tough Love Makes Things Happen! Love Makes Things Happen! 3 Scrap Level (%) Scrap Level (%) UCL
2 1 JF M A M J J A S O N D JF M A M J J A S O N D 1996 Party Time Party Time JF M M J JA S O JF M M J JA S O 1997 Manager Wants No more soft management Manager Wants No more soft management To Take Back Award To Take Back Award
LCL
GB108-13
Control Chart Methods
Failure to use control charts to analyze data is one of Failure to use control charts to analyze data is one of the best ways known to mankind to increase costs, the best ways known to mankind to increase costs, waste effort, and lower morale. waste effort, and lower morale. --Dr. Donald J. Wheeler Dr. Donald J. Wheeler
GB108-14
Page 7 402-108, Rev. C
INTRODUCTION TO SPC
Control Chart Methods Where Did It Come From?

1920s - Western Electric / Dr. Walter Shewhart Used to identify Controlled & Uncontrolled Variation
Controlled: a.k.a. Common Cause or Inherent (Noise) Uncontrolled: a.k.a Special Cause or Assignable (Signals)
Tries to find the process signals in all of the noise Uses Control Charts as main tool
GB108-15
Types of Variation:
Common vs. Special
COMMON CAUSE (Noise) Is present in every process Is produced by the process itself (the way we do business) Can be removed and/or lessened but requires a fundamental change in the process
A process is Stable, Predictable, and In-Control when only Common Cause Variation exists in the process
* note - if subgroups are used, the common cause variation is a function of sub-grouping choices
GB108-16
Page 8 402-108, Rev. C
INTRODUCTION TO SPC
Types of Variation:
Common vs. Special
SPECIAL CAUSE (Signals) Unpredictable Typically large in comparison to Common Cause variation Caused by unique disturbances or a series of them Can be removed/lessened by basic process control and monitoring A process exhibiting Special Cause variation is said to be Out-of-Control and Unstable
GB108-17
The Basic Control Chart:

Key Components
MONITORED CHARACTERISTIC
UCL Plotted Data Center Line
LCL
DATA PLOTTED OVER TIME
UCL = Upper Control Limit
LCL = Lower Control Limit
GB108-18
Page 9 402-108, Rev. C
INTRODUCTION TO SPC
Control Chart Components UCL versus LCL
UCL
LCL
What % of data points should fall between the UCL and LCL ? If a point falls beyond the UCL or LCL does this mean we are making a defect for the customer ?
GB108-19
UCL and LCL vs. USL and LSL

Upper Control Limits = UCL Lower Control Limits = LCL Upper Specification Limits = USL Lower Specification Limits = LSL
Is The Process Below Making Defects ?
UCL USL LSL LCL
TIME
GB108-20
Page 10 402-108, Rev. C
INTRODUCTION TO SPC

Upper Control Limits = UCL Lower Control Limits = LCL Upper Specification Limits = USL Lower Specification Limits = LSL
Is The Process Below Making Defects ?

USL UCL
LCL LSL
TIME
GB108-21

Process Control Limits are calculated based on data from the process itself They are based on +/- 3 (99.73% of the process variation is expected to fall between these limits) Product Specification Limits ARE NOT found on the control chart Understanding how the process matches up against customer requirements IS important to know
To determine how the process performs to Customer Expectations, a Process Capability Study is required
GB108-22
Page 11 402-108, Rev. C
INTRODUCTION TO SPC
TWO BIG CONTROL CHART ERRORS # 1) Putting specification limits on a Control Chart #2 ) Treating UCL and LCL as a specification limit
When you do either of these the control chart becomes just an inspection tool - its no longer a control chart UCL / LCL are not directly tied to customer defects !
GB108-23
Major Types of Control Charts Variables Charts

X-Bar / R Chart X-Bar / s Chart I-MR Chart
Attribute Charts
I-MR Chart p-Chart np-Chart c-Chart u-Chart
GB108-24
Page 12 402-108, Rev. C
INTRODUCTION TO SPC
Two General Kinds of Data

VARIABLE The data are continuous (measured)
Results from the actual measuring of a characteristic such as diameter of a hose, electrical resistance, weight of a unit , etc.
ATTRIBUTE The data are generally counted

Results from using go/no-go gages, inspection of visual defects, quantity of missing parts, pass/fail or yes/no decisions, etc.
GB108-25
Exercise: What Type of Data?

(1) Length of connector housings produced by a molding press (2) Average production rate of the manufacturing lines in a building (3) Number of printing defects on a package label (4) Number of typographical errors per Sales Contract (5) Number units failing test in monthly production (6) Percent failed units in Monthly Production (7) Amount of time taken to close an Account Receivable (8) Number of parts with defects per 100 parts produced
GB108-26
Page 13 402-108, Rev. C
INTRODUCTION TO SPC
Choosing the Correct Control Chart

Variable
What Type Of Data ? Data Collected In Groups or Individuals ? Counting Specific Defects or Defective Items ?
Discrete
GROUPS (Averages) (n>1)
INDIVIDUAL VALUES (n=1)
Specific Types Of Defects
Defective Items
X-Bar R X-Bar S
NOTE: X-Bar S is appropriate for subgroup sizes (n) of > 10
Individuals Moving Range
Is The Probability Of A Defect Low ? Poisson Distribution YES
NO
If You Know How Many Are Bad, Do You Know How Many Are Good? Binomial Distribution YES
Individuals Moving Range
Area of Opportunity Constant In Each Sample Size ?
Constant Sample Size ?
NO
YES
NO
YES
U Chart
C Chart
P Chart
NP Chart
GB108-27
Minitab Control Charts
GB108-28
Page 14 402-108, Rev. C
INTRODUCTION TO SPC
Control Charts Tests

A set of standard tests have been created to help identify SPECIAL CAUSE events present in our process We use the phrase Out of Control when the points on the chart have failed a test.
Test #1: One point outside the UCL or LCL (3-sigma limit) Test #1: One point outside the UCL or LCL (3-sigma limit) Test #2: Two of three consecutive outside the 2-sigma limit Test #2: Two of three consecutive outside the 2-sigma limit Test #3: Four of five consecutive outside the one-sigma limit Test #3: Four of five consecutive outside the one-sigma limit Test #4: Nine consecutive on one side of the center line Test #4: Nine consecutive on one side of the center line Pattern Test: A pattern repeats itself (#cycles xx#points in pattern >15) Pattern Test: A pattern repeats itself (#cycles #points in pattern >15)
The Tests We Will Use: The Tests We Will Use:
When any of the points on the chart fail a test, it means something unusual has happened Go Check It Out !!
GB108-29
Detecting Lack of Control
Rules Of The Road

(1) Start with Test #1 and Pattern Detection test (2) If higher sensitivity is needed, also use tests #2, 3, & 4 The Tests We Will Use: The Tests We Will Use:
Test #1: One point outside the UCL or LCL (3-sigma limit) Test #1: One point outside the UCL or LCL (3-sigma limit) Test #2: Two of three consecutive outside the 2-sigma limit Test #2: Two of three consecutive outside the 2-sigma limit Test #3: Four of five consecutive outside the one-sigma limit Test #3: Four of five consecutive outside the one-sigma limit Test #4: Nine consecutive on one side of the center line Test #4: Nine consecutive on one side of the center line Pattern Test: A pattern repeats itself Pattern Test: A pattern repeats itself
GB108-30
Page 15 402-108, Rev. C
INTRODUCTION TO SPC
Rules of Standard Deviation:

Where Does the Data Lie?
UCL
3 Sigma The Item We Are Measuring 2 Sigma 1 Sigma 1 Sigma 2 Sigma 3 Sigma
% of Data Points 99-99.9% 90-98% 60-75%
LCL
TIME
GB108-31
Minitab Tests for Lack of Control
Test #1 Test #4 Trend Test #2 Test #3
GB108-32
Page 16 402-108, Rev. C
INTRODUCTION TO SPC
Control Charts:
Individual / Moving Range Use:
When its inconvenient or impossible to obtain more than one measurement per sample When technology allows for easy measurement of every unit at minimal cost Data availability is sparse
Variation
Short Term: Represented by the variation from one unit to the next (Moving Range chart) Long Term: Represented by a long sequence of such events (Individuals chart)
Charts are Based on a Subgroup Size of 1

GB108-33
Minitab Exercise:
Individuals / Moving Range
Open worksheet: Individual MR.MTW
in DM SPC.MPJ
Stat > Control Charts > Variables Charts for Individuals > I-MR Variable = Errors
GB108-34
Page 17 402-108, Rev. C
INTRODUCTION TO SPC
Minitab Exercise:
Individuals / Moving Range Output
I-MR Chart of Errors
10 Individual V alue U C L=10.13
_ X=4.04
0 LC L=-2.05 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 O bser vation 16 18 20 22 24
8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 O bser vation 16 18 20 22 24
U C L=7.488
M oving Range
__ M R=2.292
LC L=0
What are the charts telling you? Are the process data stable?
GB108-35
Requirements for Effective Use of Control Charts

Management MUST establish and support an environment that promotes proper action and support to the information collected on the control charts Control Charts are implemented ONLY on Key Processes on which improvement will bring benefit to the organization and/or the customer Data collected from the process is validated through the use of a CAPABLE measurement system
Biggest Failure Of Control Chart Programs

Flood the system with control charts, then dont take action on the data
GB108-36
Page 18 402-108, Rev. C
INTRODUCTION TO SPC
Control Charts Sampling vs. 100% Inspection

Control Chart sampling is a simple and effective method for process understanding If actions are taken to eliminate special causes (stabilize the process) and capability is proven, 100% Inspection can be eliminated (but beware of customer specified inspection plans)
GB108-37
Exercises
Open the Minitab Project File DM SPC.MPJ Practice Creating Control Charts using the Worksheets contained in this project file
GB108-38
Page 19 402-108, Rev. C
INTRODUCTION TO SPC
Tests for Statistical Control
GB108-39
Normal Variation
14 13 12 11 10 9 8 5
A B C C B A
XBAR
UCL Xdbar LCL
Range
4 3 2 1 0 0 5 10 15 20
UCL Rbar LCL
GB108-40
Page 20 402-108, Rev. C
INTRODUCTION TO SPC
Zone Test 1:
Range Chart
14 13 12 11 10 9 8 5
A B C C B A
XBAR
UCL Xdbar LCL
Range
4 3 2 1 0 0 5 10 15 20
UCL Rbar LCL
GB108-41
Zone Test 1:
Average Chart Any Point Outside the Control Limit Any Point Outside the Control Limit
14 13 12 11 10 9 8 5
A B C C B A
XBAR
UCL Xdbar LCL
Range
4 3 2 1 0 0 5 10 15 20
UCL Rbar LCL
GB108-42
Page 21 402-108, Rev. C
INTRODUCTION TO SPC
Zone Test 2:
Range Chart Two of Three Points in Zone A Two of Three Points in Zone A
14 13 12 11 10 9 8 5
A B C C B A
XBAR
UCL Xdbar LCL
Range
4 3 2 1 0 0 5 10 15 20
UCL Rbar LCL
GB108-43
Zone Test 2:
Average Chart Two of three successive points in Zone A Two of three successive points in Zone A
14 13 12 A B C C B A
UCL Xdbar LCL
XBAR
11 10 9 8 5
Range
4 3 2 1 0 0 5 10 15 20
UCL Rbar LCL
GB108-44
Page 22 402-108, Rev. C
INTRODUCTION TO SPC
Zone Test 3:
Range Chart Four of Five successive points in Zone B and Beyond Four of Five successive points in Zone B and Beyond
14 13
XBAR
12 11 10 9 8 5
A B C C B A
UCL Xdbar LCL
Range
4 3 2 1 0 0 5 10 15 20
UCL Rbar LCL
GB108-45
Zone Test 3:
Average Chart Four of Five successive points in Zone B and Beyond Four of Five successive points in Zone B and Beyond
14 13 12 A B C C B A
XBAR
UCL X-dbar LCL
11 10 9 8 5
Range
4 3 2 1 0 0 5 10 15 20
UCL R-bar LCL
GB108-46
Page 23 402-108, Rev. C
INTRODUCTION TO SPC
Zone Test 4:
Range Chart Eight successive points in Zone C and Beyond, on the Eight successive points in Zone C and Beyond, on the same Side of the Center Line same Side of the Center Line
14 13 12 A B C C B A
UCL Xdbar LCL
XBAR
11 10 9 8 5
Range
4 3 2 1 0 0 5 10 15 20
UCL Rbar LCL
GB108-47
Zone Test 4:
Average Chart Eight successive points in Zone C and Beyond, on the Eight successive points in Zone C and Beyond, on the same Side of the Center Line same Side of the Center Line
14 13 12 A B C C B A
UCL Xdbar LCL
XBAR
11 10 9 8 5
Range
4 3 2 1 0 0 5 10 15 20
UCL Rbar LCL
GB108-48
Page 24 402-108, Rev. C
INTRODUCTION TO SPC
Trend Test:
Range Chart Seven Consecutive Points Without a Major Change in Seven Consecutive Points Without a Major Change in Direction Direction
14 13 12 A B C C B A
XBAR
UCL Xdbar LCL UCL
11 10 9 8 5
Range
4 3 2 1 0 0 5 10 15 20
Rbar LCL
GB108-49
Trend Test:
Average Chart Seven Consecutive Points Without a Major Change in Seven Consecutive Points Without a Major Change in Direction Direction
14 13 12 A B C C B A
XBAR
UCL Xdbar LCL
11 10 9 8 5
Range
4 3 2 1 0 0 5 10 15 20
UCL Rbar LCL
GB108-50
Page 25 402-108, Rev. C
INTRODUCTION TO SPC
Mixture Test:
Average Chart Eight or more points fall on both sides of centerline in Eight or more points fall on both sides of centerline in Zones A & B, with none in Zone C. Zones A & B, with none in Zone C.
14 13 12 11 10 9 8 5
A B C C B A
XBAR
UCL Xdbar LCL UCL
Range
4 3 2 1 0 0 5 10 15 20
Rbar LCL
GB108-51
Stratification Test:
Average Chart Fifteen or more consecutive points in either C Zone; Fifteen or more consecutive points in either C Zone; few or no points beyond Zone C few or no points beyond Zone C
16 14 12 10 8 6 4 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 5 10 15 20 A B C C B A
UCL Ave LCL
XBAR
Range
UCL Ave LCL
GB108-52
Page 26 402-108, Rev. C
INTRODUCTION TO SPC
Cycle Test:
Range & Average Charts A repeating pattern of change. A repeating pattern of change.
14 13 12 11 10 9 8 5
A B C C B A
XBAR
UCL Xdbar LCL
Range
4 3 2 1 0 0 5 10 15 20 25
UCL Rbar LCL
GB108-53
SPC - Summary
Linked Control Chart Methods to the process improvement and the DMAIC roadmap Discussed different types of variation Introduced a few basic Control Charting methods Discussed the interpretation of Control Charts
GB108-54
Page 27 402-108, Rev. C
TEAM BUILDING
Team Building and Interpersonal Skills for Black Belts and Green Belts
D M A I C
Team Building
GB109-1
Reference Guide:
Page 2 What is the team in this picture? Why two horses? Roles? Team boundaries? Form follows function. . . . Teams provide: Process knowledge Process ownership Time Creativity
GB109-2
Page 1 402-108, Rev. C
TEAM BUILDING
Reference Guide:
Page 3 CRITICAL FACTORS FOR TEAM SUCCESS PURPOSE: Why do we have a team? Whats our output? PROCESS: What process will we follow? COMMUNICATION: Is our communication complete and appropriate? COMMITMENT: How is commitment nourished? INVOLVEMENT: Are the right people on the team? TRUST: How is trust built and maintained?
GB109-3
Reference Guide:
Page 3
Team Size: 5 7 Why not more?
GB109-4
Page 2 402-108, Rev. C
TEAM BUILDING
Reference Guide: Page 4
Team Building Start-up to do list:

Purpose / mission Form team Six Sigma training Plan kick-off meeting Black / Green Belt as coach / leader
GB109-5
Reference Guide:
Page 4
First Team Meeting Agenda

Management Challenge / Commitment Team Charter / Goals Team Member Roles And Responsibilities Empowerment ( Teams Budget And DecisionMaking Authority)
Measures (Team Milestones) Ground Rules And Meeting Schedule Team Training Needs
GB109-6
Page 3 402-108, Rev. C
TEAM BUILDING
Reference Guide:
Page 5
Team Dynamics Group Behavior
PROCESS GROUP ENVIRONMENT

- Physical - Emotional - Business / Political
GOAL
GB109-7
Reference Guide:
Page 5-7 5IV Four phases of team development III
PERFORMING: Collaboration and interdependence Problem-solving NORMING: Expression of opinions and data flow Development of cohesion
II
FORMING: Orientation Testing and dependency
STORMING: Emotional response to task demands Intragroup conflict
B.W. Tuckman, Developmental Sequence in Small Groups. Psychological Bulletin, 63, 1965, pp. 384-399
GB109-8
Page 4 402-108, Rev. C
TEAM BUILDING
Reference Guide:
Page 8
Achieving Team Synergy

(Lost at Sea exercise)
GB109-9
Reference Guide:
Page 11 Situational Leadership Styles
9
S-3
S-2
People
S-4
1
S-1 Task 9
Maturity
GB109-10
Page 5 402-108, Rev. C
PROCESS MAPPING

Process Mapping
Rev. C February 2004 Tyco Electronics
GB110-1
Process Mapping
Provide an overview of Process Mapping To show the step-by-step example of Process Mapping To demonstrate where Process Mapping fits into the DMAIC Process Improvement Model To provide examples of Process Maps To perform a Process Mapping exercise
Rev. C January 2004 Tyco Electronics
GB110-2
Page 1 402-108, Rev. C
PROCESS MAPPING
The DMAIC Process


GB110-3
The Funneling Effect

MEASURE MEASURE
0 Process & Value Stream Maps C&E Matrix
30+ Inputs 10 - 15 8 - 10 4-8 3-6
All Xs
1st Hit List
ANALYZE ANALYZE
Failure Modes and Effects Analysis Multi-Vari Studies Design of Experiments (DOE)
Screened List
IMPROVE IMPROVE
Found Critical Xs
CONTROL* CONTROL*
Control Plans
Controlling Critical Xs
Critical Input Variables Critical Input Variables

GB110-4
Page 2 402-108, Rev. C
PROCESS MAPPING
Types of Process Maps

Level 0 Process Map ( I-P-O or SIPOC )
Used to define the macro level for Suppliers and Customers. (Only 3 or 5 blocks in map)
Value Stream Map

Process and information flow (macro) Key metrics (e.g. cycle time, yield, inventory) for key process steps and for the overall project. Shows constraints.
Detailed Process Map shows all steps in the process, including non-value adding steps.
GB110-5
Detailed Process Mapping

What is the tool? Graphical illustration of the work process What will the tool identify? All value-added and nonvalue-added process steps Process Inputs (Xs) Process Outputs (Ys) Data Collection Points First Input Variables to put in FMEA When do you apply process mapping? Always What are results of Process Mapping? Identify systems needing Measurement Studies Identify Output Variables for Capability Studies Identify missing elements in the Control Plan Identify possible non-valueadded process steps
GB110-6
Page 3 402-108, Rev. C
PROCESS MAPPING
Process Mapping
Should describe:
Major activities / tasks Sub-processes Process Boundaries Input Variables (Xs) Output Variables (Ys)
Should be reviewed frequently and updated
y
f ( x1 , x 2 ,..., x k )
GB110-7
Increasing Process Description Detail:

Top Down Mapping Method
Map Start with P from SIPOC Detail I/O Analysis Prioritize C&E Matrix Common Sense
Start Start
Round 1 Round 2 Round 3
Map drill into sub processes

Flow Chart Cross Functional Map Cross Resource Map
Stop
Stop Stop
Detail Prioritize Map - drill into sub-sub processes

Flow Chart Cross Functional Map Cross Resource Map
Detail Prioritize
GB110-8
Page 4 402-108, Rev. C
PROCESS MAPPING
Increasing Process Description Detail:

Types of Maps
Flow Chart (aka Block Diagram) Shows process steps, without worrying about details Useful as a first pass to understand process steps Cross Functional Map (aka Swim lane) Rearranges flow chart process steps into lanes of functions Clearly shows hand-offs Process steps move left to right as time progresses Cross Resource Map Further drill down into functions, showing actual resource to resource hand offs
Rev. C January 2004 Tyco Electronics Function 1
No Yes No Yes
customer
Function 2
Function 3
Function 4
Function 1
Resour ce 1 Function 2 Reso urce 2 Function 3
Function 4
GB110-9
Different Levels of Process Maps
Transactional
Non-Manufacturing
Example Customer Service Customer Orders Order Entry
Manufacturing Plant Process Area Process Step
Example East Berlin Z-Pack Assembly Work Center 5052
MACRO LOCAL MICRO
Organization Process Subprocess
Start at Macro level and work towards the Micro level, as required Focus Local and Micro level work in areas of largest potential gain Dont go more detailed than you need to avoid analysis paralysis.
GB110-10
Page 5 402-108, Rev. C
PROCESS MAPPING
Preparing the Process Map

Team Effort Manufacturing Example: Manufacturing engineers Line operators Line supervisors Maintenance technicians Suppliers Inputs to Mapping Brainstorming Manuals, work instructions Engineering specifications Operator experience Fishbone diagrams (6 Ms) Transactional Example: Sales force Engineers Operators Supervisors
Man, Machine (Equipment), Method (Procedures), Measurement, Materials, Mother Nature (Environment)
GB110-11
Setting up the Interview

Contact the people in advance and schedule the interview. Make sure not to conflict with other schedules
Keep in mind that people may be concerned about why you want to talk to them
Keep the interview short

no more than 30-45 minutes
Ask them to collect any forms, documents, lists, or procedures that are normally used Develop a set of interview questions
Let your team members conduct the interviews too! Let your team members conduct the interviews too!
GB110-12
Page 6 402-108, Rev. C
PROCESS MAPPING
Setting up the Interview

Whenever possible hold the interview at the individuals actual place of work and not a conference room. At the workplace, make note of its condition. Is this a quiet, orderly, neat, and efficient work area or is it in chaos Are there manuals or other documents in the office? Look around the area and at other work areas: Make note of the above characteristics for other desks in the area.
GB110-13
Conducting the Interview

Describe task or activity
Begin with questions that are aimed at an understanding of the process as a system When an entity (work) arrives, what is the first thing that is done? Then what? Loop until sequence is complete. When is it done? As you move through the Then what? loop, begin to create a straw-man flow chart of the process.
Then what?
End
Loop through all activities in sequence until the end of the process is identified.
GB110-14
Page 7 402-108, Rev. C
PROCESS MAPPING
Conducting the Interview The SOLAR Model

The SOLAR Model is a checklist for you to remember as you are in the The SOLAR Model is a checklist for you to remember as you are in the middle of the interview middle of the interview
S - Enter at the Social level. Put them at ease. Discuss the weather, something from the news. Go easy. O - Explain the Objective of the meeting, discussion, etc. Why are you here, what are you doing, why are you doing it? L - Listen to what they say. Ensure youre non-verbal cues show you are interested. A Advise or Ask Influence by recommendations, coaching, persuading, confronting, or asking probing questions for more understanding R - Record. Identify and record specific steps or outcomes.
GB110-15
Interviewing:
Notes & Things to Remember Be sure to thank the people you interview. Be sure to thank their manager/supervisor for letting them meet with you.
Remember they cant be doing their job if they are talking to you.
Be aware of how much time you have spent conducting an interview.

Dont ask for 30 minutes and stay 60.
GB110-16
Page 8 402-108, Rev. C
PROCESS MAPPING
Level 0 Process and Inputs/Outputs

(We need to get a high level view of the process first) (We need to get a high level view of the process first)
Identify the process in basic terms Identify External Supplier (Inputs)

Raw materials Incoming information Personnel
Identify the Customer Requirements (Outputs)

Process or Product customer specifications or critical attributes. Business/Organization Performance metrics.
GB110-17
Traditional SIPOC Layout

S I P
Process Step 1 Process Step 2 Process Step 3 Process Step 4 Process Step 5 Big Xs Process Step 6 Big Ys Process Output Customer Process Output Process Output Customer
Supplier
Process Input Process Input
Supplier
Process Input
GB110-18
Page 9 402-108, Rev. C
PROCESS MAPPING
Methods for Making a I-P-O or SIPOC

Start with the Customers and work to the left
Always keeps the customer as the focus Can be confusing if Process is unclear
Or Start with the Process and work outward

More intuitive for team members Risk less customer focus you must facilitate the focus!
Try either method see which works better for you. Try either method see which works better for you.
GB110-19
Level 0 Examples:
Manufacturing
Inputs Outputs
Stamping
SOP Dies Raw Stock Equipment Die Maintenance Operator Flatness Undamaged Parts Dimensionality Tensile Strength Burr free Cycle Time
Non- Manufacturing NonInputs Outputs
Order Entry
Phone FAX Email EDI
GB110-20
Price Availability Confirmation of Order Promise Date Order number
Page 10 402-108, Rev. C
PROCESS MAPPING
Exercise
Do a first draft of your Level 0 process map. Discuss at your table. Time: 15 min.
GB110-21
Value Stream Map

A Value Stream Map is a special type of process map that includes: Major process steps and info flow Lean symbols Before-and-after map at the macro level Project measures, activity update Team membership The map includes key Lean indicators for the major process steps, including: Cycle Time Inventory Yield at each major step and Rolled throughput yield: RTY (your key project metrics)
METAL FORMING
CT: 2 days
--------------------------------
Yield: 0.8 %
-------------------------------
WIP: 3,500
GB110-22
Page 11 402-108, Rev. C
PROCESS MAPPING
Value Stream Map Icons
GB110-23
Date:
Project:
xx-xx-
Lodenbel R. Lee AB, CD, EF, IF, KL
Project Data
Black Belt:
Team Members:
Push Prod. Ded. Depts Current State
No takt time No std. Work
TAKT time from 8' Pull Production to 5.6 '
Std. Work / Cell design Future State
Value Stream Map

Before/ After Maps
Pink White Blue
Prod. Control Precision Card Co. RED, Inc Precision Card Co.
daily Supplier Certified
MRP RED, Inc
daily S S 2000
Kaizan
800 / week Ship
Sub Assy #1
pull
1
Cell
Finishing Dept
3 people 2 shifts
B B 500
Sub Assy #2
-1- -2- -3CT: 2 2 4 Yld: 87% 85% 91% WIP 10 9 0
2Kaizan Prod Goal = 1pp/12 min ** current is 1pp/16.8 min
RTY = 69%
Metrics
Improvement Proposals
Status by
Lead time
Base Proposed Base
Cycle Time
Proposed
WIP / Inventory
Base Proposed Base
Scrap
Proposed Base
Tape
Proposed
Detailed process map, QFD Measures, validation Kaizan 1 Kaizan 2, DOE on cutting opns. Die cut analysis for 1 and 2 Productivity focus **
D M A I C
Key Metrics: Base / Current
30 days
2 days
30'
8'
200
19
10%
0.9
9 - 10"
2"
Define
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
Started Completed Past due
GB110-24
Project Status
Page 12 402-108, Rev. C
PROCESS MAPPING
Exercise
Do a first draft of your Value Stream process map. (Current state, measures, team, etc.) Use blank form provided. Do in pencil Discuss at your table. Time: 20 min.
GB110-25
Detail Process Mapping Steps

Start with Level 0 and Value Stream Map: the process, its external inputs and customer outputs Identify all steps in the process graphically, including non-value adding steps like delay. List key output variables at each step List key input variables and classify process inputs as controlled or uncontrolled Add process specifications for Input Variables
GB110-26
Page 13 402-108, Rev. C
PROCESS MAPPING
Detail Process Map

Include all value-added and non value-added steps
(Process steps, inspection/test, rework, scrap, delay.)
Manufacturing
Move Move material from warehouse Wait Store in staging area Set-up Set up and adjust die, reeler, etc. Stamp 4-out die, 6 stations in die Move Move to inspection operation, wait Inventory Return to stores to wait further processing
Non-Manufacturing NonAnswer Phone Greet customer Determine parts needed Identify need date Identify ship to address Identify price Identify shipment method
Internal Information Get internal P/N Determine terms Identify lead time Complete order worksheet
Order Entry Input information Print order confirmation Determine ship date Review order
File / Queue File for end-of-day processing, queue for batch download 10:00 EST next work day
GB110-27
List Output Variables

Include both process and product output variables Manufacturing
Outputs Move Move material from warehouse Cycle Time Material properties NVA Stamping Outputs Cycle Time Correct part Correct dimensions Burr free
Wait Store in staging area
Cycle Time NVA
Move Move to inspection operation, wait
Cycle Time NVA
Set up Set up and adjust die, reelers, etc.
Cycle Time NVA
Inventory Return to stores to wait further processing
Cycle Time NVA
GB110-28
Page 14 402-108, Rev. C
PROCESS MAPPING
List Output Variables

Include both process and product output variables Non-Manufacturing NonOutputs

Outputs Order in computer Input information Print order confirmation All line items Determine ship date complete Review order Correct info Promise date Order number Printed confirmation Order Entry File / Queue
File/store for end-ofday processing, queue for batch download 10:00 EST next work day.
Prompt Greet customer answer Determine P/N Live body Identify need date Part number Identify ship to address Availability Identify ship method Need date
Answer Phone
Get internal P/N Determine terms Identify lead time Complete order worksheet
Internal Information Customer number Order worksheet Pricing
Cycle time NVA
GB110-29
List and Classify Input Variables

List all key input variables and classify them as
Controlled inputs Uncontrolled inputs
C = Controlled Inputs: Input Variables that can be changed to see the effect on Output Variables. Sometimes called Knob variables U = Uncontrolled Inputs: Input Variables that impact the Output Variables but are difficult or impossible to control (may also be controllable, just not under control currently) Example: Environmental variables such as humidity KIPV = Critical Inputs: Input Variables that have been statistically shown to have a major impact on the variability of the Output Variables
GB110-30
Page 15 402-108, Rev. C
PROCESS MAPPING
Is it Controlled or Uncontrolled? Is it Controllable or Uncontrollable?

Current System Controlled Uncontrolled Uncontrollable
No short term solution Long term possibly implement technology
Label C or U Using Current System
Why? Validate its truly uncontrollable with DOE
Possible
Controllable
OPPORTUNITY! Validate with Measurement System Analysis Put in control system Label as U*
GB110-31
Process Mapping Manufacturing Example (V-A only)

Inputs Gear speed Gear wear Material lot Material properties Type C U U U Feed Feed material from roll Cycle Time Material properties Outputs Inputs Drawing speed Material properties Die number Type C U C Drawing Draw features Outputs Cycle Time Correct part Correct dimensions Tensile strength Cycle Time Correct part Burr free Correct dimensions Tensile strength
Shear speed Shear wear Material properties Clamping force Shear force Die wear Material properties Ram force Ram speed Die number Die hardness
C U U C U U U C C C C
Cutting Cut material to length
Cycle Time Correct length Burr free
Punch speed Punch wear Material properties Clamping force Ram force Solvent purity Solvent age Surface roughness Contaminant level Humidity Temperature
C U U C U C U U U U U U
Punching Punch out features
Stamping Stamp piece to size
Cycle Time Correct part Burr free Correct dimensions Tensile strength
Cleaning Clean metal surface
Cycle Time Clean surface Residue free
GB110-32
Page 16 402-108, Rev. C
PROCESS MAPPING
Process Mapping Transactional Example (V-A only)

(Non-Manufacturing) (NonInputs Information from customer Greeting script Answering procedure Telephone system Type C Answer Phone
Greet customer
Outputs Prompt answer Live body Part number Availability Need date
Inputs Order worksheet Computer entry screens Lead time information from mfg Shipment method
Type U C U

Outputs Order Entry Order in

Input information computer Print order confirmation All line items Determine ship date complete Review order
C Determine P/N C Identify need date U Identify ship method

Identify ship to address
Promise date Order number Printed confirmation
Cross reference for P/Ns Order information Plant loading information Order worksheet form Pricing algorithm
U U C
Internal Information Customer Get internal P/N number Determine terms Order Identify lead time worksheet Complete order Pricing
worksheet
Printed confirmation sheet Production schedule Customer contact info Production contact info Confirmation procedure
Order Confirmation
FAX confirmation to customer Verify manufacturing receipt of order
U C C C
Order confirmation to customer Order to production
GB110-33
Add Specifications for Inputs

For Input variables identified as Controlled and for Critical Inputs, we can add the operational specifications and Targets for these variables This information is the beginnings of the Control Plan!
Controlled Input Variable Die Wear Solvent Type Ram Speed Clamping Force Target ? ? ? ? Upper Spec 2.56 ? 800 ? Lower Spec 2.33 ? 750 ?
Use spec numbers if available, not just input category

GB110-34
Page 17 402-108, Rev. C
PROCESS MAPPING
Example:
Coffee Shop
What is the entity that moves through a coffee shop? What is the entity that moves through a coffee shop?
When the customer arrives at the shop, they have a need-- a need for a cup of coffee. That need is translated into a customer order. It is this order that actually flows through the coffee process and carries the need.
This customer order may change from information to physical material and equipment as it moves through the process.
As the order moves through the process, each activity adds a degree of fulfillment to that order. At the end of the process, the fulfilled order is delivered.
To the customer, the output of this process is a cup of coffee. To the process manager, the output of the process is a successfully completed order.
GB110-35
Coffee Making Exercise

You have been identified as a team for instructing future Six Sigma Leaders in the activity of making coffee. There have been complaints about the coffee, and your mission is to improve the process of making coffee with our existing equipment (Mr. Coffee type maker). Your first task is to document the process with a Level 0 and Detailed Process Map. Good luck: The last coffee team was awarded the BilgeWater Coffee Award and had to drink their own brew. Everyone else is buying from the machine. (The previous team did not use any Six Sigma tools.)
GB110-36
Page 18 402-108, Rev. C
PROCESS MAPPING
Uses for Process Map

Provides inputs to Cause and Effects Matrix Provides inputs to FMEA Provides inputs to Control Plan Summary Provides inputs to Capability Summary Provides inputs to Multi-Vari Studies Evaluate Experimental Designs
Tracks variables studied Allows evaluation of designs robustness to noise variables
Can also be used to track team activities Can also be used to track team activities
GB110-37
Process Map Analysis

Process Map Analysis:
Overview of Opportunity and Strategy
Does the nature of Does the nature of the gap suggest the gap suggest one or the other, or one or the other, or both? both?
Capability Issues: Statistical and Quality Tools
Capacity Issues: Lean Tools

GB110-38
Page 19 402-108, Rev. C
PROCESS MAPPING
Next Steps
Process Map Process Map
Input Wax grade Amt wax Charge rate Agit speed Rxn temp Pressure Air flow % O2 in air Viscosity Wax temp Type SOP Contr Contr Contr Contr Contr Contr Noise Noise Noise Output Prep time Acid number Viscosity Reactor temp Temp profile HT coeff
Cause and Cause and Effects Matrix Effects Matrix

Output Stab time Acid number Color Viscosity Reactor temp Temp profile Offgas flow Offgas comp HT coeff Stabilize Put in setpoints Slowly reduce press Monitor temp
1 1 2 2 3 3 4 5 4 6 5 6 7 7 8 9 8 10 9 10 11 11
Input Agit speed Temperature Pressure Air flow % O2 in air Air temp
Type Contr Contr Contr Contr Noise Contr
Prepare Reactor Charge melted wax Bring to reaction temp
INPUTS
Process Step
Process Inputs
AN target Agit speed * Temperature * Pressure * Air flow * % O2 in air Air temp Air humidity
SOP Contr Contr Contr Contr Noise Contr Noise
Oxidize Put in setpoints Sample hourly Monitor acid number
Oxid time Acid number Color Viscosity Reactor temp Temp profile Offgas flow Offgas comp HT coeff Resp time
Belt speed Belt temp Flow rate Nozzle type Hole size Room temp Agit speed Tank temp
Contr Contr Contr SOP Contr Noise Contr Contr
Finish Check nozzle type Put in setpoints Monitor appearance
Finish time Acid number Color Viscosity Drop Point Hardness Pellet appear
Process Step Process Inputs 139 Day Tanks Analysis 10 10 9 139 ReactorTanks Cat./HF Ratio Day Analysis 10 7 9 Reactor Reactor Rxr Temperature Cat./HF Ratio 73 7 Lights Removal Condenser Leak Reactor Rxr Temperature 74 73 Lights Removal Reboiler Leak Leak Lights Removal Condenser 131 74 Purification Low Stages 8 Lights Removal Reboiler Leak 144 131 Final Storage Containers 3 8 2 Purification Low Stages 100 144 Neutralization pH Value Final Storage Containers 3 6 16 100 Catalyst Stripper Pluggage Neutralization pH Value Decomposition 111 16 Catalyst Stripper Pluggage Drying 2 6 39 111 Drier Decomposition Drying Water Carryover 2 34 39 DrierDrier Molecular Sieve Water Carryover 34 Drier Molecular Sieve
FMEA FMEA
Process Step/Part Number Potential Failure Mode Potential Failure Effects S E V Potential Causes O C C Current Controls D E T RPN Actions Recommended Resp.
COATING & IMAGING DIRTY PHOTOMASK MICROCRACKING, DELAMINATION, STREAKS LOW FREQUENCY OF CLEANING 8 8 SOP, VISUAL INSPECTION 7 INCREASE FREQUENCY MG 448 TO ONCE EVERY 20 PANELS IMPROVE CLEANING METHOD PURCHASE OFF-LINE CLEANING SYSTEM TEST ON-LINE MASK REPLACEMENT PF
Initial Assessment of Capabilities Initial Assessment of Capabilities and Control Plans and Control Plans
Process Step Input Dosage Coating Height Coating width Coating length Vacuum Output Process Specification (Target, LSL, USL) 22.5, 22, 23 24,23,25 Cpk Mean - Sigma 1.22 1.54 Measurement Technique UIL-1700 Micrometer %R&R P/T Sample Size Sample Frequency 1/hr 1/hr Control Method Reaction Plan
MG
Coating
PF
25% 31%/0.47 35 pts per panel
14,12,16 36,34,38 35" Hg
1.78 1.43
Laser Measuring Device Laser Measuring Device Vacuum Gauge
1/hr 1/hr 1/hr
Auto-timer Cross check Coating & Adjust previous pump speed None in place None in place Monitor Compare guages, look for blockage
H e a vie s in P ro d u c t H e a vie s in L ig t P ro d u ch ts in P ro d u c t L ig h ts in M ct P ro d uo istu re in P ro d u c t M o istu re in A c id P ro d u c t ity in P ro d u c t A c id ity in P ro d u c t L o w C a p a c ity F ro m U n it L o w C a p a c ity E ce it F ro m xU n s sive D o w n tim e E x ce s sive M tim e D o w na te ria l L o ss e s M a te ria l L o ss e s C o rro sio n o f E q u ip m e n t C o rro sio n o f E q uP om e n t e a cto r ip o r R P e rfo rm a n ce P o o r R e a cto r P e rfo rm a n ce
OUTPUTS
9 10 4 4 6 2 6 6 4 3 9 9 9 5 6 5 6 8 8 8 5 2 8 2 8 8 6 2 6 2 7 2 2 8 4 4 4 7 8 7 4 1 4 1 4 3 3 5 2 1 5 4 4 6 6 6 3 4 3 3 5 2 2 6 6 3 3 3 5 2 5
Total Total 335
3 3 2 2
6 6 7
157 335 7149 157 7148 149 1148 148 1144 148 140 144 138 140 137 138 3134 137 132 134 1125 132 125
Key Process Output Variable Capability Status Sheet

Customer Requirement (Output Variable) Gel Time Viscosity Cleanliness Color Homogeneity Consistency Digets Time Temperature Solids Measurement Technique %R&R or P/T Ratio Upper Spec Limit Target Lower Spec Limit Cp Cpk Sample Size Date Actions
GB110-39
Initial Assessment of Control Plan

Start an initial assessment of the control plan after the process map is complete Add the measurement technique, operating specifications, and targets for the controlled and critical inputs as well as the outputs
Current Control Plan
Process Spec (LSL, USL, Target) Cpk / Date (Sample Size) Measurement System %R&R or P/T Current Control Method (from FMEA) Reaction Plan Process Step Input Output Who Where When
Excel template: Control Plan.XLS

GB110-40
Page 20 402-108, Rev. C
PROCESS MAPPING
Process Mapping Summary

Provided overview of process mapping Showed the step-by-step example of process mapping Demonstrated where process mapping fits in the DMAIC Process Improvement Method Provided examples of process maps Created draft and sample process maps
GB110-41
Page 21 402-108, Rev. C
MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS ANALYSIS

Measurement Systems Analysis
GB111-1
Objectives
Introduce Measurement Systems Analysis Define basic measurement terms Outline procedure for performing a Measurement Systems Analysis Perform an exercise to practice methodology
GB111-2
Page 1 402-108, Rev. C
The DMAIC Process


GB111-3
Measurement Process
The ideal measurement system produces true measurements every time Quality of the measurement system is characterized by statistical properties The measurement process should include: Design and certification Capability assessment over Time Control Repair and re-certification Properties Must be in Statistical Control Variability must be small compared to product specifications Variability must be small compared to process variation Discrimination should be about one-tenth of product specification or process variation
GB111-4
Page 2 402-108, Rev. C
Possible Sources of Process Variation

Observed Process Variation
Actual Process Variation
Measurement Variation
Long-term Process Variation
Short-term Process Variation
Variation w/in sample
Variation due to gage
Variation due to operators
Repeatability
Calibration
Stability
Linearity
To address actual process variability, the variation due to the To address actual process variability, the variation due to the measurement system must first be identified and separated from that measurement system must first be identified and separated from that of the process of the process We will look at repeatability and reproducibility as primary We will look at repeatability and reproducibility as primary contributors to measurement error contributors to measurement error
GB111-5
Basic Model
2 Total 2 Product 2 Measuremen t System
The Total Variation is equal to the real product The Total Variation is equal to the real product variation plus the variation due to the variation plus the variation due to the measurement system measurement system
2 Measurement System 2 Repeatability 2 Reproducib ility
The Measurement System Variation is equal to the The Measurement System Variation is equal to the variation due to repeatability plus the variation variation due to repeatability plus the variation due to reproducibility. due to reproducibility.
GB111-6
Page 3 402-108, Rev. C
Measurement Process Components

Measurement tools:
Hardware Software
All procedures for using the tools:

Which operators Set-up and handling procedures Off-line calculations and data entry Calibration frequency and technique
GB111-7
Sources of Measurement Variation

Tool
Mechanical instability Wear Electrical instability Algorithm instability
Work Methods
Ease of Data Entry Operator Training Calibration Frequency Maintenance Standard Sufficient Work Time Standard Procedures Operator Technique
Measurement Variation
Humidity Cleanliness Vibration Line Voltage Variation
Environme
Temperature Fluctuation
Environment
GB111-8
Page 4 402-108, Rev. C
Information to be Obtained
How big is the measurement error? What are the sources of measurement error? Is the tool stable over time? Is the tool capable for this study? How do we improve the measurement system?
GB111-9
How does Measurement Error Appear?

Actual process variation No measurement error
15
LSL
USL
Frequency
10
0 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Process
15
LSL
Frequency
USL
Observed process variation With measurement error
10
0 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Observ ed
GB111-10
Page 5 402-108, Rev. C
Sources of Variation
Product Variability Product Variability

(Actual variability) (Actual variability)
Measurement Measurement Variability Variability
Total Variability Total Variability

(Observed (Observed variability) variability)
GB111-11
Terminology
Discrimination Accuracy related terms
True value Bias Linearity
Precision related terms

Repeatability Reproducibility Linearity
Stability
GB111-12
Page 6 402-108, Rev. C
Discrimination
The number of decimal places that can be measured by the system. Increments of measure should be about one-tenth of the width of the product specification or process variation.
Range of product variation can only be written as 0,1,or 2
Poor Discrimination
Range of product variation can be written as 0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 1.5, for a total of 16 values.
Good Discrimination
GB111-13
Precision and Accuracy
Accurate Accurate and Precise and Precise
Precise not Precise not Accurate Accurate
Neither Precise Neither Precise or Accurate or Accurate
GB111-14
Page 7 402-108, Rev. C
Accuracy Terms
Accuracy - Does the average of the measurements deviate from the true value? True value
Theoretically correct value NIST standards
Bias
Distance between average value of all measurements and true value Amount the measuring instrument is consistently off target Systematic error or offset
GB111-15
Accuracy
Instrument accuracy is related to the difference between the observed average value of measurements and the master or true value The master value is an accepted, traceable reference standard (e.g., NIST)
Master Master Value Value
Average Value of Measurements Average Value of Measurements

GB111-16
Page 8 402-108, Rev. C
Bias
Average of measurements differ from the Master Value by a fixed amount. Bias effects include: Operator bias - different operators get detectable different averages for the same thing Instrument bias - different instruments get detectable different averages for the same thing, etc.
Instrument 1 Bias
Instrument 2 Bias
Instrument 1
Instrument 2
Average 1
Average 2
GB111-17
Precision Terms
Total variation in the measurement system Measure of natural variation of repeated measurements Repeatability and Reproducibility
2 MS
2 rpt
2 rpd
GB111-18
Page 9 402-108, Rev. C
Repeatability
rpt
The inherent variability of the measurement device Variation that occurs when repeated measurements are made of the same variable under absolutely identical conditions
Same operator Same set-up Same units Same environmental conditions Short-term
Estimated by the pooled standard deviation of the distribution of repeated measurements Repeatability is always less than the total variation of the system
GB111-19
Repeatability
The variation between successive measurements of the same part, same characteristic, by the same person using the same instrument. Also known as test - retest error; used as an estimate of short-term variation. Master Master Value Value Good Repeatability Poor Repeatability
Average
Average
GB111-20
Page 10 402-108, Rev. C
Reproducibility
rpd
The variation that results when different conditions are used to make the measurements
Different operators Different set-ups Different test units Different environmental conditions Long-term
Estimated by the standard deviation of the averages of measurements from different measurement conditions
GB111-21
Reproducibility
The difference in the average of the measurements made by different persons using the same or different instrument when measuring the identical characteristic
Good Reproducibility
Poor Reproducibility
Operator 1 Operator 2 Operator 3
Operator 1 Operator 2 Operator 3
GB111-22
Page 11 402-108, Rev. C
Accuracy vs. Precision

Suppose we have a reference material with a true hardness of 5.0 Method 1 gives the following readings: 3.8, 4.4, 4.2, 4.0 Method 2 gives the following readings: 6.5, 4.0, 3.2, 6.3 Which method is more accurate?
Method 2 - average is equal to true hardness value
Which method is more precise?

Method 1 - variability is very low
Which method do you prefer? Why?

Method 1 - we can compensate easier for mean shift than variability
GB111-23
Accuracy vs. Precision Accuracy Accuracy

Related to Difference between Related to Difference between Average Measurements and the Average Measurements and the True Value True Value
Measurement System Bias -Determined through Calibration Study
Precision Precision
Related to the Variance and Related to the Variance and Standard Deviation of the Standard Deviation of the Measurements Measurements
Measurement System Variability - Determined through R&R Study
GB111-24
Page 12 402-108, Rev. C
Measurement Capability Index - P/T

Precision to Tolerance Ratio
P /T
5.15 * MS Tolerance
Usually expressed Usually expressed as percent as percent
Addresses what percent of the tolerance is taken up by measurement error Includes both repeatability and reproducibility Ideal: 8% or less Acceptable: 30% or less
Note: 5.15 standard deviations accounts for 99% of MS variation. The use of 5.15 is an Note: 5.15 standard deviations accounts for 99% of MS variation. The use of 5.15 is an industry standard industry standard
GB111-25
Precision to Tolerance Ratio

LSL
Product Tolerance
USL
P/T = 20%
measurement system variation
P/T = 100%
P/T = 200%
GB111-26
Page 13 402-108, Rev. C
Uses of P/T Ratio

The P/T ratio is the most common estimate of Measurement System precision
This estimate may be appropriate for evaluating how well the Measurement System can perform with respect to specifications Specifications, however, may be too tight or too loose Generally, the P/T ratio is a good estimate when the measurement system is only used to classify production samples, for process control use, etc.
Even then, if process capability (Cpk) is not adequate, the P/T ratio may give you a false sense of security
Note: In MINITAB, the P/T Ratio is called % Tolerance

GB111-27
Measurement Capability Index - %R&R
%R & R
MS Total
100
Usually expressed Usually expressed as percent as percent
Addresses what percent of the Total Variation is taken up by measurement error Includes both repeatability and reproducibility As a target, look for % R&R less than 28% Less than 14% is ideal
GB111-28
Page 14 402-108, Rev. C
% Repeatability & Reproducibility (% R&R)
%R&R = 20%
measurement system variation
%R&R = 75%
%R&R = 100%
GB111-29
Uses of %R&R
The %R&R is the best measure for the Belt
This estimates how well the Measurement System performs with respect to the overall process variation %R&R is the best estimate when performing process improvement studies
Care must be taken to use samples Care must be taken to use samples representing full, but typical, process representing full, but typical, process variation variation
GB111-30
Page 15 402-108, Rev. C
3 Sigma Process:
P/T Ratio and % R&R
LSL
Product Tolerance
USL
P/T = 20% P/T = 50% P/T = 100%
%R&R = 20% %R&R = 50% %R&R = 100%
Measurement System Variation

GB111-31
2 Sigma Process:
P/T Ratio and % R&R
LSL
Product Tolerance
USL
P/T = 50% P/T = 100%
%R&R = 25% %R&R = 50%
P/T = 200% Measurement System Variation

%R&R = 100%
GB111-32
Page 16 402-108, Rev. C
6 Sigma Process:
P/T Ratio and % R&R
LSL
Product Tolerance
USL
P/T = 10% P/T = 20%
%R&R = 20% %R&R = 40%
P/T = 50% Measurement System Variation

%R&R = 100%
GB111-33
Measurement Error Effect on Capability Indices
The higher the Measurement Error the more dramatic the impact on your ability to understand the true process capability!
GB111-34
Page 17 402-108, Rev. C
Gage R&R Study Set-up

Generally two to three operators Generally 10 units to measure Each unit is measured 2-3 times by each operator Units are selected to cover the normal full range of the process Dont select consecutive units
GB111-35
Sample Size Issues

Number of operators If process uses multiple operators, choose 2-4 at random If process uses only one operator, or no operators, perform study without operator effects (reproducibility effects ignored) Number of samples Select enough samples so that (number of samples) X (number of operators) > 15 If not practical or possible, choose number of trials so that:
if S x O < 15, trials = 3 if S x O < 8, trials = 3 to 4 if S x O < 5, trials = 4 to 5 if S x O < 4, trials = 5 to 6
GB111-36
Page 18 402-108, Rev. C
Study Sample Selection

Samples should be pulled from the process that span the normal variation of the process Example: If you produce a material with a mean thickness of 0.020 and a s of 0.001, get samples that have thickness from 0.017 - 0.023 (99% of the range) BE CAREFUL! If you produce the same base material with different thickness with the same process, sub-group them and perform the R&R study Example:
A process produces a material with thickness 0.070, 0.085, and 0.090 all with a +/- 0.005 tolerance, all measured with the same system Perform 3 R&R studies - one for each thickness target
If you lumped the above samples together, the GR&R value would be artificially low
GB111-37
Procedure for Performing an R&R Study

Calibrate the gage, or assure that it has been calibrated Have operator 1 measure all samples once in random order Have operator 2 measure all samples once in random order Continue until all operators have measured samples once (this is Trial 1) Repeat steps 2-4 for the required number of trials Calculate the statistics of the R&R study Repeatability Reproducibility Standard deviations of each of the above %R&R P/T Ratio Analyze results and determine follow-up action, if any
GB111-38
Page 19 402-108, Rev. C
Minitab Gage R&R Data Matrix

Lets set up a table for a 3 Operators, 10 Sample per trial, 2 Trials gage study We want to create a Minitab file with the following columns
Part or Sample Operator Trial Measurement
Lets set up the table to have the correct Trial / Operator / Sample combinations using the Make Patterned Data procedure
GB111-39

Setting up the Gage R&R Data Matrix in the Minitab worksheet is similar to setting up a matrix for a designed experiment.
TRIAL 1
OPERATOR 1
SAMPLES 1 - 10
TRIAL 2
OPERATOR 3
SAMPLES 1 - 10
OPERATOR 2
SAMPLES 1 - 10
OPERATOR 1
SAMPLES 1 - 10
OPERATOR 2
SAMPLES 1 - 10
OPERATOR 3
SAMPLES 1 - 10
We have 2 trials to run. During each trial we have 3 operators. Each operator will measure 10 samples.
GB111-40
Page 20 402-108, Rev. C

TRIAL 1
OPERATOR 1
SAMPLES 1 - 10
TRIAL 2
OPERATOR 3
SAMPLES 1 - 10
OPERATOR 2
SAMPLES 1 - 10
OPERATOR 1
SAMPLES 1 - 10
OPERATOR 2
SAMPLES 1 - 10
OPERATOR 3
SAMPLES 1 - 10
We must set up 3 columns in Minitab to fit the matrix Column 1 (C1) will be named Trials Column 2 (C2) will be named Operators Column 3 (C3) will be named Samples Entries in the 3 columns will be used to identify the factors in the study Open a new worksheet in Minitab and name the 3 columns
GB111-41

TRIAL 1
OPERATOR 1
SAMPLES 1 - 10
TRIAL 2
OPERATOR 3
SAMPLES 1 - 10
OPERATOR 2
SAMPLES 1 - 10
OPERATOR 1
SAMPLES 1 - 10
OPERATOR 2
SAMPLES 1 - 10
OPERATOR 3
SAMPLES 1 - 10
The matrix above will provide you with information on the length of the three columns The total number of measurements to be made is 60 (2 trials X 3 operators X 10 measurements = 60) This tells us that each of the 3 columns will have 60 entries (60 rows per column)
GB111-42
Page 21 402-108, Rev. C

TRIAL 1
OPERATOR 1
SAMPLES 1 - 10
TRIAL 2
OPERATOR 3
SAMPLES 1 - 10
OPERATOR 2
SAMPLES 1 - 10
OPERATOR 1
SAMPLES 1 - 10
OPERATOR 2
SAMPLES 1 - 10
OPERATOR 3
SAMPLES 1 - 10
Column 3 (Samples) will consist of the numbers 1-10, repeated 6 times to identify the 10 samples measured by each of the 3 operators during each trial
GB111-43
Making Patterned Data
GB111-44
Page 22 402-108, Rev. C
GB111-45
GB111-46
Page 23 402-108, Rev. C
GB111-47
GB111-48
Page 24 402-108, Rev. C
GB111-49
Minitab Gage R&R File
GB111-50
Page 25 402-108, Rev. C
Minitab Gage R&R File
Measurement taken during Trial 1 by Operator 1 on Sample 6.
Measurement taken during Trial 1 by Operator 2 on Sample 8.
GB111-51
Coding Variables
You can change the Operator values to the actual persons name and still perform the analysis using a Coding procedure
GB111-52
Page 26 402-108, Rev. C
Coding Variables
GB111-53
Coding Variables
GB111-54
Page 27 402-108, Rev. C
Last Checks....
Before running your study, make sure that you have the right number of cells for each operator and sample To do this we use Cross Tabulation
GB111-55
Cross Tabulation
GB111-56
Page 28 402-108, Rev. C
Table Statistics
The table should contain equal counts for all operators and all parts before continuing
We look for equal cell counts in all combinations
Rows: Trials
Columns: Operators
Dillon
Fred
Tom
All
1 2 All
10 10 20
10 10 20
10 10 20
30 30 60
GB111-57
Gage R&R Example

Lets use Minitab to analyze some data Open worksheet AIAG MSA Example.MTW in file DM ANOVA MSA.MPJ We will be using Minitabs Gage R&R Study (Crossed) function
GB111-58
Page 29 402-108, Rev. C
Minitab Gage R&R Study (Crossed)
GB111-59
Options / Info Screens

Enter the specific gage Enter the specific gage information here for records information here for records Important when doing a Important when doing a number of iterations number of iterations
Accepted value for 99% of the Accepted value for 99% of the distribution distribution Enter the Process Tolerance Enter the Process Tolerance in the Options screen in the Options screen REMEMBER the tolerance REMEMBER the tolerance is the entire range of the is the entire range of the specifications! specifications! You can add a descriptive You can add a descriptive Title as well Title as well
GB111-60
Page 30 402-108, Rev. C
Minitab Output
Minitab produces both analytical and graphical analysis information
Analytical Results
ANOVA table(s) Components of Variation Percent contribution table
Graphical Results
X-Bar / R chart Components of Variation Operator*Part Interaction Plot By Operator and By Part plots
Lets look at the analytical first and then return to the graphical
GB111-61
Gage R&R Report
Total Gage R&R Ideal: 2% or less Acceptable: 7.7% or less
GB111-62
Page 31 402-108, Rev. C
Gage R&R Report

Source Total Gage R&R Repeatability Reproducibility Operator Operator*Sample Part-To-Part Total Variation StdDev (SD) 0.066615 0.035940 0.056088 0.030200 0.047263 0.192781 0.203965 Study Var (5.15*SD) 0.34306 0.18509 0.28885 0.15553 0.24340 0.99282 1.05042 %Study Var (%SV) 32.66 17.62 27.50 14.81 23.17 94.52 100.00 %Tolerance (SV/Toler) 68.61 37.02 57.77 31.11 48.68 198.56 210.08
Number of Distinct Categories = 4 % R&R (for process improvement efforts) % R&R (for process improvement efforts) %P/T (for acceptance to spec efforts) %P/T (for acceptance to spec efforts) BE CAREFUL --watch for low Distinct Categories! Must BE CAREFUL watch for low Distinct Categories! Must be at least 5 for Process Improvement use! be at least 5 for Process Improvement use!
GB111-63
Number of Distinct Categories

The number of distinct categories of data within the process that the measurement system can detect. Represents the number of non-overlapping confidence intervals within the range of the product variation and is an indication of the Discrimination of the measurement system. If the number of categories is less than 2, the measurement system is of minimal value since it will be difficult to distinguish one part from another. If the number of categories is 2, the measurement system can only divide the data into 2 groups low and high. If the number of categories is 3, the measurement system can divide the data into 3 groups low, medium and high. A measurement system that is acceptable and useful for process improvement activities must have 5 or more distinct categories. 10 or more is ideal.
GB111-64
Page 32 402-108, Rev. C
Number of Distinct Categories

Number of Categories Use of Measurement System Generally of no use, but may provide minimal information on conformance versus nonconformance Insensitive control charts 24 Coarse estimates of process parameters and capability indices Control charts, process parameters, capability indices, process improvement
01
5 or more
GB111-65
Graphical Output
GB111-66
Page 33 402-108, Rev. C
Gage R&R X / R Chart
We want to see variability We want to see variability in the X-bar chart outside in the X-bar chart outside the Control Limits the Control Limits This indicates Part-to-Part This indicates Part-to-Part variability variability If there was none, you If there was none, you probably did not get probably did not get samples that cover the samples that cover the normal range in normal range in production production
GB111-67
X-Chart Indicators
If the averages for each operator is different, the reproducibility is suspect We want more averages to fall outside the control limits but consistently for all operators
This indicates more part-to-part variability which is what we want
We want to see the majority of the points on the chart outside the control limits
If this is the case and the R-Chart is in control, then we will be able to determine the percent of the process variability that is consumed by the measurement system
GB111-68
Page 34 402-108, Rev. C
Gage R&R X / R Chart

The Range chart should The Range chart should show a process that is in show a process that is in control. control. If a point is above the UCL, If a point is above the UCL, the operator is having a the operator is having a problem making consistent problem making consistent measurements. measurements. The Range chart can also The Range chart can also help identify inadequate help identify inadequate discrimination discrimination We want at least 5 possible We want at least 5 possible values within the control values within the control limits limits
GB111-69
R-Chart Indicators
Suspect inadequate Discrimination if:
the range chart has less than 5 distinct levels within the Control Limits 5 or more levels for the range but more than 1/4 of the values are zero
Repeatability is questionable if the range chart shows out-of-control conditions If the range for an operator is out-of-control and the others are not, the method is suspect If all operators have ranges out-of-control, the system is sensitive to operator technique
GB111-70
Page 35 402-108, Rev. C
Operator-Part Interaction Plot
We desire lines that follow the same pattern and are reasonably parallel to each other Significant interactions are indicated by crossing lines between operators We also want to see that the part averages vary enough that the differences between parts are clear.
GB111-71
Components of Variation
A graphical representation of the data discussed before A graphical representation of the data discussed before We want the Gage R&R bars to be as small as possible, driving the We want the Gage R&R bars to be as small as possible, driving the Part-to-Part bars to be larger Part-to-Part bars to be larger
GB111-72
Page 36 402-108, Rev. C
By Operator
The By Operator graph shows the average value (Circle) and The By Operator graph shows the average value (Circle) and the spread of the data for each operator the spread of the data for each operator We want the grouping to be similar across all operators and a We want the grouping to be similar across all operators and a flat line across the means for the operators flat line across the means for the operators
GB111-73
By Part
The graph shows the average (circles) and spread of the values The graph shows the average (circles) and spread of the values for each sample for each sample We want to see minimal spread for each part, but variability We want to see minimal spread for each part, but variability between samples (means shifting) between samples (means shifting)
GB111-74
Page 37 402-108, Rev. C
Gage Run Chart
GB111-75
Gage Run Chart
GB111-76
Page 38 402-108, Rev. C
Gage Run Chart
The chart shows the two measurements made by each operator The chart shows the two measurements made by each operator on the 10 parts. on the 10 parts. We want to see consistency of measurement values within each We want to see consistency of measurement values within each operators results and between the operators. operators results and between the operators.
GB111-77
GR&R Metrics - Additional Metrics
P/T P/T
Red
Ratio Ratio
%Study %Study Variation Variation
R&R R&R %Contribution %Contribution

(Ratio of Variances) (Ratio of Variances)
Number of Number of Distinct Distinct Categories Categories

(Discrimination (Discrimination Index) Index)
Yellow
30% 30% 8% 8%
28% 28% 14% 14%
7.7% 7.7% 2% 2%
5 5 10 10
%R&R Contribution is more statistically correct than %Study Variation

The latter is based on the standard deviations, which is not accurate If you follow this chart you will be OK No Matter Which Metrics You Use
Green
GB111-78
Page 39 402-108, Rev. C
Measurement System Evaluation

Written inspection/ measurement procedure? Detailed process map developed? Specific measuring system and set-up defined? Trained or Certified Operators? Instrument calibration performed in a timely manner? Accuracy? R&R? Bias? Linearity? Discrimination? Correlation with supplier or customer where appropriate?
GB111-79
Summary
Measurement systems are important to analyze BEFORE embarking on Process Improvement activities Be careful when picking samples - watch for correct sub-grouping and sample size requirements Analyze the measurement system for Operator, Part, and Trial effects Make sure that the gage system has enough discrimination to be useful in determining different levels in the measured attribute Always generate a GR&R Report to document findings, methods, and improvement opportunities Total Variation includes Measurement Error - try to minimize the controllable error in the gage system
GB111-80
Page 40 402-108, Rev. C
GR&R Exercise
The Department of Health has decided to let you check your own waste water cleanliness provided you can measure the water volume with acceptable repeatability and reproducibility Due to the nature of the materials being measured, if you touch the container while measuring you will be exposed to potentially high levels of biological and chemical toxins. If you touch the container while measuring, you will not be permitted to perform your own measurements, costing the company thousands of $ labor and testing by outside in laboratories
GB111-81
GR&R Exercise
Equipment needed: 10 plastic containers 1 measurement device Specifications: See container Procedure: Fill 10 containers with varying amounts of water between the marked lines on each container (ask instructor) Have each of three operators independently measure the height of the water three times (use proper MSA techniques), WITHOUT touching the container
REMEMBER - Maintain one operator per trial!
Randomize the measurement order of the containers (i.e., 1,3,7,5,2,...) for each operator Analyze the results and present to class
GB111-82
Page 41 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES

Capability Studies
GB112-1
Objectives
Traditional process capability indexes Attribute and Variable Capability Studies Short Term and Long Term Process Capability
GB112-2
Page 1 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
The DMAIC Process


GB112-3
Background - Capability Studies
LSL LSL
USL USL
We continually gather data on our process and ask: Is it capable of producing defect free products ? Gathering and analyzing the data is called....
A Capability Study
GB112-4
Page 2 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
Capability Roadmap - 30,000 Ft. View

What Type of Data What Type of Data Do You Have ? Do You Have ? Attribute Data Attribute Data Collect Data Collect Data On Process On Process Analyze Data Analyze Data In Excel In Excel State Capability State Capability
DPU, PPM DPU, PPM
Variables Data Variables Data Collect Data Collect Data On Process On Process Analyze Data Analyze Data In Minitab In Minitab State Capability State Capability
DPU, PPM DPU, PPM Cp, Cpk, Pp, Ppk Cp, Cpk, Pp, Ppk
GB112-5
Classifying Data Classifying Data

ATTRIBUTES ATTRIBUTES
Customer Requirement
VARIABLES VARIABLES
Customer Requirement
Defect Free ( )
Defects ( ) Defects (x > 130 Min)
Non-Defects (x < 130 Min)
2 3 4 5 6 7 Number of Mistakes
15
110
115
120
125
130
135
140
Assembly Time (Minutes)
GB112-6
Page 3 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
Capability Studies with Variables Data
GB112-7
Standard Normal Distribution
One Standard Deviation (
This is a standard Normal distribution where: Mean = 0 Standard Deviation = 1

GB112-8
Page 4 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
Transformation to the Standard Normal Distribution
GB112-9
Z-Transform
General form:
Z=
(x -
This transform produces a value Z on the Standard Normal Distribution where the mean = 0 and the standard deviation = 1 The value indicates how far the number is from the mean in units of standard deviations
For example, if Z = 2, that would say that the value in question is 2 standard deviations greater than the Mean
By using this method, we can calculate the proportion of product that is out-of-spec based on the process mean and standard deviation.
GB112-10
Page 5 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
Z-Transform
You may see the equation for the Z-Transform written You may see the equation for the Z-Transform written in a number of different ways. in a number of different ways.
Z= (x - x )
(x -
Z=
Z=
(x - x ) s
GB112-11
Estimating % Non-conforming
For estimating percent nonconforming for a process, we will substitute the Lower Spec Limit (LSL) and the Upper Spec Limit (USL) for x
Z=
Z=
(x - x)
(SL - x)
The result will tell us how far the process mean is from the specification limit in units of sigma
GB112-12
Page 6 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
Z Score
USL
Z
GB112-13
Whats the Area Under the Tail ?
USL 2.5
We get the area under the tail from a Z table ......or we can use Minitab!
GB112-14
Page 7 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
Z Table
.00621 or .621% or 6210 ppm

2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.1
0.02275 0.01786 0.01390 0.01072 0.00820 0.00621 0.00466 0.00347 0.00256 0.00187 0.00135 0.00097 0.02222 0.01743 0.01355 0.01044 0.00798 0.00604 0.00453 0.00336 0.00248 0.00181 0.00131 0.00094 0.02169 0.01700 0.01321 0.01017 0.00776 0.00587 0.00440 0.00326 0.00240 0.00175 0.00126 0.00090 0.02118 0.01659 0.01287 0.00990 0.00755 0.00570 0.00427 0.00317 0.00233 0.00169 0.00122 0.00087 0.02068 0.01618 0.01255 0.00964 0.00734 0.00554 0.00415 0.00307 0.00226 0.00164 0.00118 0.00084 0.02018 0.01578 0.01222 0.00939 0.00714 0.00539 0.00402 0.00298 0.00219 0.00159 0.00114 0.00082 0.01970 0.01539 0.01191 0.00914 0.00695 0.00523 0.00391 0.00289 0.00212 0.00154 0.00111 0.00079
2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.1
0.02275 0.01786 0.01390 0.01072 0.00820 0.00621 0.00466 0.00347 0.00256 0.00187 0.00135 0.00097
0.02222 0.01743 0.01355 0.01044 0.00798
0.02169 0.01700 0.01321 0.01017 0.00776 0.00587 0.00440 0.00326 0.00240 0.00175 0.00126 0.00090
0.02118 0.01659 0.01287 0.00990 0.00755
0.02068 0.01618 0.01255 0.00964 0.00734
0.02018 0.01578 0.01222 0.00939 0.00714
0.01970 0.01539 0.01191 0.00914 0.00695
0.00604 0.00453 0.00336 0.00248 0.00181 0.00131 0.00094
0.00570 0.00427 0.00317 0.00233 0.00169 0.00122 0.00087
0.00554 0.00415 0.00307 0.00226 0.00164 0.00118 0.00084
0.00539 0.00402 0.00298 0.00219 0.00159 0.00114 0.00082
0.00523 0.00391 0.00289 0.00212 0.00154 0.00111 0.00079
GB112-15
Minitab
GB112-16
Page 8 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
Minitab
Cumulative Distribution Function
Normal with mean = 0 and standard deviation = 1.00000
x 2.5000
P( X < = x ) 0.9938
GB112-17
Minitab
Normal with mean = 0 and standard deviation = 1.00000 x 2.5000 P( X <= x) 0.9938
1 - .9938 = .0062 or .62% or 6200 ppm
GB112-18
Page 9 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
Example
Assume that a transmitter contains a chip that must operate at a frequency no higher than 1.030 GHz. (USL = 1.030 GHz) Our process is producing chips having an average operating frequency of 0.995 GHz, with a standard deviation of 0.010 GHz. What is the percent nonconforming for the chips produced by the process? The mean of the process is 0.995 GHz The standard deviation is .010 GHz
USL X(bar) s 1.030 - .995 .010
Z=
3.5
GB112-19
Z Table
.00023 or .023% or 230 ppm

2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.1
0.02275 0.01786 0.01390 0.01072 0.00820 0.00621 0.00466 0.00347 0.00256 0.00187 0.00135 0.00097
0.02222 0.01743 0.01355 0.01044 0.00798 0.00604 0.00453 0.00336 0.00248 0.00181 0.00131 0.00094
0.02169 0.01700 0.01321 0.01017 0.00776 0.00587 0.00440 0.00326 0.00240 0.00175 0.00126 0.00090
0.02118 0.01659 0.01287 0.00990 0.00755 0.00570 0.00427 0.00317 0.00233 0.00169 0.00122 0.00087
0.02068 0.01618 0.01255 0.00964 0.00734 0.00554 0.00415 0.00307 0.00226 0.00164 0.00118 0.00084
0.02018 0.01578 0.01222 0.00939 0.00714 0.00539 0.00402 0.00298 0.00219 0.00159 0.00114 0.00082
0.01970 0.01539 0.01191 0.00914 0.00695 0.00523 0.00391 0.00289 0.00212 0.00154 0.00111 0.00079
3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4.0 4.1
0.00135 0.00097 0.00069 0.00048 0.00034 0.00023 0.00016 0.00011 7.237E-05 4.812E-05 3.169E-05 2.067E-05
0.00131 0.00094 0.00066 0.00047 0.00032
0.00126 0.00090 0.00064 0.00045 0.00031 0.00022 0.00015
0.00122 0.00087 0.00062 0.00043 0.00030
0.00118 0.00084 0.00060 0.00042 0.00029
0.00114 0.00082 0.00058 0.00040 0.00028
0.00111 0.00079 0.00056 0.00039 0.00027
0.00022 0.00015 0.00010 6.951E-05 4.617E-05 3.037E-05 1.979E-05
0.00021 0.00014 9.577E-05 6.409E-05 4.249E-05 2.790E-05 1.815E-05
0.00020 0.00014 9.204E-05 6.154E-05 4.076E-05 2.674E-05 1.738E-05
0.00019 0.00013 8.844E-05 5.908E-05 3.909E-05 2.562E-05 1.663E-05
0.00019 0.00013 8.498E-05 5.671E-05 3.749E-05 2.455E-05 1.592E-05
9.964E-05 6.675E-05 4.429E-05 2.911E-05 1.895E-05
GB112-20
Page 10 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
Minitab
GB112-21
Minitab
Normal with mean = 0 and standard deviation = 1.00000
x 3.5000
P( X <= x ) 0.9998
Remember Minitab gives the area under the curve to the left of the specified value (in this case, the proportion conforming). To obtain the proportion nonconforming we must subtract the result from 1.0. 1.0 0.9998 = 0.0002 or .02% or 200 ppm
GB112-22
Page 11 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
Minitab
x P( X <= x) 3.5000 0.9998
Tail Probability = 1 - .9998 Tail Probability = .0002 or 200 ppm
.9998
.0002
GB112-23
Z-Transform Example
If we look at the following, we see that, for 150 Melt Index measurements:
Mean = 10
400
Frequency
= 0.5 Lets say: LSL = 9 USL = 11
300
LSL
USL
200
100
10
11
12
Population
Question: What is the estimated percentage of Question: What is the estimated percentage of the distribution that will be out of spec? the distribution that will be out of spec?
GB112-24
Page 12 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
Z-Transform
The task is to determine estimates of the proportion of the normal curve that is outside both the upper and lower specification limits. We do that by calculating Z-score for each spec limit. (LSL- x) 9 - 10 (USL - x)
ZL = =
ZU = =
0.5 = -2.00
11 - 10 0.5 = 2.00
We can now calculate the areas below the lower spec and above the upper spec using the normal probability function.
GB112-25
Minitab for Estimating Proportion outside Lower Spec

Go to Calc > Probability Distributions > Normal
Mean and Sigma Lower Spec Limit
GB112-26
Page 13 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
Minitab
Normal with mean = 10.0000 and standard deviation = 0.500000
x 9.0000
P( X <= x ) 0.0228
Since this is the Lower Spec Limit and Minitab gives us the area to the left of the specified value, this will be the proportion that is below the lower spec limit. It is not necessary to subtract this result from 1.0.
GB112-27
Minitab Output
Normal with mean = 10.0000 and standard deviation = 0.500000 x P( X <= x) 9.0000 0.0228
400
LSL
Frequency
300
LSL
USL
200
100
10
11
12
Population
GB112-28
Page 14 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
Minitab for Estimating Proportion outside Upper Spec
Mean and Sigma Upper Spec Limit
GB112-29
Minitab
Normal with mean = 10.0000 and standard deviation = 0.500000
x 11.0000
P( X <= x ) 0.9772
This is the Upper Spec Limit. Minitab provides us with the area under the curve to the left of this value. We need the area to the right (above the spec limit), so we must subtract from 1.0. 1.0 0.9772 = 0.0228 or 2.28% or 22,800 ppm
GB112-30
Page 15 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
Minitab
Normal with mean = 10.0000 and standard deviation = 0.500000 x P( X <= x) 11.0000 0.9772
400
USL
Frequency
300
LSL
USL
200
100
10
11
12
Population
1- .9772 = .0228
GB112-31
Minitab
LSL .0228
USL .0228
.0228 + .0228 = .0456 or 4.56% or 45,600 ppm
GB112-32
Page 16 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
Problem
Suppose we have a process with:
Mean = 37.5 Standard Deviation = 7.83 Specification: 30 +/- 15
Determine the total estimated percentage outside specification for this process How many standard deviations is the mean from the upper spec limit?
GB112-33
Process Capability
USL USL
LSL LSL
How much of the process output is out of spec?
In the short term? In the long term?

GB112-34
Page 17 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
Process Capability Ratios
LSL LSL
USL USL
Voice of The Process Voice of The Customer
GB112-35
Process Capability - The Strategy

Centering Put The Process On Target
Spread Reduce The Variation
Defects
Defects
LSL
USL
GB112-36
Page 18 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
Cp
USL - LSL 6s
Cpk
Min(
X- LSL USL- X , ) 3s 3s
Statisticians Developed 2 key Metrics Statisticians Developed 2 key Metrics For Measuring Capability For Measuring Capability
GB112-37
Cp
USL - LSL 6s
Cp
Total Tolerance Process Spread
GB112-38
Page 19 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
Measurement Error Effect on Capability Indices Cp

We know that CpObs
USL LSL 6sObs

USL 6 s
2 Act
where
sObs
2 2 sAct sMS
Therefore:
C pObs
LSL
2 s MS
What happens to Cp when the Measurement System Error increases?
GB112-39
%R&R Guidelines
Once %R&R has been calculated, you must determine which to target first:
Process variation, or Measurement systems variation
Ask the question: is your measurement system capable for the process improvement work for which youll be using it? You can assume that the measurement system is capable for use in process improvement activities when the following conditions exist for Observed Process Capability (CpObs) and %R&R:
If CpObs < 1.0 If 1.0 < CpObs < 1.5 If CpObs > 1.5 and and and %R&R < 50% %R&R < 40% %R&R < 30%
Note: See detailed graph to follow

GB112-40
Page 20 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
%R&R Effect on Capability

8.00 7.00 6.00 5.00 Cp Act 4.00 3.00 2.00 1.00 0.00 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 1.10 1.20 1.30 1.40 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70%
Cp Obs
Rev. A January 3/10/2004 C Printed 2004 2003 by Sigma Breakthrough Technologies, Inc.
GB112-41
Source: Larry B. Barrentine: Concepts for R&R Studies
%R&R vs. Capability

Which might need the most attention Measurement System or Process Improvement?
Process 1 2 3 4
Process 2:
%R&R 10% 40% 60% 70%
CpObs 0.5 1.0 1.5 5.5
Which do we work on? Process Either one Measurement system Measurement system*
May Benefit more by addressing Measurement system than Process improvements at this point. Would improving %R&R really be worth the effort ?
*Process 4:
GB112-42
Page 21 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
Cp vs. Sigma Level

LSL 27 MHz USL 33 MHz
xbar = 30 MHz s=1
Cp
USL - LSL 6s
S igma = 3C p
3.0 Sigma = __________
GB112-43
Cp = __________ 1.0
Cp vs. Sigma Level

xbar = 30 MHz s=1
Cp
USL - LSL 6s
S igma = 3C p
1.0 Sigma = __________
GB112-44
0.33 Cp = __________
Page 22 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
Cp vs. Sigma Level

xbar = 30 MHz s = .333
Cp
USL - LSL 6s
S igma = 3C p
6.0 Sigma = __________
GB112-45
2.0 Cp = __________
Cp vs. Sigma Level

xbar = 33 MHz s = .333
Cp
USL - LSL 6s
S igma = 3C p
6.0 Sigma = __________
GB112-46
2.0 Cp = __________
Page 23 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
Cpk
Min(
X- LSL USL- X , ) 3s 3s
CpL
X- LSL 3s
CpU
USL- X 3s
A Metric --To Take Into Account Process Shift A Metric To Take Into Account Process Shift
GB112-47
Measurement Error Effect on Capability Indices Cpk

To include the effects of process centering, we know
USL X Obs 3sObs X Obs LSL 3sObs
Be careful of the Be careful of the direction of the bias (the direction of the bias (the sign of the XMS)) sign of the XMS
CpkObs MIN
or
Where
sObs
2 2 sAct sMS
and
X Obs
X Act
X MS
Therefore,
C pkObs
Min
USL
X Act
2 Act
X MS s
2 MS
3 s
or
X Act 3 s
X MS
2 Act
LSL s
2 MS
What happens to Cpk when the Measurement System Error increases?

GB112-48
Page 24 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
CpL, Cpk, CpU

xbar = 33 MHz s = .333
5.0 CpL = ___________

-1.0 CpU = ___________

GB112-49
-1.0 Cpk = ____________
Questions
Can Cp and Cpk be equal in value ?
Can CpL and CpU be equal to each other ?
Can Cpk take on a negative value ?
Whats a controversial, but easy way of increasing Cp ?
GB112-50
Page 25 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
Short-Term Capability
The challenge in business is obtaining accurate estimates of true Process Capability Lets take a look at an example - Minutes of Production Downtime Spec Man went out and gathered Spec Man went out and gathered production downtime data for the last 30 days production downtime data for the last 30 days The customers (Plt. manager) specification limits :: The customers (Plt. manager) specification limits No more than 40 minutes //day No more than 40 minutes day Is this process Capable? Is it Stable? YOU MAKE THE CALL !
GB112-51
Short Term Capability

39 3.0SL=37.36
Individual Value
34 X=30.60 29
Is The Process Is The Process In Control ?? In Control Is ItItMeeting the Is Meeting the Requirements? Requirements?
24 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
-3.0SL=23.84
Observation Number
A Short-term Capability study covers a relatively A Short-term Capability study covers a relatively short period of time (Days, Weeks) generally short period of time (Days, Weeks) generally consisting of 30 to 50 data points. The actual consisting of 30 to 50 data points. The actual number depends on the subject under study. number depends on the subject under study.
GB112-52
Page 26 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
Long-Term Capability
Spec Man is excited, he declares Spec Man is excited, he declares The process is meeting the downtime requirements! The process is meeting the downtime requirements! However, the ever-wise Belt isnt ready to declare However, the ever-wise Belt isnt ready to declare victory. She suggests Long-Term Validation of the data. victory. She suggests Long-Term Validation of the data. Dejected, Spec Man goes off to perform the long-term Dejected, Spec Man goes off to perform the long-term study. study. Is this process Capable? Is it Stable? YOU MAKE THE CALL !
GB112-53
Long Term Capability

50 3.0SL=47.12
Individual Value
40 X=33.80 30
Is The Process Is The Process In Control ?? In Control Is ItItMeeting the Is Meeting the Requirements? Requirements?
20 0 50 100
-3.0SL=20.49
Observation Number
A Long-term capability study covers a relatively long A Long-term capability study covers a relatively long period of time (Weeks, Months) generally consisting of period of time (Weeks, Months) generally consisting of 100-200 data points. Again, the actual amount depends 100-200 data points. Again, the actual amount depends on the subject under study. on the subject under study.
GB112-54
Page 27 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
What Does This Tell Us About The Way We Look At Data ?
GB112-55
The Dynamic Process

LSL LSL USL USL Short-Term Capability Short-Term Capability Short-Term Capability Long-Term Capability
Over time, a process tends to shift by approximately 1.5 Over time, a process tends to shift by approximately 1.5
GB112-56
Page 28 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
Back to the Process Improvement Plan

The 6 Sigma Methodology calls for performing a Shortterm Capability study during the Measurement Phase to establish the process baseline Minitab has many tools that will help you in this area Capability Sixpack, Capability Analysis, Capability Analysis (attribute data)
GB112-57
Capability Tools
Capability Analysis Capability 6 Pack
Subgrouped data
Individual Samples
GB112-58
Page 29 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
Pooled Standard Deviation

This is the default option for Minitab when subgroups are specified This is a weighted average of the subgroup standard deviations Caution: This option is used for best case short-term capability when rational subgroups are used
The results using this option can lead to misleading information about capability
This option is a good method for measuring instantaneous capability and may be used to establish process entitlement (Cp & Cpk)
GB112-59
Average Moving Range

This option for estimating the Standard Deviation should be used when you have independent data points This is typical of a process where:
Each item is measured only once, and Items produced near each other are not reflective of each other
Example:
Each refrigerator is measured for cool down rate Two refrigerators manufactured next to each other can not predict the others cool down rate
GB112-60
Page 30 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
Capability vs. Performance

CO2 Levels for 55 Time Points
14
13 CO2-Shrt
12
11
10 Index 10 20 30 40 50
Capability: Only Capability: Only random or short random or short term variability term variability (Cp & Cpk) (Cp & Cpk)
Process Performance: Total Process Performance: Total Variation including shifts and Variation including shifts and drifts (Pp & Ppk) drifts (Pp & Ppk)
GB112-61
Performance vs. Capability

CO2 Levels for 55 Time Points
14
13 CO2-Shrt
12
11
10 Index 10 20 30 40 50
These data show that the process, if well controlled can perform much better than it currently is.
GB112-62
Page 31 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
Process Indices
We will discuss indexes about process performance and process capability Process capability is the Potential of the process (Cp and Cpk) Process performance is the processes Real performance (Pp and Ppk)
GB112-63
Capability Sixpack
Is it in control ?
Is it Normal ?
Is it in control ?
Is It Normal ? How does the process variation compare to the spec limits ? What are the results for Cpk and Ppk ?
GB112-64
What do the last 25 groups look like ?
Page 32 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
Capability Sixpack
Whats happening here ? ___________________

GB112-65
WARNING!!!
Statistical Assumptions Made In Capability Studies
1. Data Comes From A Stable Process If Not, work towards getting the process in control Dont despair, you can still make some assumptions about your process in the mean time 2. Has A Normal Distribution If Not, transform it (ask the instructor) If Items #1 and #2 arent met, results will be misleading
GB112-66
Page 33 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
Capability / Performance Indices

Minitab can give both Short-term and Long-term process capability data for the same data set Use the file DM CAPABILITY.MPJ, worksheet CAPABILITY.MPJ CARBAT2.MTW Fill in the dialog boxes as follows
GB112-67
Minitab Capability Study

3. 1.
2.
4.
GB112-68
Page 34 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
Capability Results for CO2-Long

Process Capability of CO2-Long
LSL
P rocess Data LS L 8.00000 Target * USL 16.00000 S ample M ean 12.64258 S ample N 155 S tD ev (Within) 0.51407 S tD ev (O v erall) 0.84298
USL W ithin Ov erall

P otential (Within) C apability Cp 3.02 C PL 3.51 C PU 2.54 C pk 2.54 C C pk 3.02 O v erall C apability Pp PPL PPU P pk C pm 1.84 2.14 1.55 1.55 *
8.4
O bserv ed P erformance P P M < LS L 0.00 P P M > U S L 0.00 P P M Total 0.00
9.6
10.8
12.0
13.2
14.4
15.6
E xp. Within P erformance P P M < LS L 0.00 P P M > U S L 0.00 P P M Total 0.00
E xp. O v erall P erformance P P M < LS L 0.02 P P M > U S L 34.05 P P M Total 34.07
GB112-69
Computing the Standard Deviation

n
xi MR
Cp and Cpk
* within
i 2
xi
( n 1)
MR 1.128
n 2
Pp and Ppk
xi
* For subgroup size = 1
overall
i 1
n 1
GB112-70
Page 35 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
Capability Study Results

Notice that both Cp / Cpk and Pp / Ppk values are given The data shows that the Capability of the process (Cpk) is 2.18 and the Entitlement (Cp) is 2.59
This shows that if the process were under good control it could be a world class performer >6 !!
The data also shows the Performance of the process (Ppk) is reasonably capable with a value of 1.33 But, does this tell the entire story? Perform the analysis on the same data using the Capability Sixpack (Normal) option in Minitab. Do you see any problems that may need resolution?
GB112-71
Process Performance and Capability

The Ppk can closely approach the Cp when
The Customer specifications truly reflect customer requirements The process in under statistical control The data approximate the normal distribution
The Cp is like a benchmark or entitlement

The sigma for capability is driven primarily by random error
We would like Ppk to be very close to Cp
GB112-72
Page 36 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
The Idea of Rational Subgroups

There is another way of establishing the sigma for capability and that is through rational subgroups Goal:
To establish a sampling window small enough to exclude systematic non-random influences (special causes)
Intended Result:
Data exhibiting only common cause variation within groups of n items and special cause (if it exists) variation between groups
GB112-73
Rational Subgroups - Implications

If done correctly, averaged (Pooled) sigmas from the subgroups estimate best case process capability of the current process
If there is a big difference between the If there is a big difference between the pooled standard deviation and the total pooled standard deviation and the total standard deviation, then either the process standard deviation, then either the process mean, or the process sigma is changing mean, or the process sigma is changing over time over time
GB112-74
Page 37 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
An Example of Rational Subgroups

Open the worksheet RATIONAL SUBGROUPS.MTW Plot the data using the Time Series plot Click on Graph > Time Series Plot and fill in the information as shown below.
GB112-75
An Example of Rational Subgroups
How does the Within Groups Sigma relate to the Total Sigma? How does the Within Groups Sigma relate to the Total Sigma? Hint: You can run the Descriptive Stat procedure twice once for the total Hint: You can run the Descriptive Stat procedure twice once for the total data set and then use the BY function with Shift as the BY variable. data set and then use the BY function with Shift as the BY variable.
GB112-76
Page 38 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
GB112-77
Results of Descriptive Statistics
What implication does this have in studying process capability? What implication does this have in studying process capability? What Sigma represents the real process capability? What What Sigma represents the real process capability? What Sigma represents the potential process capability? Sigma represents the potential process capability?
GB112-78
Page 39 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
Components of Variation and Rational Subgroups

Dem onstation of Rational Subgroups Shift is the Grouping Variable
3.5
Output
2.5
1 .5
Hour
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2021 230 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 123 4 56 7 89 22
Total Variability
g n
Mean Shift Variability

g g n
Pooled Within Grps Variability
( X ij X ) 2
j= 1 i =1
n
j= 1
(X j - X) 2
j 1 i =1
(X ij
X j)2
Total Sum-of Squares = Between Grp SS + Within Grp SS

GB112-79
Components of Variation and Rational Subgroups

Dem onstation of Rational Subgroups Shift is the Grouping Variable
3.5
Output
2.5
1 .5
Hour
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2021 230 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 123 4 56 7 89 22
Total Sum-of Squares = Between Grp SS + Within Grp SS

g n g g n
( X ij X ) 2
j= 1 i =1
n
j= 1
(X j - X) 2
j 1 i =1
(X ij
X j)2
Capability Capability
Special Cause Special Cause

GB112-80
Random Random
Page 40 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
Visualizing the Components

g
LSL LSL
(X Xj )2 ij
j 1 i=1
USL USL
n
j=1
(X j - X) 2
(Xij X)2
j=1 i=1
Over time, a process tends to shift by approximately 1.5 Over time, a process tends to shift by approximately 1.5
GB112-81
Exercises in Diagnostics
Now lets look at 4 long-term capability studies to practice what weve learned Use worksheets Diag 1.MTW, Diag 2.MTW, Diag 3.MTW, 2.MTW 3.MTW 1.MTW Diag 4.MTW in DM CAPABILITY.MPJ Process Target: Process USL: Process LSL: 70 100 40
Use the data sets and complete the exercise sheets on the following pages for each Each data set represents a long term capability study using 150 data points
Use the diagnostics from the Capability Analysis (Normal) and the Use the diagnostics from the Capability Analysis (Normal) and the Capability Six Pack (Normal) to set a course of action Capability Six Pack (Normal) to set a course of action
GB112-82
Page 41 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
Diag 1 Worksheet Cp Sigma: Capability Pp Sigma: Performance Ppk Cpk
Normal ? In Statistical Control ?

GB112-83

GB112-84
Page 42 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES

GB112-85

GB112-86
Page 43 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
Capability Summary Sheet

Many times you will be interested in the capability of more than one Key Output or Key Input Variable. Use the Capability Summary Sheet to track the status on the variables of interest. This is found in the Excel spreadsheet: Capability Summary Sheet.xls. Sheet.xls Key Process Output Variable
Capability Status Sheet
Example
Customer Requirement (Output Variable)
Measurement Technique
%R&R or P/T Ratio
Upper Spec Limit
Target
Lower Spec Limit
Cp
Cpk
Sample Size
Date
Actions
Customer Requirement (Output Variable) Fire Retardency Selvage Edge Consistency Membrane Stability
Measurement Technique UL 700 On-line Physical Measurement Oven Test
% R&R or P/T Ratio 25% 15% None
Upper Spec Limit 3 4.5 0.75
Target 1.5 4 0.5
Lower Spec Limit na 3.5 na
Cp
Cpk
Sample Size
Date
Status
1.15 1.1
0.85 0.65
50 25
No Data Available Improvement Sep-95 Plan in Place Measurement Aug-95 Study Scheduled
This example shows lack of capability data for the first KPOV, lack This example shows lack of capability data for the first KPOV, lack of good capability for the second KPOV and lack of measurement of good capability for the second KPOV and lack of measurement systems evaluation for the third KPOV. systems evaluation for the third KPOV.
GB112-87
Types of Capability Indexes

Instantaneous Capability: Process Capability over an extremely short period of time This should represent the very best performance a process is capable of over a short time This should be a close estimate of process entitlement Can be estimated using the best run of a short-term or long-term study Short-Term Capability: Capability study based on 30-50 data points Usually equal to or greater than long-term capability Long-Term Capability: Capability study based on a large number of data points Best estimate of true process capability Diagnostics can be made from this data
GB112-88
Page 44 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
Goal Setting
This is a generic sequence of process improvement:
Near Term Goal: Move the Ppk to Pp (Center the process) Mid-Term Goal: Move the Pp to Cpk (Reduce Variation) Long-Term Goal: Move Cpk to Cp (Random Variation)
Six Sigma Process

Cp = 2.00 Ppk = 1.5
GB112-89
Questions to Ask About Output Variables

Is the measurement system adequate? For a Key Process Output Variable is:
Nominal Best, Larger Better Smaller Better?
Is the concern for

Process Centering Process Variation or both?
GB112-90
Page 45 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
Questions to Ask About Output Variables

What is the baseline for the process variable?
Mean Sigma
Is the Output currently in statistical control? Is the Output affected by time? Are there multiple responses youre concerned with?
Whats the priority?
GB112-91
The DMAIC Process


GB112-92
Page 46 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
Capability Roadmap - 30,000 Ft. View

What Type of Data What Type of Data Do You Have ? Do You Have ? Attribute Data Attribute Data Collect Data Collect Data On Process On Process Analyze Data Analyze Data In Excel In Excel State Capability State Capability
DPU, PPM DPU, PPM
Variables Data Variables Data Collect Data Collect Data On Process On Process Analyze Data Analyze Data In Minitab In Minitab State Capability State Capability
DPU, PPM DPU, PPM Cp, Cpk, Pp, Ppk Cp, Cpk, Pp, Ppk
GB112-93
Summary
You should be able to set short, intermediate and longterm goals based on capability data These tools will be used extensively in the Measurement, Improvement, and Control Phases of process improvement !!
GB112-94
Page 47 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
Capability Studies with Attribute Data
GB112-95
Attribute Capability Studies

Use the Attribute Sigma Calculator (Excel spreadsheet Attribute Sigma Calculator.xls) Calculator.xls Use the Minitab functions
Capability Analysis (Binomial) Capability Analysis (Poisson)
GB112-96
Page 48 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
Calculating the Product Sigma-Level

Calculate Defects per Unit (DPU):
DPU =
Total # of Defects Total # of Units Produced
Calculate Defects per Million Opportunities (DPMO):

DPMO = Defects Per Unit x 1,000,000 Oppty / Unit
Go to a Sigma Chart and Estimate the Sigma Level or Use the Attribute Sigma Calculator
GB112-97
Capability Tool - Attribute Data
Attribute Sigma Calculator.XLS

GB112-98
Page 49 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
Attribute Exercises:
Manufacturing
Whats The DPU, DPMO, & Sigma ? Whats The DPU, DPMO, & Sigma ?
#1 Defective Bolts The plant has just completed a run of 40,000 bolts. 100 of the bolts were found to be defective. DPU = 0.0025 DPMO = 2500 Sigma = 2.81 #2 Defective Lots During March, 12,412 Type A motors were assembled into dryers. Each motor has 3 opportunities to be produced correctly (1 opportunity each for Power, Vibration, and Overall Weight). During the month, 200 defective occurences were observed. DPU = 0.0161 DPMO = 5371 Sigma = 2.55 #3 Defective Batches The plant has just completed a run of 400 refrigerators (134 parts per refrigerator). During the build, 12,312 defective (misassembled or damaged) parts were observed. DPU = 30.78 DPMO = 229,701 Sigma = 0.74
GB112-99
Attribute Exercises:
Manufacturing
Whats The DPU, DPMO, & Sigma ? Whats The DPU, DPMO, & Sigma ?
#1 Defective Coils The plant has just completed a build of 1291 coils. 104 of the coils were found to be defective. #2 Defective Sheets of Steel During March, 15,514 Type A sheets were manufactured. Each sheet has 5 opportunities to be manufactured in a defective manner (1 opportunity at each station). During the build, 203 defects were observed.
GB112-100
Page 50 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
Attribute Exercises: Non-Manufacturing Whats The DPU, DPMO, & Sigma ? Whats The DPU, DPMO, & Sigma ?
#1 Defective Purchase Orders During March, 764 purchase orders were placed. 321 of them had defects. #2 Late Shipments For 1997, 42,100 shipments of spare parts were made. 4,100 arrived late. #3 Defective Purchase Orders During March, 764 purchase orders were placed. On the forms, there are 8 locations in which to place information. 1234 locations had defective information.
GB112-101
Minitab
Minitab will provide the same calculations as the Attribute Sigma Calculator and it will provide additional information, as well. Minitab will provide A control chart of the inspection data, which will allow you to determine if your process is in control. A plot of the defect distribution or a binomial plot, which will allow you to test assumptions about the distribution of the defectives. A plot of the cumulative percent defective, which will tell you if you have taken enough samples and if your process has stabilized.
GB112-102
Page 51 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
Minitab
GB112-103
Minitab
Open the Minitab project file Attribute Capability.mpj The active worksheet should be Binomial1.MTW. If Binomial1.MTW this is not the active worksheet click on Window > Binomial1. Binomial1 Perform an attribute capability study on the data in the worksheet using the Capability Analysis (Binomial) function of Minitab.
GB112-104
Page 52 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
Minitab
GB112-105
Minitab
Is the process Is the process stable and stable and in control? in control?
Was the sampling Was the sampling from aabinomial from binomial distribution? distribution?
What is the What is the distribution of distribution of the defectives the defectives in the samples? in the samples?
Have you collected Have you collected enough samples to enough samples to allow the %Defective allow the %Defective to stabilize? to stabilize?
What are the What are the capability estimates? capability estimates?
GB112-106
Page 53 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
Minitab
Change the active worksheet to Binomial2.MTW Change the active worksheet to Binomial2.MTW and perform the same analysis on this data. and perform the same analysis on this data.
GB112-107
Minitab
GB112-108
Page 54 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
Minitab
The Poisson distribution is associated with the number of defects observed in an item where the item occupies a specified amount of time or space. It is not necessary for the size of the item inspected to be constant. The size of the item may vary. Examples
The number of breaks in a piece of wire. The pieces of wire inspected may be of different lengths. The number of scratches on the surface an appliance.
Change the active worksheet to Poisson.MTW and perform Change the active worksheet to Poisson.MTW and perform a capability analysis on the data. a capability analysis on the data.
GB112-109
Minitab
Change the active worksheet to Poisson.MTW and perform Change the active worksheet to Poisson.MTW and perform a capability analysis on the data. a capability analysis on the data.
GB112-110
Page 55 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
Minitab
GB112-111
Questions
Does the performance meet capability?
If performance meets capability there is no reason for looking for process control techniques If performance is not meeting capability, then there may be opportunities for SPC and APC
Does capability meet the customers needs?

If capability meets customer requirements, then there is no need to work on the process If capability is not meeting customer requirements, then a process change is required.
GB112-112
Page 56 402-108, Rev. C
CAPABILITY STUDIES
Performance and Capability Matrix

Does Capability meet Customer Does Capability meet Customer Needs? Needs? Does Performance meet Capability? Does Performance meet Capability?
No (Ppk < Cp) Change Process
(reduce variability)
Yes (Ppk = Cp) Change Process

(reduce variability)
No (Cp < Goal)
Improve Control Little Opportunity for Improvement
Yes (Cp >> Goal)
Improve Control
GB112-113
Page 57 402-108, Rev. C
CAUSE AND EFFECTS MATRIX

Cause and Effects Matrix
GB113-1
Objectives
To link the Cause and Effects (C&E) Matrix to the Process Map To review the steps to create the C&E Matrix To link the C&E Matrix to further steps in the DMAIC Process Improvement To create a C&E Matrix
GB113-2
Page 1 402-108, Rev. C
The DMAIC Process


GB113-3
Cause and Effects Matrix

This is a simplified QFD (Quality Function Deployment) matrix to emphasize the importance of understanding the customer requirements Relates the Key Inputs to the Key Outputs (Customer Requirements) using the process map as the primary information source Key Outputs are scored as to importance to the customer Key Inputs are scored as to relationship to key outputs
GB113-4
Page 2 402-108, Rev. C
Step 1: List Key Outputs

S I P
Customer places order Inventory Shipment Information Vendor Pickers Customer Packers Shipper Fill Order Inventory Reduction Pack Order Process Order Sales $ Customer placing order
VOC VOB
Shipping supplies
Ship Order
Translate Into Requirements

GB113-5
Cause and Effects Matrix Outputs

Pareto of Key Inputs to evaluate in the FMEA and control plans Input into the Capability Study in the Measurement Phase Input into the initial evaluation of the Process Control Plan
GB113-6
Page 3 402-108, Rev. C
Cause & Effect Matrix Steps

Identify key customer requirements (Outputs) from process map Rank order and assign priority factor to each Output (usually on a 1 to 10 scale) Identify all process steps and materials (Inputs) from the Process Map Evaluate correlation of each input to each output
low score: changes in the input variable (amount, quality, etc.) have small effect on output variable high score: changes in the input variable can greatly affect the output variable
Cross multiply correlation values with priority factors and sum for each Input
GB113-7
Examples
Manufacturing
Inputs Outputs
Stamping
SOP Dies Steel Material Equipment Die Maintenance Shift Operator NonNonFlatness Undamaged Parts Dimensionality Tensile Strength Burr free Cycle Time
Manufacturing
Outputs
Inputs
Order Entry
Phone FAX Email Price Availability Confirmation of Order Promise Date Order number
GB113-8
Page 4 402-108, Rev. C
Process Mapping Examples

Manufacturing
Punch speed Punch wear Material properties Clamping force Ram force Solvent type Solvent purity Solvent age Surface roughness Contaminant level Humidity Temperature GB113-9
Cause & Effect Matrix Form

1. List Key Outputs
Rating of Importance to Customer 1 Requirement 2 Requirement 3 Requirement 4 Requirement 5 Requirement 6 Requirement 7 Requirement 8 Requirement 9 Requirement 10 Requirement 11 Requirement 12 Requirement 13 Requirement 14 Requirement 15 Requirement
Total
Process Step Process Input 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Cause and Effect Matrix.XLS Cause and Effect Matrix.XLS

GB113-10
Page 5 402-108, Rev. C
Example
Rating of Importance to 1. List Key 1. List Key Customer Outputs Outputs 1 2 Undamaged Parts 3 Dimensionality 4 5 6
Cycle Time
13 Requirement 14 Requirement
Burr Free
Tensile Strength
Flatness
Total
Process Step
Process Input
The Outputs are defined in Step 1 of Process Mapping The Outputs are defined in Step 1 of Process Mapping
GB113-11

Rating of Importance to Customer 1 Requirement 2 Requirement 3 Requirement 4 Requirement 5 Requirement 6 Requirement 7 Requirement 8 Requirement 9 Requirement 10 Requirement 11 Requirement 12 Requirement 15 Requirement
Process Step Process Input 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
2. Rank 2. Rank Outputs as to Outputs as to Customer Customer Total importance importance

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
GB113-12
Page 6 402-108, Rev. C
Example
2. Rank Customer 2. Rank Outputs as to Outputs as to Customer Customer importance importance
Rating of Importance to 7 1 9 2 Undamaged Parts 9 3 Dimensionality 4 4 6 5 8 6
Cycle Time
Burr Free
Tensile Strength
Flatness
Total
Process Step
Process Input
This step should include Marketing, Product Development and This step should include Marketing, Product Development and Manufacturing. If possible, include customer representatives. Manufacturing. If possible, include customer representatives.
GB113-13

Rating of
Requirement
Requirement
Requirement
Requirement
Requirement
Requirement
Requirement
Requirement
Requirement
Requirement
Requirement
Requirement
Requirement
3. List Key Importance to 3. List Key Customer Inputs by Inputs by Process Step Process Step
10
11
12
15
Total
GB113-14
Page 7 402-108, Rev. C
Example
Rating of Importance to Customer 7 1 9 2 9 3 4 4 6 5 8 6
Undam aged Parts Dim ensionality
3. List Key 3. List Key Inputs by Inputs by Process Step Process Step
Process Step
Feed Feed Feed Feed Cutting Cutting Cutting Cutting
Cycle Tim e
Tensile Strength Burr Free
Flatness
Total
Process Input
Gear Speed Gear Wear Material lot Material properties Shear speed Shear wear Material properties Clamping force
This step uses the Process Map inputs directly. Notice the Process This step uses the Process Map inputs directly. Notice the Process Inputs follow the Process map step-by-step. Inputs follow the Process map step-by-step.
GB113-15

4. Relate 4. Relate Inputs to Rating of Inputs to Importance to Outputs Customer Outputs
1 Requirement 2 Requirement 3 Requirement 4 Requirement 5 Requirement 6 Requirement 7 Requirement 8 Requirement 9 Requirement 10 Requirement 11 Requirement 12 Requirement 15 Requirement
Total
GB113-16
Page 8 402-108, Rev. C
Relating Inputs to Customer Requirements

You are ready to relate the customer requirements to the process input variables Correlational scores: No more than 3 levels 1, 3 and 5 1, 3 and 9 Assignment of the scoring takes the most time To avoid this, spell out the criteria for each score: 0 = No Correlation 1 = The process input only remotely affects the customer requirement 3 = The Process input has a moderate effect on the customer requirement 9 = The Process input has a direct and strong effect on the customer requirement
GB113-17
Example
Rating of Importance to Customer 7 1 9 2 Undamaged Parts 9 3 Dimensionality 4 4 6 5 8 6
Cycle Time 9 9 0 0 9 3 9 1 3 0
Burr Free
Tensile Strength
Flatness
4. Relate 4. Relate Inputs to Inputs to Outputs Outputs
Total
Process Step
Feed Feed Feed Feed Cutting Cutting Cutting Cutting Cutting Stamping
Process Input
Gear Speed Gear Wear Material lot Material properties Shear speed Shear wear Material properties Clamping force Shear force Die wear 3 0 9 9 9 3 9 9 9 9 9 3 1 1 9 9 1 3 1 3 9 9 9 9 9 3 1 9 9 9 9 1 9 9 1 0 9 0 0 0 1 9 0 0 9 9 9 9 9 9
This is a subjective estimate of how influential the Input Variables This is a subjective estimate of how influential the Input Variables are on the Output Variables are on the Output Variables
GB113-18
Page 9 402-108, Rev. C

Rating of Importance to Customer 1 Requirement 2 Requirement 3 Requirement 4 Requirement 5 Requirement 6 Requirement 7 Requirement 8 Requirement 9 Requirement 10 Requirement 11 Requirement 12 Requirement 13 Requirement 14 Requirement 15 Requirement
5. Cross5. Crossmultiply and multiply and prioritize Total prioritize

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Process Step Process Input 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Sum of Rating x Correlational Score values for all Sum of Rating x Correlational Score values for all Requirements Requirements
GB113-19
Example
Rating of Importance to Customer 7 1 9 2 Undamaged Parts 9 3 Dimensionality 4 4 6 5 8 6
5. Cross5. Crossmultiply and multiply and prioritize Total prioritize

9 9 0 0 9 3 9 1 3 0 297 238 189 189 355 207 243 233 231 225
Process Step
Feed Feed Feed Feed Cutting Cutting Cutting Cutting Cutting Stamping
Process Input
Gear Speed Gear Wear Material lot Material properties Shear speed Shear wear Material properties Clamping force Shear force Die wear 3 0 9 9 9 3 9 9 9 9 9 3 1 1 9 9 1 3 1 3 9 9 9 9 9 3 1 9 9 9 9 1 9 9 1 0 9 0 0 0 1 9 0 0 9 9 9 9 9 9
We now start getting a feel for which variables are most We now start getting a feel for which variables are most important to explaining variation in the outputs important to explaining variation in the outputs
GB113-20
Cycle Time
Burr Free
Tensile Strength
Flatness
Page 10 402-108, Rev. C
Example
Process Step
Cutting Punching Drawing Stamping Feed Punching Cutting
Process Input
Shear speed Punch speed Drawing speed Ram speed Gear Speed Punch wear Material properties 9 9 9 9 3 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 3 1 9 9 9 9 9 9 1 1 0 9 3 9 0 9 9 9 0 1 1 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 3 9 355 351 333 315 297 249 243
We have sorted on the cross-multiplied numbers and find We have sorted on the cross-multiplied numbers and find that the Input variables in the box above are the most that the Input variables in the box above are the most important important We can now evaluate the control plans for these Input We can now evaluate the control plans for these Input Variables Variables
GB113-21
Non-Manufacturing Example
Rating of Importance to Customer 9 1 7 2 10 3 Promise Date 3 4 Order confirmation 3 5 Order Number 3 9 0 9 3 0 0 0 0 1 0 9 9 0 1 0 0 0
Availibility
Process Step 11 8 3 10 6 Order Entry Internal Info Answer Phone Order Entry Internal Info
Process Inputs Computer entry screens Order worksheet form Answering procedure Order worksheet Order info Production contact info Info from customer Plant loading info Cross ref for P/N Lead time information from mfg Production schedule Confirmation procedure Printed confirmation sheet Shipment method Customer contact info Pricing algorithm Greeting script Telephone system
Pricing
Total 270 264 261 261 246 198 195 192 183 181 174 144 132 120 120 63 35 3
9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 3 9 9 0 3 1 0 0 1 0
9 9 9 9 9 0 3 3 9 1 0 0 3 3 0 9 1 0
9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 3 9 9 0 1 0
9 1 9 0 1 9 1 0 1 0 1 9 9 0 9 0 3 1
17 Order Confirmation Answer Phone 1 Internal Info 7 Internal Info 5 12 Order Entry 15 Order Confirmation 18 14 Order Confirmation
Order Confirmation Order Entry 13 16 9 2 4 Order Confirmation Internal Info Answer Phone Answer Phone
GB113-22
Page 11 402-108, Rev. C
Focused Approach
Phase I Place the Outputs across the top of the matrix and rank Place the process steps down the side of the matrix Correlate process step to Outputs Pareto the process steps Phase II Start a new C&E Matrix with the Inputs from the top three or four process steps Recommended when first starting a project
Focuses the efforts and gives the team a feeling that theyre working on the important process steps first Gives you a running start at the FMEA and preliminary Control Plan Analysis
GB113-23
Focused Approach, cont.

Place the Outputs across the top of the matrix and rank
Place Inputs down the side of the matrix starting with the first process step and moving to the last This approach is okay for small process with relatively few steps
Should only be used for processes with a relatively small number of steps and Inputs
GB113-24
Page 12 402-108, Rev. C
Linking the C&E Matrix to Other Tools

C&E Matrix
Rating of Importance to Customer 9 1 9 2 7 3 Cleanliness 10 4 10 5 Homogeneity 9 6 Consistency 3 7 Digets Time 2 8 Temperature 6 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Gel Time Viscosity
Process Inputs
Solids
Color
Total
ut
ts pu
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Scales Accuracy Preheating DICY TK DMF Load Accuracy DMF Cleanliness DMF Raw Materials DICY Load Accuracy DICY Envir. Factors DICY Raw Materials DICY Mixer Speecd
9 1 3 1 1 9 8 8 1
8 1 8 1 1 7 5 5 1
2 1 1 4 1 1 3 1 1
1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7
9 1 8 2 2 9 8 9 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1
8 1 8 1 1 2 2 2 1
321 65 255 105 74 269 247 242 125
In p
ut s
Control Plan Summary

Control Plan
Product: Key Contact: Phone: Core Team: Date (Orig): Date (Rev): Process Process Step Input Output Process Specification (LSL, USL, Target) Cpk /Date Measurement Technique %R&R P/T Sample Size Sample Frequency Control Reaction Plan Method
Capability Summary
Key Process Output Variable Capability Status Sheet
Customer Requirement (Output Variable) Gel Time Viscosity Cleanliness Color Homogeneity Consistency Digets Time Temperature Solids Measurement Technique %R&R or P/T Ratio Upper Spec Limit Target Lower Spec Limit Cp Cpk Sample Size Date Actions
FMEA
Process/Product Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA)
Process or Product Name: Responsible: Prepared by: FMEA Date (Orig) ______________ (Rev) ___
DICY DMF DMF DICY DICY DICY DICY DMF
Turn Steam on Scales Accuracy Load DMF Load DMF Load DICY Load DICY Load DICY Load DICY Load DMF DMF Load Accuracy DMF Cleanliness DICY Envir. Factors DICY Load Accuracy DICY Raw Materials DICY Mixer Speecd DMF Raw Materials
The Key Outputs are listed and evaluated
Process Step/Part Number Spin Draw Process
Potential Failure Mode Fiber Breakouts
Potential Failure Effects Undersized package, High SD panel-hours lost
S E V 2
Potential Causes Dirty Spinneret Filament motion
O C C 8
Current Controls Visual Detection of Wraps and broken Filaments Visual Sight-glass
D E T 9
R P N 144
DICY
Turn Steam on Preheating DICY TK
5 Polymer defects 8
2 Fuzzball Light 2
8 9
80 144 0
Key Inputs are explored

The Key Inputs are evaluated
GB113-25
Next Steps
Control Plan Review Perform an initial assessment of the control plan for high ranked Inputs in the C&E matrix Pareto Perform the same assessment for high ranked Outputs (customer requirements) This helps identify low hanging fruit at the front end of a Process Improvement project Capability Review Review the Capability Summary for those Inputs ranked high in the C&E matrix Pareto If there are blanks (unknown capability), review measurement systems and collect baseline data FMEA High ranked Inputs will be evaluated using the FMEA
GB113-26
Page 13 402-108, Rev. C
Control Plan Evaluation

Standard Operating Procedures
Do they exist? Are they understood? Are they being followed? Are they current? Is operator certification performed? Is there a process audit schedule?
GB113-27
Control Plan Evaluation

Controllable Input Variables:
How are they monitored? How often are they verified? Are optimum target values and specifications known? How much variation is there around the target value? How consistent are they?
Other Questions:
How often is the Input Variable out of control? Which Input Variables should have control charts?
GB113-28
Page 14 402-108, Rev. C
Is it Controlled or Uncontrolled? Is it Controllable or Uncontrollable?

Current System Controlled Uncontrolled
Label C or U Using Current System
Controllable
OPPORTUNITY! Validate with Measurement System Analysis Put in control system Label as U*
Possible
Uncontrollable
Why? Could validate its truly uncontrollable with DOE/Response Surface Methods
No short term solution Long term possibly implement technology / advanced design
GB113-29
Summary
Linked the Cause and Effects (C&E) Matrix to the Process Map Reviewed the steps to create the C&E Matrix Linked the C&E Matrix to further steps in the DMAIC Process Improvement Performed an exercise to create a C&E Matrix
GB113-30
Page 15 402-108, Rev. C
Coffee Making C&E Matrix Exercise

Objective: Take 20 minutes to generate a C&E Matrix using your previous Coffee Making process map Assumptions: Customer requirements and associated Importance Ranking
Great taste, not bitter - 10 Hot, but not scalding 8 Condiments - 8
Procedure: Include all Input Variables

Controlled and Uncontrolled
Deliverables: Determine ranking of Input Variables Choose top 3 Input Variables for the next step
GB113-31
Page 16 402-108, Rev. C
FAILURE MODES AND EFFECTS ANALYSIS

Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA)
GB114-1
Objectives
Provide insight to the uses of FMEA Identification of risk sources Define the different types of FMEA To learn the steps in developing a Process FMEA Create an FMEA
GB114-2
Page 1 402-108, Rev. C
The DMAIC Process


GB114-3
Definition - FMEA
A structured approach to:
identifying the ways in which a product or process can fail estimating the risk associated with specific modes of failure prioritizing the actions that should be taken to reduce the risk evaluating the design validation plan (Product) or the current control plan (Process)
Primary Directive: Identify ways the product or process can fail and eliminate or reduce the risk of failure
GB114-4
Page 2 402-108, Rev. C
Where do Risks Come From?

Unclear Customer Expectations Potential Safety Hazards Poor control plans & SOPs Poor Process Capability
Cumulative Risk
Vague Workmanship Standards Machine Reliability Measurement Variation (Online and QC)
GB114-5
Raw Material Variation Poorly developed Specification Limits

D. H. Stamatis, FMEA:FMEA from Theory to Practice, Quality Press, 1995
The Opportunities to Reduce or Eliminate Failures Decrease with Time
Prevent cause Prevent cause from leading to mode Prevent mode from leading to effect Detect & remove defective parts TIME
Concept firm Production prints complete
Savings
Initial tooling built

GB114-6
Production
Page 3 402-108, Rev. C
History
First used in the 1960s in the Aerospace industry during the Apollo missions In 1974 the Navy developed MIL-STD-1629 regarding the use of FMEA In the late 1970s, automotive applications driven by liability costs Tyco Electronics Manual 402-29 describes the FMEA process in detail
GB114-7
Types of FMEA
System - used to analyze complete systems and sub-systems in the early concept and design stages Focuses on potential failure modes, caused by the design, associated with the functions of the system Design - used to analyze product designs before they are released to production Focuses on Product Function Assumes that the product is properly manufactured to the specifications Process - used to analyze manufacturing and assembly processes Focuses on Process Inputs (what can go wrong in the manufacturing process) Assumes that all components meet the design requirements
GB114-8
Page 4 402-108, Rev. C
Role of Process FMEA

Key tool of process team to improve the process in a preemptive manner (before failures occur) Used to prioritize resources to insure process improvement efforts are beneficial to customer Used to document completion of projects Should be a dynamic document, continually reviewed, amended, updated
GB114-9
Purposes of Process FMEA

Analyzes new processes Identifies deficiencies in the process control plan Establishes the priority of actions Evaluates the risk of process changes Identifies potential variables to consider in Multi-vari and DOE studies Guides the development of new processes Helps set the stage for breakthrough
GB114-10
Page 5 402-108, Rev. C
FMEA Inputs and Outputs

Inputs
Process map C&E matrix Process history Process technical procedures Team experience and knowledge of the process
Outputs
List of actions to prevent causes or to detect failure modes History of actions taken
GB114-11
FMEA Team
Team approach is necessary Responsible Belt leads the team Recommended representatives:
Design Practitioners / Operators / Supervisors Quality Reliability Maintenance Materials Testing Suppliers
GB114-12
Page 6 402-108, Rev. C
Definition of Terms
Failure Mode Effect Cause Current Controls Severity, Occurrence, Detection Risk Priority Number (RPN)
GB114-13
Failure Mode
Failure Mode - the way in which a specific process input fails. If the mode is not detected and either corrected or removed it will cause Effect to occur Can be associated with a defect (in discrete manufacturing) or a process input variable that goes outside of specification Anything that can be wrong with a process input or output is considered a Failure Mode Examples Temperature too high Incorrect PO number Surface contamination Dropped call (customer service) Stubbing with contact receptacle during mating Paint too thin
GB114-14
Page 7 402-108, Rev. C
Effect
Failure Effect - impact on customer requirements generally external customer focus, but can also include internal customers / downstream processes Examples Mode
Temperature too high Incorrect PO number Surface contamination Dropped call Stubbing with contact receptacle during mating Paint too thin
Effect
Paint cracks Accounts Receivable traceability errors Poor adhesion Customer dissatisfaction Difficult to mate. High mating force. Poor coverage
GB114-15
Cause
Cause Sources of variation that allow the Failure Mode to become active Identification of Causes should start with Failure Modes associated with the highest severity ratings Examples Mode
Temperature too high Incorrect PO number Surface contamination Dropped call Stubbing with contact receptacle during mating Paint too thin
Cause
Thermocouple out of calibration Typographical error Lubrication residue Insufficient number of Customer Service representatives Incorrect dimensions specified High solvent content
GB114-16
Page 8 402-108, Rev. C
Current Controls
Current Controls (Sometimes referred to as Methods of Verification) Systematized methods/devices in place to prevent or detect Failure Modes Three types of control methods
Type 1: Prevents the Cause or prevents the Cause from leading to the Failure Mode. Type 2: Detects the Failure Mode in time to lead to corrective action before the Effect takes place. Type 3: Detects the Effect of the Failure Mode after it has occurred.
Prevention consists of mistake proofing (Poka Yoke), automated control and set-up verifications Detection consists of audits, checklists, inspection, laboratory testing, training, SOPs, preventive maintenance, etc. Which is more important to process improvement -- prevention or detection?
GB114-17
FMEA Model
Cause Cause
Failure Mode Failure Mode Material or process input

(Defect) (Defect)
Effect Effect
Process Step External customer or downstream process step
Controls Controls
GB114-18
Page 9 402-108, Rev. C
The Dynamic Nature of the FMEA

Why Armies of Knights Lose Battles
Loss of Nail
Loss of Shoe
Loss of Horse
Loss of Rider
Loss of Battle
GB114-19
FMEA Model
Prevention
Cause Cause
Detection
Which is best case? Which is best case? Which is worst case? Which is worst case?
Detection
Material or process input
Failure Mode Failure Mode (Defect) (Defect)
Detection
Effect Effect
Controls Controls
GB114-20
Page 10 402-108, Rev. C
Linking Failure Modes to Effects

Failure Mode 11 Failure Mode Failure Mode 22 Failure Mode
or
Effect 1 Effect 1
Failure Mode 11 Failure Mode
Effect 11 Effect Effect 22 Effect
Failure Mode 11 Failure Mode Failure Mode 22 Failure Mode
and
Effect 11 Effect
Note that the relationship between the Failure Mode and the Effect is not always 1-to-1
GB114-21
Risk Priority Number (RPN)

The output of an FMEA is the Risk Priority Number The RPN is a calculated number based on information you provide regarding
the SEVERITY of the EFFECT, the probability of OCCURRENCE of the CAUSE the ability of the CURRENT CONTROLS to DETECT the failures modes
It is calculated as the product of three quantitative ratings, each one related to the effects, causes, and controls: RPN = Severity X Occurrence X Detection Effects Causes Controls Effects Causes Controls
GB114-22
Page 11 402-108, Rev. C
Risk Priority Number

Risk Priority Number is not sacred Scaling for Severity, Occurrence and Detection can be locally developed Other categories can be added
For example, one engineer added an Impact score to the RPN calculation to estimate the overall impact of the Failure Mode on the process
GB114-23
Definition of RPN Terms

Severity (of Effect)- importance of effect on customer requirements - could also be concerned with safety and other risks if failure occurs (1=Not Severe, 10=Very Severe) Occurrence (of Cause)- frequency with which a given Cause occurs and creates Failure Mode. Can sometimes refer to the frequency of a Failure Mode (1=Not Likely, 10=Very Likely) Detection (capability of Current Controls) - ability of current control scheme to detect or prevent:
the causes before creating failure mode the failure modes before causing effect 1=Likely to Detect, 10=Not Likely at all to Detect
GB114-24
Page 12 402-108, Rev. C
Example Rating Scale

Rating 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Severity of Effect Hazardous without warning Hazardous with warning Loss of primary function Reduced primary function performance Loss of secondary function Reduced secondary function performance Minor defect noticed by most customers Minor defect noticed by some customers Minor defect noticed by discriminating customers No effect Low: Relatively few failures Probability of Occurrence Very high: Failure is almost inevitable Ability to Detect Can not detect Very remote chance of detection Remote chance of detection Very low chance of detection Low chance of detection Moderate chance of detection Moderately high chance of detection High chance of detection Very high chance of detection Almost certain detection
High: Repeated failures
Moderate: Occasional failures
Remote: Failure is unlikely
GB114-25
FMEA Model
Because the Detection score is a little difficult to understand, we will do a quick exercise. Give a Detection score for each of the boxes below: Det = 1 Det = 3
Prevention
Cause Cause
Detection
Det = 7 Det = 10
Detection
Material or process input
Failure Mode Failure Mode (Defect) (Defect) Effect Effect
Detection
Controls Controls
GB114-26
Page 13 402-108, Rev. C
FMEA Scoring
There are a wide variety of scoring anchors, both quantitative or qualitative Two types of scales are 1-5 or 1-10 The 1-5 scale makes it easier for the teams to decide on scores The 1-10 scale allows for better precision in estimates and a wide variation in scores The 1-10 scale is generally considered The 1-10 scale is generally considered to be the best option to be the best option
GB114-27
FMEA Form - Initial Assessment
Process Step/Input What is the process step/ Input under investigation?
Potential Failure Mode
Potential Failure Effects
S E V How Severe is the effect to the customer?
Potential Causes
O C C How often does cause or FM occur?
Current Controls
D E T How well can you detect cause or FM?
R P N
Actions Recommended What are the actions for reducing the occurrence of the Cause, or improving detection? Should have actions only on high RPN's or easy fixes.
In what ways does the Input Variable go wrong?
What is the impact on the Output Variables (Customer Requirements) or internal requirements?
What causes the Input Variable to go wrong?
What are the existing controls and procedures (inspection and test) that prevent either the cause or the Failure Mode? Should include an SOP number.
GB114-28
Page 14 402-108, Rev. C
Philosophical Approach
Focus on Safety Issues Assume incoming material is perfect and process is not good Assume process is perfect and incoming material is not good
GB114-29
Methodology
Two major approaches:
Starting with QFD/Cause & Effect Matrix Starting with FMEA directly from the Process Map
We will explain the approach using the C&E matrix, though both approaches are very similar Spreadsheet tools have been prepared to assist you in the preparation of the FMEA
GB114-30
Page 15 402-108, Rev. C
FMEA Methodology Starting with C&E Matrix

Advantage: The Cause & Effect Matrix assists the team in defining the important issues that the FMEA should address by helping to prioritize Important customer requirements
Process inputs that could potentially impact these requirements Prioritizing the Key Process Inputs according to their impact on the Output variables (We want to focus on Inputs that highly impact a large number of Outputs first) The C&E Matrix also provides quantitative output that can be used in the determination of the specific severity ratings for the next stage of the FMEA process
GB114-31
FMEA - Step by Step

1. For each Process Input, determine the ways in which the input can go wrong (Failure Modes) 2. For each Failure Mode associated with the inputs, determine Effects of the Failures on the customer
Remember the internal customers!

3. Identify potential Causes of each Failure Mode 4. List the Current Controls for each Cause or Failure Mode 5. Create Severity, Occurrence, and Detection rating scales 6. Assign Severity, Occurrence and Detection ratings to each Cause 7. Calculate RPNs for each Cause 8. Determine Recommended Actions to reduce high RPNs 9. Take appropriate actions and recalculate RPNs
GB114-32
Page 16 402-108, Rev. C
Process Mapping Examples

Manufacturing
Punch speed Punch wear Material properties Clamping force Ram force Solvent type Solvent purity Solvent age Surface roughness Contaminant level Humidity Temperature
GB114-33
C&E Matrix Example

This is the C&E Matrix for the previous Manufacturing Process Map with the Key Inputs sorted by the Total Score We will address ONLY the top 5 items in the initial FMEA activity
Process Step
Cutting Punching Drawing Stamping Feed Punching Cutting Feed Drawing Punching Cleaning Cleaning Cutting
Process Input
Shear speed Punch speed Drawing speed Ram speed Gear Speed Punch wear Material properties Gear Wear Material properties Clamping force Solvent type Solvent purity Clamping force 9 9 9 9 3 9 9 0 9 9 0 0 9 9 9 9 9 9 3 1 3 1 9 9 9 3 9 9 9 9 9 9 1 9 9 3 3 3 9 1 0 9 3 9 0 9 1 3 1 0 0 0 9 9 0 1 1 9 9 9 0 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 3 9 9 9 1 9 9 1 355 351 333 315 297 249 243 238 237 237 234 234 233
GB114-34
Page 17 402-108, Rev. C
FMEA Worksheet
Before we move to the example lets look at an FMEA worksheet The information on this sheet is transferred directly to the FMEA form The purpose of this worksheet is to focus the team on the FMEA inputs and not on scoring The scoring should be done after the basic inputs have been made
Failure Modes Process Step Key Process Input
What can go wrong?
Effects
Causes
Current Controls
PFMEA-FRM-WRKSHT.XLS PFMEA- FRMRev. C January 2004 2003 by Sigma Breakthrough Technologies, Inc.
GB114-35
Determine Failure Modes

1. For each Process Input, determine the ways in which 1. For each Process Input, determine the ways in which the input can go wrong (Failure Modes) the input can go wrong (Failure Modes)
We will only deal with the first two Key Process Input Variables on the C&E Matrix which are Shear Speed and Punch Speed First well list Shear Speed for the Cutting process step
Failure Modes Process Step
Cutting
Key Process Input

Shear Speed
What can go wrong? Speed too high
Effects
Causes
Current Controls
Speed too low
GB114-36
Page 18 402-108, Rev. C
Determine Effects 2. For Each Failure Mode Associated with 2. For Each Failure Mode Associated with the Inputs, Determine Effects the Inputs, Determine Effects
These effects are internal requirements for the next process and/or to the final customer
Cutting
Key Process Input

Shear Speed
Effects
Burrs Damage to blade and material
Causes
Current Controls
Speed too low
Insufficient cut Rounded edge
GB114-37
Identify Potential Causes 3. Identify Potential Causes of Each Failure Mode 3. Identify Potential Causes of Each Failure Mode
In most cases, there will be more than one Cause for a Failure Mode but well keep it simple for this exercise
Cutting
Key Process Input

Shear Speed
Effects
Causes
Incorrect set point Poor calibration Incorrect set point Poor calibration Galling of blade
Current Controls
Speed too low
GB114-38
Page 19 402-108, Rev. C
List Current Controls 4. List the Current Controls for Each Cause 4. List the Current Controls for Each Cause
For each Failure Mode/Cause we list how we are either preventing the Cause or detecting the Failure Mode We will list the procedure number where we have a SOP
Cutting
Key Process Input

Shear Speed
Effects
Causes
Incorrect set point Poor calibration Incorrect set point Poor calibration Galling of blade
Current Controls
Operator verification Monthly maintenance Operator verification Monthly maintenance None
Speed too low
This is how the FMEA identifies initial holes in the Current Control This is how the FMEA identifies initial holes in the Current Control Plan --process teams can start working on these holes right away Plan process teams can start working on these holes right away
GB114-39
Create Scales
5. Create Severity, Occurrence, and Detection Rating 5. Create Severity, Occurrence, and Detection Rating Scales Scales
Example Rating Scale
Rating 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Severity of Effect Hazardous without warning Hazardous with warning Loss of primary function Reduced primary function performance Loss of secondary function Reduced secondary function performance Minor defect noticed by most customers Minor defect noticed by some customers Minor defect noticed by discriminating customers No effect Low: Relatively few failures Likelihood of Occurrence Very high: Failure is almost inevitable Ability to Detect Can not detect Very remote chance of detection Remote chance of detection Very low chance of detection Low chance of detection Moderate chance of detection Moderately high chance of detection High chance of detection Very high chance of detection Almost certain detection
High: Repeated failures
Moderate: Occasional failures
Remote: Failure is unlikely
GB114-40
Page 20 402-108, Rev. C
Assign Ratings 6. Assign Severity, Occurrence and Detection 6. Assign Severity, Occurrence and Detection Ratings to Each Cause Ratings to Each Cause
We are now ready to transfer the worksheet input to the FMEA form Copy and paste the worksheet columns into the appropriate FMEA form columns The team then starts scoring each row to compute the RPN values Notes: You will only use one Severity value Determine which Effect has the highest associated Severity and use that SEV value for ALL Effects for the related Failure Mode Example: If a Failure Mode could lead to either a scratched surface (SEV 3) or an incorrect dimension (SEV 9), then use a SEV of 9 for all of the Effect related to that Failure Mode
GB114-41
6. RPN Component Value Assignment

Process Step/Input What is the process step/ Input under investigation? Potential Failure Mode Potential Failure Effects S E V How Severe is the effect to the cusotmer? Potential Causes O C C How often does cause or FM occur? Current Controls D E T How well can you detect cause or FM? 6 Monthly maintenance 2 Incorrect set point 6 Poor calibration 6 Galling of blade 6 Incorrect set point 5 Speed to high Damage to punch 5 Speed to low Deformation of material; Incorrect feature size Deformation of material; Incorrect feature size Variable feature sizes 9 Incorrect set point 10 Poor calibration 10 Current variation 6 4 None 10 540 3 Quarterly maintenance 5 200 Poor calibration 4 None 10 300 9 Quarterly maintenance 5 100 5 None 10 450 2 None 10 300 4 Monthly maintenance 3 36 Operator verification 6 144 3 54 378 R P N In what ways does the Input Variable go wrong? What is the impact on the Output Variables (Customer Requirements) or internal requirements? What causes the Input Variable to go wrong? What are the existing controls and procedures (inspection and test) that prevent either the cause or the Failure Mode? Should include an SOP number.
Cutting / Shear Speed Cutting / Shear Speed Cutting / Shear Speed Cutting / Shear Speed Cutting / Shear Speed Punching / Punch Speed Punching / Punch Speed Punching / Punch Speed Punching / Punch Speed Punching / Punch Speed
Speed too high
Burrs; Damage to blade and material Burrs; Damage to blade and material Insufficient cut; Rounded edge Insufficient cut; Rounded edge Insufficient cut; Rounded edge Damage to punch
Incorrect set point 9 Poor calibration 9 7
Operator verification
Speed too high
Speed too low
Speed too low
Speed too low
Speed to high
Speed to low
Variable Speed
GB114-42
Page 21 402-108, Rev. C
7. Calculate RPNs
Multiply the Severity, Occurrence, and Detection values for each line in the FMEA Then sort all lines by RPN
Notice that you have to identify all cells so you can carry the Failure Modes, Effects, Causes and Current Controls along with the sort
Process Step/Input Punching / Punch Speed Punching / Punch Speed Cutting / Shear Speed Cutting / Shear Speed Potential Failure Mode Potential Failure Effects S E V Potential Causes O C C None 6 Incorrect set point 5 Speed too high Burrs; Damage to blade and material Insufficient cut; Rounded edge Incorrect set point 9 Galling of blade 6 5 7 None 10 300 9 Operator verification 6 378 None 10 450 10 540 Current Controls D E T R P N
Variable Speed
Variable feature sizes 9
Current variation
Speed to high
Damage to punch
Speed too low
GB114-43
RPN Review
Once you calculate the RPN for each Failure Mode / Cause / Controls combination, review the results and look for insights
Do the gut check - does the Pareto of items make sense? If not, maybe the ratings given are varying
Determine potential next steps:

Data collection Experiments Process improvements Process control implementations
GB114-44
Page 22 402-108, Rev. C
Determine Recommended Actions 8. Determine Recommended Actions to 8. Determine Recommended Actions to Reduce High RPNs Reduce High RPNs
Now fill in recommended actions for top RPNs
Process Step/Input Punching / Punch Speed Punching / Punch Speed Cutting / Shear Speed Cutting / Shear Speed Potential Failure Mode Potential Failure Effects Potential Causes Current Controls R P N Actions Recommended Resp.
Variable Speed
Variable feature sizes
Current variation
None
Investigate line 540 condition systems Determine set point 450 and put in SOP 1234
XYZ by 4/15
Speed to high
Damage to punch
Incorrect set point
None
CA by 3/31
Speed too high
Burrs; Damage to blade and Incorrect set point material Insufficient cut; Rounded edge Galling of blade
Operator verification
Determine max set CA by 3/31 378 point; instruct workers Include on RBM by 4/09 300 maintenance schedule
Speed too low
None
Actions are recommended for only the high RPNs The key is FOCUS!
GB114-45
Act and Recalculate 9. Take Appropriate Actions and Recalculate RPNs 9. Take Appropriate Actions and Recalculate RPNs
R P N Actions Recommended Resp. Actions Taken S E V O C C D E T R P N
Investigate line 540 condition systems Determine set point 450 and put in SOP 1234
XYZ by 4/15
Installed line conditioner 5/1 SOP updated, operators being audited 4/12 SOP updated, operators being audited 4/3
54
CA by 3/31
120
Determine max set CA by 3/31 378 point; instruct workers
225
Include on RBM by 4/09 Maintenance schedule 300 maintenance schedule updated 4/01
150
We have recorded the action taken and the impact on the RPN Notice that this is a nice way to track past activities The FMEA should be re-evaluated by the group as new recommended actions are identified, completed and recorded
GB114-46
Page 23 402-108, Rev. C
Non-Manufacturing Example
Process Step/Input What is the process step/ Input under investigation? Potential Failure Mode Potential Failure Effects S E V How Severe is the effect to the cusotmer? Potential Causes O C C How often does cause or FM occur? Current Controls D E T How well can you detect cause or FM? R P N Actions Recommended What are the actions for reducing the occurrance of the Cause, or improving detection? Should have actions only on high RPN's or easy fixes. Make certain fields 630 mandatory in software Training / auditting / 450 metrics for typos Improve Help in 360 computer software 315 270 270 In what ways does the Key What is the impact on the Input go wrong? Key Output Variables (Customer Requirements) or internal requirements? What causes the Key Input to go wrong? What are the existing controls and procedures (inspection and test) that prevent eith the cause or the Failure Mode? Should include an SOP number.
Order Entry
Computer entry screens missing information Computer entry screens with incorrect information Computer entry screens missing information Do not follow procedure Do not follow procedure Computer entry screens missing information Computer entry screens with incorrect information Do not follow procedure Computer entry screens with incorrect information Do not follow procedure Computer entry screens missing information Computer entry screens with incorrect information
Order Entry
Order Entry
Answering Procedure Answering Procedure Order Entry
Order Entry
Answering Procedure Order Entry
Answering Procedure Order Entry
Order Entry
Incomplete order, incorrect information, missing information Incomplete order, incorrect information, missing information Incomplete order, incorrect information, missing information Missing / incorrect information for order Missing / incorrect information for order Incomplete order, incorrect information, missing information Incomplete order, incorrect information, missing information Missing / incorrect information for order Incomplete order, incorrect information, missing information Missing / incorrect information for order Incomplete order, incorrect information, missing information Incomplete order, incorrect information, missing information
Critical data not required to move to next entry field Typographical error
None 7 None 5 10 None 4 7 6 3 Audit to procedure XXXXXXX Audit training with 'blind' callers None 10 Confirmation rejection by customer Revision audit every 6 months Review worksheet for completeness before entry Apprentice system / training Overrides only permitted to Supervisor / password protected System audits monthly 2 3 10 5 5 10
9 Definition of information needed not clear Method too complicated Poor training Too many screens 9 Incorrect information from customer Documented method out of date Information wrong on order worksheet New person answering phones System overrides 9 Automatic computer cross reference data incorrect
9 9 9
9 9 9 9
3 3 4 3 2
9 8 5 5 3
243 216 180 135 54
54
GB114-47
A Well Loved Process FMEA!!

Pour into glass
Key Process Input

Beer volume
What can go wrong? Overflow
Effects
Wasted Beer/ Wet Lap
Causes
Drunk Glass too small Not paying attention
Current Controls
None Visual None
Too much foam
Bad Taste / Don't get as drunk
No tilt
Visual Visual and operator training Visual and operator training Expiration date
Pouring too high Pouring too fast No beer mustache/ Poor taste
No Foam
Flat beer
Tilted glass Slow Pour Empty glass No drink Too drunk Broken Glass
Visual Operator training None Visual Job / Process Excellence - big bonus Personality
No Money
No Friends
GB114-48
Page 24 402-108, Rev. C
Approaches to FMEA
Approach One (C&E Matrix Focus) Start with Key Inputs with the highest scores from the C&E Matrix analysis Fill out the FMEA worksheet for those Inputs Calculate RPNs and develop recommended actions for the highest RPNs Complete the Process FMEA for other Inputs over time Approach Two (Customer Focused) Fill out the Failure Mode and Effects columns of the worksheet. Copy to FMEA form and rate Severity. For High Severity Ratings, List Causes and rate Occurrence for each Cause For the highest Severity * Occurrence Ratings, evaluate Current Controls For Highest RPNs develop recommended actions
GB114-49
Approaches to FMEA
Approach Three (Comprehensive)
Good approach for small processes Fill out the FMEA worksheet beginning with the first process step and ending with the last Score SEV, OCC and DET for all causes Develop recommended actions for highest RPNs
Approach Four (Super Focused)

Pick the top Pareto defect item (Damaged Components) or Failure Mode (Variability in Temperature) Focus the FMEA process on only that defect or Failure Mode Purpose: To Kill that Failure Mode
GB114-50
Page 25 402-108, Rev. C
Overview
Process Step/Input Potential Failure Mode Potential Failure Effects S E V Potential Causes O C C Current Controls D E T R P N Actions Recommended
How Bad? 0 What is the Input What can go wrong with the Input? What is the Effect on the Outputs?
0
How Often? 0
0
How well?0 0
0 0
0 0 0
What are the Causes?
0 0 0
How can these be found or prevented?
0 0 0
0 0 0
What can be done?
GB114-51
Summary
Provided insight to the uses of FMEA Identified sources of risk Defined the different types of FMEA Introduced the steps in developing a Process FMEA Practiced creating a FMEA
GB114-52
Page 26 402-108, Rev. C
Coffee Making FMEA Exercise

Get back into your teams and perform a FMEA on your three top ranked input variables from your Coffee Making C&E Matrix Identify all potential causes for each failure mode and the current controls For the top 3 items in the FMEA, identify recommended actions Report results on a flip chart or on the Excel spreadsheet using the computer display List lessons learned as part of the team presentation You have 20 minutes!
GB114-53
Page 27 402-108, Rev. C
KAPPA STUDIES

Attribute MSA
GB115-1
Kppa Techniques a
For classifications of attribute/categorical data Used when a quality criteria is difficult or impossible to define Several units must be classified more than once and by more than one rater
If there is substantial agreement, there is the possibility that the ratings are accurate If agreement is poor, the usefulness of the ratings is EXTREMELY LIMITED
Rev. C anuary 2004 J 2003 by Sigma Breakthrough Technologies, Inc.
GB115-2
Page 1 402-108, Rev. C
KAPPA STUDIES
Kppa Techniques a
Non-Parametric approaches provide some tools to deal with subjective attribute data
Applies to all types of distributions, so it does not matter if the distribution is normal, binomial, etc. Requires only that the observations be independent Are less efficient than parametric approaches, and require larger sample sizes to achieve the same results Hypotheses are less precise, and yield less information in conclusions
Example: we may know that two distributions are not the same, but we do not know if they are different in terms of central tendency or in terms of variability
GB115-3
Kppa Techniques a
Used when a measurement system is needed to classify items in a nonquantitative manner appa techniques treat al l misclassifications equally K appa techniques do not assume ratings are equally K distributed across the possible range Requirements for use:
Units to be measured are independent from one another Raters inspect and classify independently The rating categories are mutually exclusive and exhaustive
GB115-4
Page 2 402-108, Rev. C
KAPPA STUDIES
Studying Measurement Systems

Once we have the right data we must determine our ability to measure it Information to be attained
How big is the measurement error? What are the sources of measurement error? Is the measurement system stable over time? Is it capable for this study? How do we improve the measurement system?
GB115-5
Attribute Data MSA

If many people are evaluating the same thing they need to agree:
With each other With themselves
Attribute data contains less information than variables data, but often it is all thats available
Therefore, we must be diligent about the integrity of attribute measurement systems
The issue is
Can I rely on the data coming from my measurement system?
GB115-6
Page 3 402-108, Rev. C
KAPPA STUDIES
Attribute MSA Goals

Determine:
% overall agreement % agreement within appraisers (Repeatability) % agreement between appraisers (Reproducibility) % agreement with known standard (Accuracy) Kppa (how much better the measurement system is a than random chance)
GB115-7
Attribute Measurement Studies:

Samples Need 30-50 samples which span the normal extremes of the process
The majority should be from the ray areas g Remainder should be clearly good or clearly bad
Example: Invoice Errors

We collect a sample of 30 invoices 5 units will be clearly defective (a single large defect or enough smaller defects to reject it) 5 units will be clearly acceptable (everything correct) The remaining samples vary in the quantity and type of defects
GB115-8
Page 4 402-108, Rev. C
KAPPA STUDIES
Attribute Measurement Studies:

Methods
Select 2-3 people who normally conduct the assessment Randomly provide the samples to one person (without indicating which sample is which) and have the person rate each of the items Once the first person has reviewed all items, repeat with the remaining people Once everybody has rated each item, repeat the steps above for a second trial Note: All possible combinations of appraisers, items, and trials should be represented Each appraiser must examine all of the items Each appraiser must examine those items the same number of times (trials)
GB115-9
Attribute MSA Example:

Spots on Film A film plant was having problems with spots on one of its products. Operators made the decision as to whether to reject rolls for spots. There had been considerable operator turnover, and engineers questioned how well the operators were trained in recognizing rejectable spots. 50 samples were selected some clearly acceptable, some clearly unacceptable, and some on both sides of borderline conditions Four operators and an expert (the tech service representative) recorded Reject or Accept decision
GB115-10
Page 5 402-108, Rev. C
KAPPA STUDIES

Spots on Film
Sample A R A A A A A A A A A R A R A A A A A A A B R A A A A A A A A R A A A R A A A A A A C R R A A A A A A A R A R A A A A A A A A D A A A A A A A A A R R A R A A A A A A A
Agreement Among Agreement Among Inspectors? Inspectors?

Results indicate definite problems
(Results for 20 of the 50 samples are shown)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Of the 50 samples, the inspectors actually agreed unanimously on only one Rejected sample They agreed unanimously on 29 Accepted samples
%Parts with disagreement = 20/50 = 40%

GB115-11

Spots on Film
Agreement With the Agreement With the Expert? Expert?

Inspector vs. Expert Results %Bad Accepted %Good Rejected A B C D 9/13 = 69% 9/13 = 69% 9/13 = 69% 8/13 = 62% 4/37 = 11% 4/37 = 11% 4/37 = 11% 3/37 = 8%
Sample 1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 11 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 5 10 12 13
A R A A A A A A A R A A A A A A A A A A R
B R A A A A A A A A R A A A A A A A R A A
C R R A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A R R A
D A A A A A A A A R A A A A A A A A R A R
Expert A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A R R R R
% Correct Decisions Overall = 150/200 = 75%

GB115-12
Page 6 402-108, Rev. C
KAPPA STUDIES
Kppa Techniques a
In an Attribute MSA study, Kppa is used to summarize the level a of agreement between raters after agreement by chance has been removed If there is substantial agreement, there is the possibility that the ratings are accurate If agreement is poor, the usefulness of the ratings is extremely limited Requirements for use: Units to be measured are independent from one another Raters inspect and classify independently The rating categories are mutually exclusive and exhaustive Minitab computes the value of Kppa as part of the output for an a Attribute Agreement Analysis
GB115-13
appa K
appa (Kis defined as the proportion of K ) agreement between raters after agreement by chance has been removed:
K
where:
Pobserved Pchance 1 Pchance
Pobserved = Proportion of units classified in which the raters agreed Pchance = Proportion of units for which one would expect agreement by chance
GB115-14
Page 7 402-108, Rev. C
KAPPA STUDIES
Kppa Techniques a Kppa will be between -1 and +1 a

Kppa Value a -1 to 0.0 > 0.60 > 0.70 > 0.90 Suggested Interpretation Random agreement Marginal - Significant effort required Good - Improvement warranted Excellent
A Kppa value of +1 means perfect agreement a 0 General Rule: If K.70, the measurement system Rule < needs attention!
GB115-15
Kppa Techniques a
Kppa can also be applied in cases of multiple a assessors and multiple classification categories Customer Returns example:
A Green Belt had a project to reduce customer returns. A reason code is assigned to every customer return by a Customer Service Representative (CSR). There was concern that CSRs werent consistent in their assignment of codes. Three assessors were asked to assign reason codes to the same 30 returns. Each assessor made the assignments twice (once on each of two different days). The Green Belt also asked a division expert to evaluate the returns
GB115-16
Page 8 402-108, Rev. C
KAPPA STUDIES
Minitab Attribute Agreement Analysis

Project: BB MSA.MPJ Worksheet: Customer Returns.MTW Design: 3 CSRs (Appraisers) 2 Days 30 Returns (Samples) Codes are in column Category Expert values are in column Expert
GB115-17

Use the Attribute Agreement Analysis to analyze attribute measurement system results
GB115-18
Page 9 402-108, Rev. C
KAPPA STUDIES

Fill in the appropriate Fill in the appropriate column information first column information first
Include experts ratings Include experts ratings Make sure that the Kppa Make sure that thea ppa K a option is checked in the option is checked in the Results window Results window
GB115-19
Graphical Analysis
Agreement Within Appraiser is like repeatability Here CSR 1 agreed with herself 90% of the time. CSR 2 was internally consistent 86.7% of the time, and CSR 3 matched himself on 96.7% of the returns Graph shows the 95% CI for the % agreement
This graph shows % agreement between the CSRs and the expert opinion
Note: These two graphs have Note: These two graphs have different scales! different scales!
GB115-20
Page 10 402-108, Rev. C
KAPPA STUDIES
Attribute Gage R&R Study

Attribute Gage R&R Study for Category
Numerical Output:
Within Assessor
Z P(vs > 0) 4.7612 0.000 5.4772 0.000 -0.0928 0.537 5.4772 0.000 4.3361 0.000 4.3361 0.000 5.4772 0.000 * * 10.2533 0.000 3.3293 0.000 5.4772 0.000 5.4772 0.000 5.4772 0.000 3.4486 0.000 4.2116 0.000 5.4772 0.000 * * 9.8785 0.000 5.4772 0.000 4.5914 0.000 5.4772 0.000 5.4772 0.000 5.4772 0.000 4.5914 0.000 5.4772 0.000 5.4772 0.000 11.9524 0.000
Within Appraiser
Assessment Agreement Appraiser # Inspected # Matched Percent (%) 95.0% CI A 30 27 90.0 ( 73.5, 97.9) B 30 26 86.7 ( 69.3, 96.2) C 30 29 96.7 ( 82.8, 99.9) # Matched: Appraiser agrees with him/herself across trials.
Kappa Statistics Appraiser Response A Administrati Damaged Incorrect Pr Overstock Planned Adju Pricing Quality Quantity Overall B Administrati Damaged Incorrect Pr Overstock Planned Adju Pricing Quality Quantity Overall C Administrati Damaged Incorrect Pr Overstock Planned Adju Pricing Quality Quantity Overall Kappa SE Kappa 0.8693 0.1826 1.0000 0.1826 -0.0169 0.1826 1.0000 0.1826 0.7917 0.1826 0.7917 0.1826 1.0000 0.1826 * * 0.8768 0.0855 0.6078 0.1826 1.0000 0.1826 1.0000 0.1826 1.0000 0.1826 0.6296 0.1826 0.7689 0.1826 1.0000 0.1826 * * 0.8346 0.0845 1.0000 0.1826 0.8383 0.1826 1.0000 0.1826 1.0000 0.1826 1.0000 0.1826 0.8383 0.1826 1.0000 0.1826 1.0000 0.1826 0.9597 0.0803
Within Appraiser
* When no or all responses across trials equal the value, kappa cannot be computed.
Each Appraiser vs Standard

Assessment Agreement Appraiser # Inspected # Matched Percent (%) 95.0% CI A 30 23 76.7 ( 57.7, 90.1) B 30 20 66.7 ( 47.2, 82.7) C 30 22 73.3 ( 54.1, 87.7) # Matched: Appraiser's assessment across trials agrees with standard. Kappa Statistics Appraiser Response A Administrati Damaged Incorrect Pr Overstock Planned Adju Pricing Quality Quantity Overall B Administrati Damaged Incorrect Pr Overstock Planned Adju Pricing Quality Quantity Overall C Administrati Damaged Incorrect Pr Overstock Planned Adju Pricing Quality Quantity Overall Kappa SE Kappa 0.3847 0.1291 1.0000 0.1291 0.4915 0.1291 0.6491 0.1291 0.8958 0.1291 0.8952 0.1291 0.8295 0.1291 -0.0345 0.1291 0.7561 0.0583 0.2357 0.1291 1.0000 0.1291 1.0000 0.1291 0.4643 0.1291 0.5673 0.1291 0.7016 0.1291 0.8137 0.1291 -0.0345 0.1291 0.6352 0.0574 0.3750 0.1291 0.9191 0.1291 1.0000 0.1291 0.6491 0.1291 0.8887 0.1291 0.6839 0.1291 0.7054 0.1291 0.6491 0.1291 0.7011 0.0558 Z P(vs > 0) 2.9802 0.001 7.7460 0.000 3.8073 0.000 5.0281 0.000 6.9391 0.000 6.9345 0.000 6.4256 0.000 -0.2671 0.605 12.9782 0.000 1.8256 0.034 7.7460 0.000 7.7460 0.000 3.5963 0.000 4.3943 0.000 5.4348 0.000 6.3026 0.000 -0.2671 0.605 11.0724 0.000 2.9047 0.002 7.1196 0.000 7.7460 0.000 5.0281 0.000 6.8837 0.000 5.2976 0.000 5.4640 0.000 5.0281 0.000 12.5715 0.000
Between Appraisers
Assessment Agreement # Inspected # Matched Percent (%) 95.0% CI 30 17 56.7 ( 37.4, 74.5) # Matched: All appraisers' assessments agree with each other. Kappa Statistics Response Administrati Damaged Incorrect Pr Overstock Planned Adju Pricing Quality Quantity Overall Kappa SE Kappa 0.4778 0.0471 0.9412 0.0471 0.7943 0.0471 0.8761 0.0471 0.6800 0.0471 0.6397 0.0471 0.8399 0.0471 0.1910 0.0471 0.7106 0.0210 Z P(vs > 0) 10.1365 0.000 19.9650 0.000 16.8493 0.000 18.5844 0.000 14.4250 0.000 13.5708 0.000 17.8166 0.000 4.0520 0.000 33.8869 0.000
Similar information as left graph (see previous slide) Adds specific numbers of matched and inspected
All Appraisers vs Standard

Assessment Agreement # Inspected # Matched Percent (%) 95.0% CI 30 15 50.0 ( 31.3, 68.7) # Matched: All appraisers' assessments agree with standard. Kappa Statistics Response Administrati Damaged Incorrect Pr Overstock Planned Adju Pricing Quality Quantity Overall Kappa SE Kappa 0.3318 0.0745 0.9730 0.0745 0.8305 0.0745 0.5875 0.0745 0.7839 0.0745 0.7603 0.0745 0.7829 0.0745 0.1934 0.0745 0.6975 0.0330 Z P(vs > 0) 4.4517 0.000 13.0548 0.000 11.1424 0.000 7.8823 0.000 10.5177 0.000 10.2000 0.000 10.5033 0.000 2.5945 0.005 21.1414 0.000
GB115-21

Numerical Output:
Appraiser vs. Expert
Each Appraiser vs Standard Assessment Agreement Appraiser # Inspected # Matched Percent (%) 95.0% CI A 30 23 76.7 ( 57.7, 90.1) B 30 20 66.7 ( 47.2, 82.7) C 30 22 73.3 ( 54.1, 87.7) # Matched: Appraiser's assessment across trials agrees with standard.
Z P(vs > 0) 4.7612 0.000 5.4772 0.000 -0.0928 0.537 5.4772 0.000 4.3361 0.000 4.3361 0.000 5.4772 0.000 * * 10.2533 0.000 3.3293 0.000 5.4772 0.000 5.4772 0.000 5.4772 0.000 3.4486 0.000 4.2116 0.000 5.4772 0.000 * * 9.8785 0.000 5.4772 0.000 4.5914 0.000 5.4772 0.000 5.4772 0.000 5.4772 0.000 4.5914 0.000 5.4772 0.000 5.4772 0.000 11.9524 0.000
Within Appraiser

Between Appraisers
This indicates how often the assessor is giving the correct answer

We want 90% or better agreement We want 90% or better agreement

GB115-22
Page 11 402-108, Rev. C
KAPPA STUDIES

Within Appraiser
Numerical Output
Between-Appraisers agreement is like Reproducibility:
Between Appraisers Assessment Agreement # Inspected # Matched Percent (%) 95.0% CI 30 17 56.7 ( 37.4, 74.5) # Matched: All appraisers' assessments agree with each other.
Kappa Statistics Appraiser Response A Administrati Damaged Incorrect Pr Overstock Planned Adju Pricing Quality Quantity Overall B Administrati Damaged Incorrect Pr Overstock Planned Adju Pricing Quality Quantity Overall C Administrati Damaged Incorrect Pr Overstock Planned Adju Pricing Quality Quantity Overall Kappa SE Kappa 0.8693 0.1826 1.0000 0.1826 -0.0169 0.1826 1.0000 0.1826 0.7917 0.1826 0.7917 0.1826 1.0000 0.1826 * * 0.8768 0.0855 0.6078 0.1826 1.0000 0.1826 1.0000 0.1826 1.0000 0.1826 0.6296 0.1826 0.7689 0.1826 1.0000 0.1826 * * 0.8346 0.0845 1.0000 0.1826 0.8383 0.1826 1.0000 0.1826 1.0000 0.1826 1.0000 0.1826 0.8383 0.1826 1.0000 0.1826 1.0000 0.1826 0.9597 0.0803 Z P(vs > 0) 4.7612 0.000 5.4772 0.000 -0.0928 0.537 5.4772 0.000 4.3361 0.000 4.3361 0.000 5.4772 0.000 * * 10.2533 0.000 3.3293 0.000 5.4772 0.000 5.4772 0.000 5.4772 0.000 3.4486 0.000 4.2116 0.000 5.4772 0.000 * * 9.8785 0.000 5.4772 0.000 4.5914 0.000 5.4772 0.000 5.4772 0.000 5.4772 0.000 4.5914 0.000 5.4772 0.000 5.4772 0.000 11.9524 0.000

All Appraisers vs. Standard gives an indication of the effectiveness of the inspection standards:
All Appraisers vs Standard Assessment Agreement # Inspected # Matched Percent (%) 30 15 50.0 ( 31.3, 95.0% CI 68.7)
Between Appraisers

# Matched: All appraisers' assessments agree with standard.

GB115-23

Numerical Output:
Z P(vs > 0) 4.7612 0.000 5.4772 0.000 -0.0928 0.537 5.4772 0.000 4.3361 0.000 4.3361 0.000 5.4772 0.000 * * 10.2533 0.000 3.3293 0.000 5.4772 0.000 5.4772 0.000 5.4772 0.000 3.4486 0.000 4.2116 0.000 5.4772 0.000 * * 9.8785 0.000 5.4772 0.000 4.5914 0.000 5.4772 0.000 5.4772 0.000 5.4772 0.000 4.5914 0.000 5.4772 0.000 5.4772 0.000 11.9524 0.000
Within Appraiser
appa K appa and appa values for each category K K of defect are provided for BetweenAppraisers (and other sections) How well can we identify the defect types?
Between Appraisers Assessment Agreement # Inspected # Matched Percent (%) 95.0% CI 30 17 56.7 ( 37.4, 74.5)

Measures how much better than chance agreement is the matching you see on a sample by sample basis
# Matched: All appraisers' assessments agree with each other. Fleiss Kappa Statistics Response Administrati Damaged Incorrect Pr Overstock Planned Adju Pricing Quality Quantity Overall Kappa SE Kappa 0.4778 0.0471 0.9412 0.0471 0.7943 0.0471 0.8761 0.0471 0.6800 0.0471 0.6397 0.0471 0.8399 0.0471 0.1910 0.0471 0.7106 0.0210 Z P(vs > 0) 10.1365 0.000 19.9650 0.000 16.8493 0.000 18.5844 0.000 14.4250 0.000 13.5708 0.000 17.8166 0.000 4.0520 0.000 33.8869 0.000
Between Appraisers

The overall appa K (between appraisers) represents the studywide agreement (across appraisers and categories)
GB115-24
Page 12 402-108, Rev. C
KAPPA STUDIES
Kppa Techniques a
For this example, the following appa values are K calculated
Within appraiser
The individual category appa represents how K consistently each appraiser rates the same samples over multiple trials The overall appa for each appraiser represents that K appraisers consistency across all categories
Between appraisers
The individual category appa represents how K consistently all the appraisers categorized the samples in that category The overall appa represents the study-wide agreement K (across appraisers and categories)
GB115-25
Kppa Techniques a
Interpreting the Results
The individual Kppa values range from 0.19 to 0.94, a meaning that agreement among raters is:
EXCELLENT for Damaged; UNACCEPTABLY LOW for Administrative and Quantity; MARGINAL for Planned adjustments and Pricing GOOD for Incorrect product, Overstock, and Quality
The overall Kppa was 0.7106, indicating that the system a could use some improvement
Improving this measurement system would likely require Improving this measurement system would likely require changing operational definitions for each defect type, changing operational definitions for each defect type, retraining the CSRs, or both retraining the CSRs, or both
GB115-26
Page 13 402-108, Rev. C
KAPPA STUDIES
Improving Attribute Measurement Systems

Sense multipliers (devices to improve human senses) Masks / templates (block out unimportant information) Checklists Automation Reorganization of work area Visual aids
GB115-27
Measurement Systems:
Questions to Ask
Have you picked the right measurement system? Is this measurement system associated with either critical inputs or outputs? What do the precision, accuracy, and stability look like? What are the sources of variation and what is the measurement error? What needs to be done to improve this system? Have we informed the right people of our results? Who owns this measurement system? Who owns trouble shooting? Does this system have a control plan in place? Whats the training frequency? Is that frequent enough? Do identical systems match?
GB115-28
Page 14 402-108, Rev. C
KAPPA STUDIES
Summary
Measurement systems are important to analyze BEFORE embarking on Process Improvement activities Be careful when picking samples watch for correct sub-grouping and sample size requirements Analyze the measurement system for Operator / Assessor, Part / Item, and Trial effects Make sure that the measurement system has enough resolution to distinguish between samples Always generate a Gage R&R report to document findings, methods, and improvement opportunities Total observed variation includes measurement error try to minimize the controllable error in the measurement system
GB115-29
Exercise:
Candy Inspection Objective:Evaluate the M&M inspection system Tools:
3 inspectors Bag of M&Ms
Procedure:
BEFORE opening the bag, operationally define the defects you will be concerned with Have your nspectors evaluate the materials in the i samples of candies Evaluate the measurement system Report any recommended improvement actions
GB115-30
Page 15 402-108, Rev. C
TEAM MEETINGS AND PRESENTATION SKILLS
DMAIC Process Improvement For Operations Green Belts
Team Meetings and Presentation Skills

Rev C February 2004 GB116-1
Objectives
Discuss techniques for conducting effective team meetings Introduce technical presentation Dos and Donts
Content Format and Structure Slide Design
Review basic presentation skills Dos and Donts

Verbal Visual Energy
GB116-2
Page 1 402-108, Rev. C
Conducting Effective Meetings

(Refer to the Team Building and Interpersonal Skills Reference Guide page 20) PREPARE Determine the objective of the meeting Gather background information and data Decide who needs to be invited Prepare an Agenda (Item, its outcome, and who will present or lead discussion) Assign the amount of time to be dedicated to each topic Distribute the agenda and background information to participants before the meeting. This will give them a chance to prepare for their participation
GB116-3
Begin The Meeting

Begin the meeting on time (even if people are late). Review the Objective, the Agenda and the Time assigned to each item Assign Roles (optional, as needed)
Leader - Focuses on the business objective. Encourages participation. Timekeeper - eeps the team on the agreed upon time K track (critical) Scribe - Records ideas, suggestions, and action items (critical) Facilitator - Assists the leader. Process Guide - If using 8D, DMAIC, or other process, keeps the team on track
GB116-4
Page 2 402-108, Rev. C
Conduct The Meeting

Review background information and data Ask participants for new data or ideas, discuss If meeting is for problem solving, identify root causes, then brainstorm possible solutions If meeting is for continuous improvement of a process, Brainstorm suggestions/ideas Strive for quantity No criticizing/evaluating ideas during brainstorming. Build on others ideas. Clarify to make sure everyone understands the suggestions/ideas Combine similar ideas
GB116-5
Conduct The Meeting (Cont.)

Determine best solutions
If the team cannot come to consensus, you could have everyone vote--3 points for their first choice, 2 points for their second choice, 1 point for their third choice If issues arise that are separate from the meeting or cannot be resolved in the meeting, record them on a parking lot for later resolution
Determine an action or implementation plan

Assign action items and completion dates (Who will do What by When)
GB116-6
Page 3 402-108, Rev. C
Close The Meeting

End the meeting on time, even if you are not complete; or re-negotiate ending time. Summarize and review action plans, setting dates and times for follow-up or future meetings
Thank all participants
Issue minutes with action items, times, and dates documented and send to all participants and others who need to know the results of the meeting
GB116-7
Why Should You Care About Making Presentations?

Each of you will have to make a presentation about your project. Part of your projects success will be dependent on the support you get based on the your technical results and part will be based on your ability to present your findings in order to gain support from:
Management Process Owners Peers Team Members
GB116-8
Page 4 402-108, Rev. C
Successful Presentations Depend On

Good communications skills
Ability to present technical material to an audience with differing backgrounds and levels of technical ability Verbal and non-verbal communications
Advance preparation
Presentation material must carry the message to your audience Delivery must be enthusiastic and convey knowledge of the subject
Team Reference Guide, page 27
GB116-9
Two Types Of Meetings

Information meeting Advise Update Sell Decision Making Meeting Goal setting Problem Solving
GB116-10
Page 5 402-108, Rev. C
Ky Differences In Types Of Meeting e

ELEMENTS
Number of attendees Who should attend ? Communication process Meeting room setup Most effective style of leadership Emphasis should be on : Key to success
INFORMATION MEETING
Any number Those who need to know
DECISION MAKING MEETING

Small size
Those responsible and those who can contribute One way from leader to Interactive discussion among all participants with opportunities attending for questions
Participants facing front of Participants facing each otherroom-classroom style conference style Authoritative Participative
Content Planning and preparation of information to be presented Interaction and problem solving Meeting climate that support open, free expression
GB116-11
Selecting Participants
FOR INFORMATION MEETINGS : - Those who need to know the information to be presented FOR DECISION MAK MEETING : ING - Those who have knowledge to contribute - Those who have authority over the area affected by the decision - Those you need the commitment to carry out the decision - Those who have diversity of view-point (People with expressiveness and open-mindedness)
Danielle MUYL .AMP.GEP GB116-12
Page 6 402-108, Rev. C
Content
Most presentations fail due to their lack of focus Content is essential know what your audience wants and needs! Dos
Use simple graphical representations Use bullet statements Highlight meaningful information
Donts
Include information that is too complex Write and read paragraphs of information Clutter the presentation with busy graphics
GB116-13
Organizing Your Presentation

It is a good idea to start by developing objectives. Once this is done you need to thoroughly analyze the audience. You must complete these steps before you separately brainstorm the main points and the sub points of your presentation. If its a persuasive presentation, then you must state the benefits. You then gather factual information and prepare a blueprint of your presentation. Also prepare any visual aids, handouts and notes that you will need. And dont forget to practice.
What is your reaction to this slide?

GB116-14
Page 7 402-108, Rev. C
Organizing Your Presentation

Develop objectives Analyze the audience Brainstorm
Introduction Main ideas and benefits Sub ideas Conclusions
Develop visuals, handouts and notes Practice
GB116-15
Content
So how do you know what to include? Some guidelines:
Project description and targeted value Ky learning' and the tools used to accomplish them e s Next steps / action plan / timing Roadblocks to success needing resolution by the audience Recognition of contributors Results to date (financial and learning' ) s
GB116-16
Page 8 402-108, Rev. C
Format And Structure

One of the best ways to structure a presentation is to:
Tell them what youre going to tell them Tell them Tell them what you told them
Identify the 3 key concepts, actions, or issues that you want the audience to address Work from your conclusion and build the supporting materials around these key points
GB116-17
Presentation Sequence
Suggested flow for a presentation:
Introduction Main Ideas and Sub Ideas Benefits Conclusion Questions and Answers Review Sentence
GB116-18
Page 9 402-108, Rev. C
The Last Slide

Make sure that your 3 key points are summarized in the Review Sentence
This can be viewed as your Elevator Speech!
Characteristic of a great presentation:

If your presentation time is cut short and you can only present one slide, you can convey your entire presentation in the last slide
GB116-19
Using Visuals / Graphics

Use visuals and graphics to: Focus the attention of the audience Reinforce your verbal message Stimulate interest Illustrate factors that are hard to visualize Graphically represent data
GB116-20
Page 10 402-108, Rev. C
Using Visuals / Graphics

Dont use visuals or graphics to: Try and impress the audience with overly detailed tables or graphs Avoid interaction with the audience Make more than one point Present simple ideas that can be presented verbally
GB116-21
Slide Design Dos And Donts

Dos
K (Kep It Simple and Short) ISS e Present one key point per visual Use bullets, not full sentences
Statements on the slide should only be a reference to you and drive a key point
GB116-22
Page 11 402-108, Rev. C

Dos
Highlight key items in a graphical item
Show only part of the C&E Matrix or top items in the FMEA, not the entire item State the conclusions that you reach based on the graphic
Use simple animation too much can degrade the validity of the message
GB116-23

Donts
Use Yellow text (e.g. Yellow)
It is not easily read except on a very dark background
Use more than three colors per graph Use more than 3 curves per graph Present rows and columns of data
Provide summary information only
GB116-24
Page 12 402-108, Rev. C

Donts
Make text and graphs too small
Rule of Thumb: If you can read everything on your computer screen from 8 feet away, it is good
Have too much text per slide

Rule of Thumb: 50% white space on the slide
Add clipart and pictures that dont clearly link to the idea presented
GB116-25
Presentation Skill Review

Some of you have never had to speak in public before and many feel uncomfortable speaking in front of a group Regardless, each of you will have to present in front of many different groups throughout your project and your career The following material contains some reminders on techniques that will ease your anxiety
GB116-26
Page 13 402-108, Rev. C
Preparations
Organize Your thoughts, your materials, your presentation Memorize Ky points, key messages, your elevator speech e Visualize The success of your presentation and the expected outcome Positive Affirmations Remind yourself that you CAN do this! Release Tensions Exercises Stretching, breathing, meditation prior to speaking Practice
GB116-27
Appearance
Posture
Standing upright = authoritative Leaning / sitting = personal
Movement
Purposeful - not anxious
Shoulder Orientation
Squared up - not slouching
Gestures
Purposeful, natural - not erratic
Attire
Appropriate for audience
GB116-28
Page 14 402-108, Rev. C
During The Presentation

Remember to Breathe
If you find yourself stressing or speaking too fast, simply stop and take a breath
Move
Use the space that you have effectively
Eye Contact
Make the presentation personal by connecting visually with the audience
Do NOT have any caffeine before or during the presentation Remember - You are surrounded by friends!
GB116-29
Delivery
Enthusiasm is contagious
If you are not enthusiastic about your presentation, no one else will be!
Relate with your audience

Make a common bond through examples
Voice projection
Be clear and loud Use inflection in your voice
Use conversational speed and tone

Dont read every word on every slide
GB116-30
Page 15 402-108, Rev. C
Eye Contact
Good eye contact
Opens the channel of communication with the audience Establishes and builds rapport Involves the audience
Talk to the audience not to the projected material
GB116-31
Delivery
Place yourself at center stage Orient your shoulders toward the audience Leave some light on in the room so you can be seen Use pointers sparingly to draw attention to a specific item or to trace the relationship on a visual / graphic
Nervousness is amplified when using a pointer
Especially evident when using laser pointers
Dont play with the pointer when not using the pointer, lay it down
GB116-32
Page 16 402-108, Rev. C
Keping Their Attention e

The first 120 seconds is free The words in conclusion draws them back Use energizers to hold them in the middle People speak at 120 - 200 words per minute, and comprehend at 600 words per minute
GB116-33
Examples Of Energizers
Enthusiasm Movement Visual Aids
Samples, something that they can touch or see
Animation Pictures / clipart Humor Interactive Questions Voice and Body Language
GB116-34
Page 17 402-108, Rev. C
Questions And Answers

Prepare for them Welcome them Listen to the question and clarify if necessary Restate for the whole audience Respond to the whole audience Be honest
GB116-35
Benefits Of Good Presentation Materials

Audience is 43% more likely to be persuaded You can cover the material in 25-40% less time Learning is improved 200% Retention is improved 38% You are perceived as professional, persuasive, credible, interesting, and prepared
GB116-36
Page 18 402-108, Rev. C
Practice, Practice, Practice

ey words on notes pages K Mental run through for flow of ideas Stand up rehearsal using the presentation material Video tape or rehearse with a friend
GB116-37
Final Thoughts
Smile;enjoy sharing your information x Tell jokes unless you are good at it x Waste your first 120 seconds thanking them or making apologies. x Read your presentation Remember the audience wants you to succeed
GB116-38
Page 19 402-108, Rev. C
INTRODUCTION TO MULTI-VARI STUDIES

Introduction to Multi-Vari Studies
GB117-1
The DMAIC Process


GB117-2
Page 1 402-108, Rev. C
Topics
Overview of Multi-Vari Studies Noise Variables and Analysis Introduction Planning Multi-Varis Data Collection
Note: The name Multi-Vari was given to this methodology by L. A. Seder in the paper titled, Diagnosis with Diagrams which appeared in Industrial Quality Control in Jnuary and March, 1950. a
GB117-3
Multi-Vari Studies
Method of characterizing the baseline capability of a process while in production mode Data collection is passive in that the process is monitored in its natural state Data is collected for a short period of time and analyzed to determine capability, stability and relationships between Input Variables and Output Variables Multi-Vari study should continue until the full range of the output variable is observed
Span from Low to High as observed in the short-term capability or historic data
Identifies inherent process capabilities and limitations

GB117-4
Page 2 402-108, Rev. C
Why Multi-Vari?
To determine with high statistical confidence the capability of the Output Variables of a process To identify assignable causes of variability To obtain initial components of variability (Shift-toShift, Run-to-Run, Operator-to-Operator) To get a first-look at process stability over time To provide direction and input for Design of Experiments (DOE) activities
GB117-5
Phases
Phase I:
Perform Short-term Capability Study Derive a plan for more in-depth study of the process based on data and notes from the Short-term Capability Study
Phase II:
Initial study of the effects of controlled, uncontrolled (noise), and material input variables on the output variable Focus on characterizing the effect of major uncontrolled (noise) variables in the system Initial relationships between controlled inputs and outputs
GB117-6
Page 3 402-108, Rev. C
MAJ R FOCUS O
To study the uncontrolled Noise Variables first!
Variation in the Noise variables produces chronic and acute mean shifts and changes in variability that lead to process instability We must remove, if possible, these sources of variation first before we can leverage the important controlled input variables in a systematic way
GB117-7
Noise Variables
We can classify Noise Variables into three main families of variation: Positional - Differences in variation due to similar processes across a production line
Reactor-to-reactor differences Line-to-line differences Press to Press differences Production location to location differences Operator-to-Operator differences
Temporal - Differences in variation of a process over time

Shift-to-Shift Day-to-Day Week-to-Week
Sequential - Differences across a series of processes

If the output variable is affected by several different processes, we test Process-to-Process variability
GB117-8
Page 4 402-108, Rev. C
Analyzing Noise Variables

For Continuous Processes Test for Variability within a time span
Example: Four Measurements per Shift
Test for Variability across short time spans

Example: Variability across shifts
Test for Variability across longer time times

Example: Variability across days, weeks and/or months
For Discrete Processes Test for Variability within a piece

Example: Four measurements per oven cavity
Test for Variability within a batch

Example: Variability across cavities within a batch
Test for Variability across batches

Example: Variability across batches within a month
GB117-9
Positional Noise Tree
Plant 1
and any other plants making this product
Mold 1
Mold 2
Mold 3
and other molds
Cavity 1
Cavity 2
Cavity 3
and other cavities
GB117-10
Page 5 402-108, Rev. C
Material Noise Tree

Supplier A and other suppliers
Lot/Batch 1 Part/Spool 1 Location 1 Part/Spool 2 Location 2
Lot/Batch 2 Part/Spool 3 Location 3
Lot/Batch 3
and other locations within a part
Measurement 1
Measurement 2
and other measurements within a location
GB117-11
Temporal Noise Tree

Year 1
Month 1 Week 1 Day 1 Week 2 Day 2
Month 2 Week 3 Day 3
Month 3 Week 4 and other days within weeks
Shift 1 Hour 1
Shift 2 Hour 4 and other hours within Shift
GB117-12
Page 6 402-108, Rev. C
Studying Noise Variables

Sampling
We would sample several points within a shift, several shifts over several days or weeks
Lets look at a sample data collection sheet on the next page for a process with:
Two controlled Inputs (Temperature, Pressure) One Output (% Impurities) Three Noise variables (Day, Shift and Time within Shift) Well sample over two days
GB117-13
Data Sheet
Day 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Shift 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 Time 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 Input: Temperature Input: Pressure 91 48 97 52 88 44 87 43 109 50 98 45 103 55 99 49 111 55 103 53 106 54 93 55 101 46 93 48 97 54 99 49 Output: % Impurities 0.020000 0.020000 0.020000 0.010000 0.060000 0.040000 0.030000 0.050000 0.010000 0.010000 0.040000 0.000000 0.050000 0.040000 0.010000 0.030000
Notice that this data sheet format is the same format as a Minitab data file With this sheet we can easily investigate differences in % Impurities due to time-to-time, shift-to-shift and day-to-day Variations We can also correlate Temperature and Pressure with Impurities
GB117-14
Page 7 402-108, Rev. C
Multi-Vari Phase I:
Capability Study 1. Set up the process to your best guess setup and record the values of your process Input Variables 2. Identify a reasonable way to create rational subgroups; i.e, how will you select the samples? 3. Run the product over a short period of time to remove as much external variation as possible
Approximately 30 time points is the target for data collection
4. Have your team carefully observe the process and take plenty of notes 5. Measure and record values for the process Output Variable(s)
GB117-15
Multi-Vari Phase I:
Capability Study 6. Run Capability Six-pack and Review: SixNormal Plot, Histogram SPC Charts (Check for Stability, Accuracy)
7. Run the Test for Normality on the data 8. Run the Capability Study and identify both the Short Term and Long Term capability indices 9. Diagnose for Mean Shift and Variance Inflation 10. Develop action plan based on diagnostics
GB117-16
Page 8 402-108, Rev. C
Multi-Vari Phase II:

Planning
1. Determine Objective 2. Identify Input and Output Variables to be studied 3. Identify Measurement Systems for each variable Which should be studied to assure capability? 4. Determine sampling plan 5. Determine data collection, formatting and storage procedure 6. Description of procedure and settings used to run process 7. Team assigned and trained 8. Clear responsibilities assigned 9. Outline of data analysis to be performed
GB117-17
Multi-Vari Phase II:

Execution and Analysis 1. Run process and collect data 2. Analyze data:
Is the process stable, in control? Which are the key noise variables affecting the output variable? Which are the key controlled variables that influence the output variable?
3. Validate results with follow-up DOE 4. Conclusions 5. Reporting results, recommendations
GB117-18
Page 9 402-108, Rev. C
Planning
Critical Step Provides for: Statement of Objective List of Input Variables and Output Variables to be studied Ensure Measurement Systems are capable Description of sampling plan Method of data collection, formatting and storage Description of procedure and settings used to run process Team assigned and trained Clear responsibilities assigned Outline of data analysis to be performed Teams are crucial !! Teams are crucial Up-front communication of Objectives essential !! Up-front communication of Objectives essential
GB117-19
Objective
Objective is usually stated in terms of the Inputs effects on the Outputs Objective should tie to the Team Charter Examples:
1 2 3
Study the effects of temperature and pressure on Percent Impurities Study the stability and capability of the lead wire drawing process The Objectives of the study are to:
Study the effects of furnace operating variables on fractures
Exercise: Each team write each objective on a flip chart

GB117-20
Page 10 402-108, Rev. C
Identify Inputs and Outputs

Tools Tools
C&E Matrix C&E Matrix FMEA FMEA Fishbone Fishbone Short-term Short-term Capability Capability Controlled Controlled Inputs Inputs
Examples Examples Temperature Temperature Pressure Pressure Time Time Examples Examples Different Different Operators Operators Different Different Machines Machines Different Shifts Different Shifts Noise Inputs
Tools Tools
Boxplots Boxplots Main Effects and Main Effects and Interaction Plots Interaction Plots ANOVAs, T-test ANOVAs, T-test ey Process K y Process e K Outputs Outputs
Noise Inputs (Discrete) (Discrete)
Process Process
Noise Inputs Noise Inputs (Continuous) (Continuous)
Examples Examples Room Temperature Room Temperature Barometric Pressure Barometric Pressure Relative Humidity Relative Humidity Raw Material Raw Material Characteristics Characteristics GB117-21
Tools Tools
Scatterplots Scatterplots Correlation Correlation Regression Regression
Controlled vs. Uncontrolled

(Entire left circle) (Entire right circle)
Factors Factors that are that are influential influential on the on the response response
Influential Noises that are not controlled
Noise Factors that we can afford to manipulate for the experiment only Control Factors & Held Constant Factors
Factors that Factors that are controlled are controlled in the in the experiment experiment
Factors with no impact on the response
Controllable in Controllable in real life real life
Remember, Noise is in the Eyes of the Beholder Remember, Noise is in the Eyes of the Beholder
GB117-22
Page 11 402-108, Rev. C
Measurement System Capability

Perform Gage R&R on important Inputs and, especially, critical Outputs Use standard Gage R&R procedures Remember, a noisy gage distorts your view of the true process variation
2 observed
2 actual
2 measuremen t
GB117-23
Sampling Plan
A good sampling plan will capture all relevant sources of noise variability
Lot-to-lot, batch-to-batch Different shifts, operators, machines or processes
Sample Size rule of thumb: 30 Input Variables do not always have to be measured for each sample
Example:
Samples are drawn for an output variable measurement every hour Ambient humidity (input variable) is assumed to be constant over a 4 hour period
GB117-24
Page 12 402-108, Rev. C
Sampling Designs
You can use one or more of the following sampling designs Sampling designs help insure a representative sample of the process without having to collect extreme amounts of data Nielson Rating are based on about 1500 viewers Those viewers are chosen to best represent all viewers in the country Sampling designs: Simple Random Sample Stratified Sampling Cluster Sampling Systematic Sampling Subgroup Sampling
GB117-25
Sampling Plan Worksheet

Key Outputs: 1 2 3 Noise Variables: 1 2 3 4 5 Controllable Inputs 1 2 3 4 5 Overall Sampling Plan: Variable How Measured When Measured Variable How Measured When Measured Variable How Measured When Measured
Rev. C Jnuary 2004 a 2003 by Sigma Breakthrough Technologies, Inc.
GB117-26
Page 13 402-108, Rev. C
Discrete Example
Key Outputs: 1. Surface Quality Variable Pits Dents How Measured Visual Visual When Measured Sample Sample
Noise Variables: Section to Section Sheet to Sheet Pack to Pack
Variable Section id. Sheet number Pack number
How Measured Count Count Count
When Measured
Controllable Inputs Copper Exposure Infeed Optimization Equipment cleaning
Variable Exposure time Infeed ratio Cleanliness rating
How Measured Timer Meter Visual
When Measured Each Pack Each Pack Each Pack
Overall Sampling Plan: Pits and Dents will be measured in each Section of Sheets A, B, C on Packs 1, 7, 13. Controllable Inputs will be recorded for each Pack 1, 7, 13.
GB117-27
Fibers Example
Key Outputs: 1. Uptime / Quality Variable Breakouts Breaking Strength Broken Filaments Variable Batch number Batch number Panel number Day Shift number Variable 1 2 3 4 5 Overall Sampling Plan: For each Breakout occurance, Breaking Strength and Broken filaments will be measured. Fiber and Polymer Batch will be recorded along with panel number, day, shift and time. How Measured Operator Lab Lab/Visual How Measured Recorded Recorded Recorded Recorded Recorded How Measured When Measured When Measured On Occurrance Breakout Sample Breakout Sample When Measured
Noise Variables: Fiber Batch Polymer Batch Panel Day Shift Controllable Inputs
GB117-28
Page 14 402-108, Rev. C
Data Formats
Data quickly logged into a database (e.g. Minitab) Data should include a column for each of:
ID Information (Time, Lot#Shift, Site, etc.) , Uncontrolled (Noise) inputs Process Inputs Process outputs Comments
GB117-29
Manufacturing Quality Data Sheet

Fiber Breakouts
Objective Metrology To identify the key variables affecting fiber breakouts At each breakout occurrence: 1) Take sample of material for lab testing of breaking strength and fiber breakouts 2) Record all other (known) information as indicated below Occurrence data Measure Data Point control number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Polymer Batch Lab Test Results Time between Breaking Broken Dirty Slow/fast failures strength filaments Spinneret Holes Oil on L.E.D
Cause (if known)

Rough/Dirty Roll Threadpath Filament Surface Alignment Motion Process Variability
(Description of variable, if known)
Fiber Batch
Panel
Day
Shift
Time
Format
batch #
batch #
i.d.#
MM/DD
HH:MM
(calc.)
lbs.
% brok en
Xs
Ys
GB117-30
Comments
Looking For Xs That Cause Machine Shutdown Looking For Xs That Cause Machine Shutdown
Page 15 402-108, Rev. C
Transactional Quality Data Sheet

Date: Branch: Observer:
Process Inputs
Insp. Area Weather
Perform Inspection
Inspection Interrupted Duration (min.) Other Activity Driver partic. in insp. (Y/N)
Unit #
D)irt Unit Arr. P)aved Lease # Time G)ravel
P)uddle N)o Pdl.
Insp. Name Temp.
R)ain D)ry
# trailers to be insp. In & Out
P)hone C)ust V)end M)ech
C)ollection D)evon C)ustomer V)endor B)reakdown C)omputer
Xs
Looking For Xs That Cause Dirty/Unsafe Trailers Looking For Xs That Cause Dirty/Unsafe Trailers Attributes or Variables Present Here? Attributes or Variables Present Here?
GB117-31
Exercise
Objective: Establish a sampling plan for your projects first Multi-Vari study Procedure:
Identify key output variable(s) to be studied Identify key input variables to be studied
Controlled Uncontrolled (Noise)
Continuous / Variable Discrete / Attribute
Identify measurement systems for each output and input variable;identify those which need to be evaluated Specify your initial sampling plan using the worksheet provided (see next slide)
GB117-32
Page 16 402-108, Rev. C
Sampling Plan Worksheet

Purpose of the Experiment: _ Output : _ How will you measure it ? _
Inputs: Controlled 1) _ 2) _ 3) _ 4) _ How / When will you measure it ? _ _ _ _ How / When will you measure it ?
Uncontrolled 1) _ _ _ 2) _ 3) _ _ 4) _ _
GB117-33
Rules for Effective Data Collection

Team must follow sampling plan consistently Do a short Pilot Run to test your procedures Note changes in operating conditions that are not part of the normal or initial operating conditions Maintain monitors on gauges for key process inputs Record any events that are out of the ordinary Log data into database quickly eep a log book K Run your MV study until Y varies over full range! Run your MV study until Y varies over full range!
GB117-34
Page 17 402-108, Rev. C
Multi-Vari Pitfalls
1) Passive observation provides too narrow a range of X behavior
Y=Gas Mileage (mpg)
30 20 10
Y=Selli ng Price 0 .5 1 1.5 2 X=Car Weight (tons)

(Thousa nds)
35 25 5
1 6 14 22 30 X=Age of Car (Yrs)
You See You See

Y=Gas Mileag e (mpg)
30 25 20
Y=Selli ng Price
1.1 (Thousa nds)
You See You See

6 4 2
Counter to 1: Counter to 1: Run your MV study Run your MV study until Y varies over until Y varies over full range! full range!
.9
.95
1.05
13
13.5
14 14.5 15
X=Car Weight (tons)
X=Age of Car (Yrs)
2) Interactions are present, but we only investigate one X at a time

SHIFT
37 37
We See... X (Heat) Looks Unimportant
1 2
32
32
27
27
22 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
22 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Reality... X (Heat) Is Important and Influenced by Shift
Yield
Heat
Yield
Heat
3) Multi-colinearity (Confounding) is present

GB117-35
Counter to 22& 3: Counter to & 3: Run DOEs to verify Run DOEs to verify KyyXs & eK Xs & e interactions interactions
Summary
Overviewed Multi-Vari studies Reviewed noise variables and analysis introduction Planning Multi-Vari studies Identified methods for data collection
GB117-36
Page 18 402-108, Rev. C
SAMPLING

Sampling
GB118-1
Topics
Overview Sampling Introduce Sampling guidelines Discuss Sampling techniques and sample sizes
GB118-2
Page 1 402-108, Rev. C
SAMPLING
Why Sample?
It is not always feasible or possible to analyze 100% of the population...
Population
Sample
But, we can draw conclusions about the population through statistically relevant samples
GB118-3
What is a Sample?
Collecting only a portion of the data that is available or could be available Using the data from the sample to draw statistical inferences A faster, less costly way to gain insight into a process or large population Remember: Even if we collect 100% of the data points for our process or population during a certain period of time, it is still only a sample of the whole population
A good sample is a miniature version of the A good sample is a miniature version of the population --just like it, only smaller population just like it, only smaller
GB118-4
Page 2 402-108, Rev. C
SAMPLING
When Does Sampling Work?

Each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected Selecting one member doesnt influence likelihood of another member being selected or not There arent any significant differences between those selected and those that werent You have a large enough sample to find what youre looking for. If its a rare event or you want to be very precise, youll need a large sample.
GB118-5
Process or Population?
What is a Process and what is a Population What is a Process and what is a Population
A Process . . .
Back guard assembly Porcelain spraying Quoting activity Inventory counts maintenance
A Population . . .
All the back guards produced Product made using one supplier lot Deals that exceed margin targets Items with discrepancies
Process vs. Population Determines Sampling Approach, Sample Size Calculations, and Other Considerations
GB118-6
Page 3 402-108, Rev. C
SAMPLING
Sampling: How, What, When

Purpose Process
Take action or predict future - In Control? - Capable? - Improve?
Considerations
Where to sample Frequency Grouping Representative Cost Precision (+/- ) Amount of characterisitics variation: or P - Confidence level - Representative - Cost
Sample Size
Use Sample Size by Tool or Statistic guidelines
Approach
Subgroup Sampling Systematic Sampling
Large Population
Describe or Quantify Characteristics of the Population
Use Minitab procedures
Random Sampling Stratified Random Sampling Systematic Sampling Cluster Sampling
Sampling Reference Matrix Sampling Reference Matrix

GB118-7
Simple Random Sample (SRS)

If all possible samples of n experimental units are equally likely to be selected, then the procedure is a simple random sample Example: We generate 15 random numbers from 1 to the number of items produced in a shift for the enamel baking process These items identified are then evaluated with respect to the output measures Characteristics of Simple Random Sample Unbiased: Every experimental unit has the same chance of being chosen Independence: The selection of an experimental unit is not dependent on the selection of another In continuous processes, using a SRS is very difficult because there is no clear experimental unit. Generally we sample from a stream of material.
GB118-8
Page 4 402-108, Rev. C
SAMPLING
Stratified Sample
Divide the population into homogeneous groups and randomly sample from within each group Example: Stamping Batches There are a large number of batches (batched by steel lot) going through the stamping press with each press batch having many items created Randomly sample 2 items from each batch This sample will effectively represent each batchs effect on the variability of the output variables Another example If you have 2 paint lines, randomly sample product from each line This sample allows you to represent the effect of each line on the variability of the output
GB118-9
Cluster Sample
Divides the sample into smaller homogeneous groups, then the groups are randomly sampled Example: Paint Lines
Assume there are a number of positions for product within each paint line Number each paint line and randomly sample a subset of the paint lines Then randomly sample positions within the selected paint lines (within the subset)
This represents line effects without having to sample from all lines
GB118-10
Page 5 402-108, Rev. C
SAMPLING
Systematic Sample
Start with a randomly chosen unit and sample every kth unit thereafter Example:
For a assembly shift, there are N number of product produced Pick a number at random to start and then select every 15th unit to evaluate
This method is good because its simple
GB118-11
Subgroup Sample
Sample output of step or activity with some frequency - usually a time increment Remember the Sources of Variation Will a subgroup show the variation youre interested in? Frequency - predetermined, corresponds to control chart sampling
Example:
Pull 5 ice machines at 10 a.m., 12 p.m., 2 p.m., and 4 p.m.
Rev. C Jnuary 2004 a 2003 by Sigma Breakthrough Technologies, Inc.
GB118-12
Page 6 402-108, Rev. C
SAMPLING
To Sample or Not to Sample?

For some populations, sampling may not be the best approach Example: If you have only 25 sales over $10 million per year, would you sample? You would probably look at ALL those sales (or units) This is NOT sampling Its known as a census and has its own set of rules
GB118-13
Standard Sampling Strategies

Which Strategy Is Right For My Project? Which Strategy Is Right For My Project? Consider what main factors or Sources of Variation are on your suspect list
Will your strategy allow you to see what you want to see?
The more complex the strategy, the harder it is to plan, execute, and control
Only use the degree of sophistication you really need. Dont use a complex sampling scheme if you dont need one.
Sampling can be a complicated question

Review your approach with a mentor or Master Black Belt before you start data collection
When In Doubt, Ask For Help! When In Doubt, Ask For Help!
GB118-14
Page 7 402-108, Rev. C
SAMPLING
Sampling from Processes

Considerations To eep In Mind Considerations ToK ep In Mind e K
Where you Sample Location in the process where your process variable affects the output variable Sample as far upstream as practically and logically possible Frequency of Sampling Often enough to catch it going from good to bad It is better to have several small samples over time than one large sample at single point in time Sample more frequently if process stability is questionable Subgrouping: Minimize opportunity for special cause within subgroup Want special causes to change between subgroups eep track of what, where, when, who, etc. K For subgroups or Sources of Variation, youll need at least 5 data points for each category of the variable
GB118-15
Sample Size By Tool or Statistic

Tool or Statistic Average Standard Deviation Proportion Defective (P) Histogram or Pareto Scatter Diagram Control Chart
Minimum Sample Size

5 - 10 25 - 30 100 and nP >= 5 50 25 20
Remember these are MINIMUMS for sampling from Processes. More data points means higher confidence in conclusions you can draw from your data
GB118-16
Page 8 402-108, Rev. C
SAMPLING
Common Issues With Sample Quality

Selection Bias No structure to determine which items you sample Convenience sampling; Systematic sampling matches some structure Changes in the Environment Environmental changes make the sample no longer representative Non-Response Bias Especially in surveys, characteristics of those who dont respond are different in a significant way from those who do (vocal minority) Measurement Bias Often related to unequal batch sizes - tendency to select larger batches to sample from Non-representative batches . . . long overdue bills without sampling quickly paid accounts Sampling Plan Executed Improperly Try to be aware of biases and other quality problems that can creep in and affect your data!
GB118-17
Sampling from Populations
GB118-18
Page 9 402-108, Rev. C
SAMPLING
Team Exercise
Divide into teams Evaluate the sampling examples on the next page Identify strengths and weaknesses for each example Think of at least one suggestion to improve the approach for each example You have 15 minutes
GB118-19
Sampling Examples
1. A team is studying First Call Resolution. Approximately 15% of callers are sampled to complete a customer survey. Only 10% of those sampled were willing to complete the survey. 2. A team is working on SAP information input accuracy. They have decided to collect a sample of transactions processed from 4:00 5:00 p.m. every day for the next four days. 3. A team studying cycle time for product changeovers is going to sample data from the one production line that has data readily available. 4. A team is looking at packaging defects. They plan to sample by pulling every 200th unit processed over the next 30 days. 5. A team is working on material shortages. Theyve developed a subgroup sampling approach for all items in the database.
GB118-20
Page 10 402-108, Rev. C
SAMPLING
Summary
Provided an overview to sampling Introduced some sampling guidelines Discussed sampling techniques and sample sizes
GB118-21
Page 11 402-108, Rev. C
INTERPERSONAL MANAGING SKILLS
DMAIC Process Improvement Green Belts

D M A I C
Interpersonal Managing Skills & Dealing with Resistance

Rev C February 2004 Tyco
GB119-1
Clarifying and Confirming

When:
Youll make a decision or take action based on the information, opinion, or suggestion offered, or Your immediate impulse is to reject, ignore, or disagree with what you are hearing.
How:
Clarify by seeking additional information about: What has been said, and/or Why Confirm by stating your understanding of: What has been said, and/or Why
Team Reference Guide, Page 17 Team Reference Guide, Page 17

Rev C anuary, 2003 J Tyco
GB119-2
Page 1 402-108, Rev. C
Constructive Criticism
When:
You want someone to change his or her performance or suggestion, and You have confirmed your understanding.
How:
Give balanced feedback:
Specify the merits you want to see retained Specify the concerns you want to see eliminated Explore ideas for retaining merits and eliminating
concerns
Invite suggestions Make suggestions

GB119-3
Managing Differences
When You think a difference exists How:
Define the difference State whats important to you, and why Clarify / Confirm whats important to the other person, and why
Team Reference Team Reference Guide, Page 18 Guide, Page 18

GB119-4
Page 2 402-108, Rev. C
Managing Differences ( Cont. )

When
You are willing and able to consider alternatives
When
You are unwilling or unable to consider alternatives, or Youre unable to reach a mutually acceptable decision
How
Discuss the difference: Explore ideas to find alternatives
How:
Terminate the discussion: Acknowledge the other persons right to differ Explain what youve decided and why
No longer a difference Team Reference Guide, Page 18 Team Reference Guide, Page 18
GB119-5
Crediting
When
The work of someone whose performance matters to you: Exceeds expectations Consistently meets expectations Meets expectations not usually met by that person.
How
Give specific examples of performance Mention personal qualities that contributed to performance Mention resulting benefits to you, the department, and/or the organization.

GB119-6
Page 3 402-108, Rev. C
Write Your Own Role Playa real situation you may be in
Create Create Triads Triads

Describe the situation and enough information so your partner can play your role and practice the skills. You will play the other person. The third person in the triad will be the coach for the skill practice.
GB119-7
Managing Change:
Dealing With Resistance to Change
VISION Westinghouse DRIVERS Research: Change video LEADERSHIP PARTICIPATION COMMUNICATION TRAINING AND EDUCATION REINFORCEMENT

GB119-8
Page 4 402-108, Rev. C
Faces of Resistance
Wants more detail Flood with detail Time Attack Impracticality Im not surprised Confusion Silence Intellectualizing Moralizing Compliance Methodology
Team Reference Team Reference Guide, Page 42-43 Guide, Page 42-43
GB119-9
Write Your Own Role Play a resistance situation you may be in
Team Reference Team Reference Guide, Page 44 Guide, Page 44
GB119-10
Page 5 402-108, Rev. C
COST SAVINGS GUIDELINES
DMAIC Process Improvement For Operations Green Belts
Tyco International Cost Savings Guidelines

GB121(Appendix)-1
Calculating Six Sigma Project Financial Impact
GB121-2
Page 1 402-108, Rev. C
Why is the Financial Impact Important ?

Whether we are trying to improve a transactional process, the quality of a product or plants yields or efficiency, there is always a financial impact. Measurement is important for Tyco, as a Company to determine how we are continually improving. (Note that we have to measure consistently as One Company.) Measurement is critical for tracking individual performance and division performance as well. We must track and measure each quarter and report the financial impact as a company. A tracking mechanism is being established using a PowerSteering tool. Training on this tool may be separate from this training.
GB121-3
Where does Financial Impact tracking Fit in to a Project ?

Process Map (See Next Page) Defines and schedules expected involvement from project leaders and finance community Defines project timeline and maps it to DMAIC structure Critical points include:
Initial Measurement of the Project Estimate Updating estimates during steady-state or at end of Control State (Committed) At end of each month, implemented savings need to be updated At end of Each Quarter, Finance approves implemented savings
The Period of Measurement should be 12 months. The actual start date of the measurement should be defined by the Project Leader and validated by Finance
GB121-4
Page 2 402-108, Rev. C
Project Lifecycle
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Define BB Engaged
Measure
Analyze
Improve
Control
BB enters project into tracking tool, project costs are estimated and entered as they occur
Projected Savings are estimated (Finance consulted and briefed on project costs and benefits)
Enter steady-state of savings during or at end of Control and estimate Committed Savings
Projected Savings Net savings estimated to be achieved over 12 month period Committed Savings Net savings identified as a result of a signed contract, pricing agreement, or proposed Budget Reduction Implemented Savings Net Savings realized through buying off contracts, release of POs, or reductions in budget
At the end of each month, BB enters Implemented Savings based on actual results.
At the end of each quarter, Finance approves Implemented Savings and enables Roll-up!!
GB121-5
Keys Points Six Sigma Financial Impact Summary

As part of measuring the financial impact of Six Sigma projects, Tyco International and its subsidiaries have adopted common categorization and measurement standards to determine savings related to each project. The financial impact of every project is versus the prior year or current year established baseline. However, all financial impacts need to be reviewed and approved by the financial individual responsible for the department and/or division Operating Plan (Budget). All project specific costs must be netted against the project savings (cost reductions or margin associated with revenue increase). General costs (e.g. Six Sigma resources and training, external consultants, license fees, etc) will be netted against the aggregate net savings for reporting purposes.
GB121-6
Page 3 402-108, Rev. C
Six Sigma Financial Impact Classification Matrix

Prior Year or Current Year Baseline Impact Hard (Impact or change vs. Baseline) Increase Revenue Reduce Costs Increase Cash (Sustainable) Soft (No Impact or change vs. Baseline) Avoid Loss of Revenue Avoid Additional Cost Avoid Additional Investment
Category
Revenue Growth * Cost Productivity Working Capital/ Cash Flow
* The Hard Budget impact of revenue growth will be the margin associated with increase in revenue
GB121-7
Detailed Project Classification Criteria Revenue Growth *

Category Revenue Growth Hard * Revenue Growth Hard * Revenue Growth Hard * Area Administrative Errors Discussion Comments -Reduction in customer returns and complaints. -Translates into lead time reduction which can be tied to revenue growth and fall through. -Look for revenue growth due to ability to meet customer requested dates. -Delivery performance improvement does not equate to increasing inventory. How to Measure -Increases revenue due to elimination of errors. -Hard savings is revenue growth due to additive business without additional capacity. -Hard savings is revenue growth due to additive business without additional capacity.
Increased Mfg. Flexibility *
Delivery Performance
Revenue Growth Soft*
Customer Returns / Customer -Project the potential loss of Complaints business.
-Savings associated with lost business due to poor quality
* The Hard Budget impact of revenue growth will be the margin associated with the increase in revenue
NOTE: The information above are only guidelines and should serve as a starting point only
GB121-8
Page 4 402-108, Rev. C
Detailed Project Classification Criteria Cost Productivity - Hard

Category Area Discussion Comments
-May result in a reduction in WIP inventory.
How to Measure
-Purchased price reduction is hard savings. -Reduction in receiving inspection is a hard savings only if the person / position is eliminated. -Redeployment of people may result in soft savings. -Reduction in overtime results in hard savings. -Reduction in use of agency results in hard savings. -Hard savings if less raw material is purchased. -Calculate the savings using the standard manufacturing costs.
Cost Supplier Cost, Delivery, Productivity Service, Quality - Hard
Cost Productivity Performance Productivity (Direct costs) - Hard
-Monitor the people component. -Report the equivalent peoples work that we dont need to pay.
Cost Cost of Poor Quality Productivity - Hard
-Possible savings from: -Not needing to buy a certain amount of raw material. -Calculate the direct costs associated with the replenishment process -Must be cautious of the use of variable vs. fixed costs.
GB121-9
Detailed Project Classification Criteria Cost Productivity - Soft

Category
Cost Floor Space Productivity - Soft
Area
Discussion Comments
-To generate savings, the floor space that is freed up must be reallocated for production. -Utilize purchased cost avoidance.
How to Measure
-If the production space is reallocated, the savings will be hard. -The cost savings will be soft until the production space is utilized. -Cost per square foot is considered overhead. -Determine the increase in billings / revenue or reduction in backlog. -Reduction in overtime. -Reduction in variance over time.
Cost Equipment Utiliz ation * Productivity - Soft
Cost Tooling Productivity -Soft
-Creates the ability to run more product, but the savings is soft until there is demand. -Provides opportunities for insourcing. -There is no savings when you create downtime more quickly. -Opportunity to reduce the equipment base. -A cost must be eliminated. -Initiatives to improve / increase the life of the tooling.
Hard savings if there are purchasing savings or if the useful life is extended resulting in reduced depreciation Soft savings if internal capacity is freed up becomes a hard savings if there is a resource reduction or additive work.
GB121-10
Page 5 402-108, Rev. C
Detailed Project Classification Criteria Working Capital / Cash Flow

Category Area Working Work-in-Process Inventory Capital / Cash Flow Hard How to Measure -Hard savings are the result of a decrease in Work-in-Process Inventory -This could have a negative - The carrying cost of inventory impact on EBIT Finance to should not be included as this is stay close to the project to a financing activity and it does ensure the correct targets are not impact EBIT or Free Cash established. Flow. -Inventory reduction frees up cash. -Essentially the same -Soft savings could include discussion as WIP inventory. savings due to reduction in obsolete inventory. -Generally we have data at the -Savings can be determined from product line level. the accrual process or from actual write off data. - Frees up cash - Hard savings are recognizable when benefits can be sustained over time Discussion Comments -Projects will need to be able to determine the WIP.
Working Finished Goods and Capital / Component Inventory Cash Flow Hard / Soft
Working Reduction in Receivables or Capital / Increase in Payables terms Cash Flow Hard
GB121-11
Six Sigma Project Financial Impact Examples
GB121-12
Page 6 402-108, Rev. C
Financial Impact Examples:

Revenue Growth Cost Productivity Working Capital (Cash)
GB121-13
Example 1: Growth Project

A production step in a one of Tycos plants is currently running at full capacity (24 hours x 7 days per week) and limiting the total potential sales because the demand for our product is greater than what we can produce. The next capacity limitation for our plant is over 1300 pounds per hour. There are more customers that want to buy this product but our plant is unable to meet their demand due to the capacity constraint. The prior year financials were: Sales Factory Cost O-heads & Chgs Operating Income 12.0 MM$ 6.0 MM$ (2.0 Fixed and 4.0 Variable) 3.0 MM$ (1.5 Fixed and 1.5 Variable) 3.0 MM$
The project Y for the Six Sigma project is to increase the output of this limiting production step from 1200 pounds per hour to 1300 pounds per hour. If this is achieved, the revenue is expected to increase from 12.0 MM$ to 13.0 MM$ / year. In addition, the variable factory cost per unit is expected to then drop from 33.33% of sales to 32.00% of sales.
GB121-14
Page 7 402-108, Rev. C
Example 1: Growth Project

The financial benefit of this project is two-fold: First, the variable manufacturing cost is cut from 33.33% to sales to 32.00% of sales. At last years sales volume, this will result in an operating income impact of $159,600 (12.0 MM$ x (.3333 - .3200)). Second, since the sales were constrained by the plant capacity, there is a financial benefit of the added sales volume that occurred as the capacity increased. In this example, the sales increased by 1 MM$. The operating income/EBIT impact of this added sales is $555,000 (1.0 MM$ x (1 - .32 - .125)). The .32 is the variable factory cost % and the .125 is the variable other. The total project benefits were: $159,600 from reduced variable manufacturing cost + $555,000 from income from added sales $714,600 Total Operating Income impact If the plant were not operating at full capacity, the project savings would only have been the $159,600 from the reduced variable manufacturing cost.
GB121-15
Example 2: Cost / Productivity Project

The final manufacturing step for a product has had poor yields. For the last year, the yield has been 80%. The Production Reporting information for the last 4 quarters is as follows: Prior production information Q1 Output (MM yds) Labor (hrs) Input (MM yds) 1.250 1.000 1000 1.250 Q2 1.000 1000 1.250 Q3 1.000 1000 1.250 Q4 1.000 1000
The Input material has a fully burdened cost of $2.00 / sq yd. The variable cost is $1.50 / sq yd. The fully burdened labor cost is $60 / hour. The variable labor cost is $35 / hour. After the Six Sigma project is complete, the yield improved to 90% and the production reporting information for the next 4 quarters is as follows: New production information Q1 Output (MM yds) Labor (hrs) Input (MM yds) 1.111 1.000 900 1.111 Q2 1.000 900 1.111 Q3 1.000 900 1.111 Q4 1.000 900
The Operating Income impact is $208,500 / quarter. (1,250,000 1,111,000) x $1.50 per sq yard + (100 x $35) = $212,000 The savings is based on the reduced input material required multiplied by the variable cost of the input material and the variable labor savings (Note that the fully burdened amount is not used since benefit costs for labor are not reduced due to the project).
GB121-16
Page 8 402-108, Rev. C
Example 3: Cash Project

A business currently has sales of 45 MM$ per quarter and a DSO (Days Sales Outstanding of 40 days. Several of these days are the result of collection delays due to discrepancies. The Six Sigma Project is to try to reduce the days of DSO due to discrepancies from 5 days to 1 day. If everything else stays equal, this will mean that the DSO will drop by 4 days. Sales & A/R in MM$. Last 4 quarters Q1 Sales A/R DSO 45 20 Q2 45 20 40 Q3 45 20 40 Q4 45 20 40 | | | Q1 47.25 18.9 40 | 21.0 4 Quarters after Project Q2 47.25 18.9 36 21.0 Q3 47.25 18.9 36 21.0 Q4 47.25 18.9 36 21.0 36
If DSO had stayed at 40, the AR would have been:
The Cash Benefit from this project is 2.1 MM$ (21.0 18.9). We would record the cash flow benefit in the first quarter of the project as 2.1 MM$. If the DSO stays at 36 days for the remaining 3 quarters and the sales remain at 47.25 MM$ / quarter the benefit in Q2, Q3, and Q4 would be 0. If either the sales grow or the DSO drops further, then there would be additional benefit recorded in Q2, Q3, or Q4. Some notes on this example: It is recommended to use the average DSO figures from the prior 4 quarters in establishing the baseline for comparison. If that will distort the real benefit, another method is to use the DSO figure from the prior quarter (or 3 months). It is not considered appropriate to use a projected DSO number as the baseline for comparison. Sometimes a DSO project will result in operating income impacts as well. For example, if by reducing discrepancies the business were able to reduce the employee count handling discrepancies from 3 people to 1 person, a cost savings equivalent to two people should be included as an operating income benefit.
GB121-17
Tracking and Roll Up of Savings

As noted before, the tracking tool to be used for the entire company for measurement will be part of a separate training, however, some important things to be aware of are as follows:
There is a Monthly and Quarterly roll up of savings for your entire segment that is reported for all of Tyco. Therefore, you should update estimates (costs and savings) regularly. The Appendix shows the timeline of this reporting. The examples used in this module are very basic. You will be involved in projects that have a much greater complexity. Some more scenarios are enclosed in the appendix. Involve Finance from the beginning. You must be aligned with them in measuring costs and savings.
GB121-18
Page 9 402-108, Rev. C
APPENDIX (Refer to Excel file)
GB121(Appendix)-19
Monthly / Quarterly Update Cycle

(To be covered in specific Tracking training separately)
5th
All MBBs/BBs/GBs enter their Actual impacts for the completed period.
10th
11th
15th
15th 5th
MBB/BB/GB
Quarterly
Quarterly
Financial Leaders
Financial Leaders review Actual numbers for each project and set Ready for Rollup to Yes.
Audited Reporting Period Executives and Financial Leaders can run Enterprise Financial Benefit rollup reports for audited and unaudited projects
Casual Reporting Period
Executives
Quarterly
Financial System Manager resets all audit flags (Ready for Rollup) to No for Financial Benefit metric.
Financial Benefit reports can be run, but numbers reported will be un-audited or may be rough estimates.
Financial Manager
GB121-20
Page 10 402-108, Rev. C
COST SAVINGS GUIDELINES APPENDIX

tyco Six Sigma Financial Impact Categories SUMMARY 1 As part of measuring the financial impact of Six Sigma projects, Tyco International and its subsidiaries has adopted common categorization and measurement standards to determine savings related to each project. 2 The financial impact of every project is versus the prior year or current year established baseline. Also, the financial impact needs to be reviewed and approved by the financial individual responsible for the department and/or division Operating Plan (Budget). 3 All project specific costs must be netted against the increased revenue or reduction of costs for each project. General costs (e.g. Six Sigma resources and training, external consultants, license fees, etc) will be netted against the aggregate net savings for reporting purposes. Prior Year or Current Year Baseline Impact Hard (Impact or change vs. Baseline) Increase Revenue Reduce Costs Increase Cash (Sustainable) Soft (No Impact or change vs. Baseline) Avoid Loss of Revenue Avoid Additional Cost Avoid Additional Investment
Category Revenue Growth * Cost Productivity Working Capital/ Cash Flow
* The Hard Budget impact of revenue growth will be the margin associated with the increase in revenue
Six Sigma Training for Green Belts - Week 1 Tyco, Six Sigma Operational Excellence
402-108, Rev. C
COST SAVINGS GUIDELINES APPENDIX tyco

Six Sigma Financial Impact Examples
Category Revenue Growth Hard Revenue Growth Hard Revenue Growth Hard Area Administrative Errors Discussion Comments -Reduction in customer returns and complaints. -Translates into lead time reduction which can be tied to revenue growth and fall through. -Look for revenue growth due to ability to meet customer requested dates. -Delivery performance improvement does not equate to increasing inventory. -Project the potential loss of business. How to Measure -Increases revenue due to elimination of errors. -Hard savings is revenue growth due to additive business without additional capacity. -Hard savings is revenue growth due to additive business without additional capacity.
Increased Mfg. Flexibility *
Delivery Performance
Revenue Customer Returns / Customer Growth - Soft Complaints Cost Supplier Cost, Delivery, Service, Productivity - Quality Hard
-Savings associated with lost business due to poor quality
Cost Productivity Performance (Direct Productivity - costs) Hard
Cost Transportation, parts movement Productivity Hard
-May result in a reduction in WIP -Purchased price reduction is hard inventory. savings. -Reduction in receiving inspection is a hard savings only if the person / position is eliminated. -Monitor the people component. -Redeployment of people may result in soft savings. -Report the equivalent peoples -Reduction in overtime results in work that we dont need to pay. hard savings. -Reduction in use of agency results in hard savings. -Elimination of outside trucking costs. -Reduction in premium freight is a hard savings. -Elimination of direct labor, e.g. material handler. -Possible savings from: -Hard savings if less raw material is purchased. -Not needing to buy a certain -Calculate the savings using the amount of raw material. standard manufacturing costs. -Calculate the direct costs - There could be a Revenue impact if associated with the replenishment the scrap is being sold. process -Must be cautious of the use of variable vs. fixed costs. -To generate savings, the floor -If the production space is space that is freed up must be reallocated, the savings will be reallocated for production. hard. -Utilize purchased cost -The cost savings will be soft until avoidance. the production space is utilized. -Cost per square foot is considered overhead. -Determine the increase in billings / revenue or reduction in backlog. -Reduction in overtime. -Reduction in variance over time.
Cost Cost of Poor Quality Productivity Hard
Cost Floor Space Productivity Soft
Cost Equipment Utilization * Productivity Soft
-Creates the ability to run more product, but the savings is soft until there is demand. -Provides opportunities for insourcing. -There is no savings when you create downtime more quickly. -Opportunity to reduce the equipment base. -A cost must be eliminated.
402-108, Rev. C
COST SAVINGS GUIDELINES APPENDIX tyco

Six Sigma Financial Impact Examples
Category Area Discussion Comments -All these savings are soft. How to Measure
Indirect Manufacturing Costs Cost Productivity Soft Cost Customer Returns / Customer Productivity - Complaints Soft
-Costs associated with processing -Savings associated with decreased CRM. rework, inspection, production orders to replenish inventory. Soft savings if internal capacity is freed up becomes a hard savings if there is a resource reduction or additive work.
Tooling Cost Productivity Soft
-Initiatives to improve / increase the life of the tooling.
Hard savings if there are purchasing savings or if the useful life is extended resulting in reduced depreciation Soft savings if internal capacity is freed up becomes a hard savings if there is a resource reduction or additive work.
Cost Overhead Costs Productivity Soft
Working Capital / Cash Flow Hard
Work-in-Process Inventory
-CAUTION: this is an area that frequently results in double dipping. -Reduction in overhead costs usually wont occur during the short life of a Six Sigma project. -Projects will need to be able to determine the WIP.
-Hard savings are the result of a decrease in Work-in-Process Inventory -This could have a negative - The carrying cost of inventory impact on EBIT Finance to stay should not be included as this is a close to the project to ensure the financing activity and it does not correct targets are established. impact EBIT or Free Cash Flow.
Working Capital / Cash Flow Hard / Soft
Working Capital / Cash Flow Hard Working Capital / Cash Flow
-Inventory reduction frees up cash. Finished Goods and Component -Essentially the same discussion -Soft savings could include savings Inventory as WIP inventory. due to reduction in obsolete inventory. -Generally we have data at the -Savings can be determined from the product line level. accrual process or from actual write off data. Reduction in Receivables or - Frees up cash - Hard savings are recognizable Increase in Payables terms when benefits can be sustained over time Inventory Write-off -Some inventory write off is tied to -Avoiding the write off provides the business environment. hard savings by making a contribution to cash flow. -Can be characterized as per -Reduction in provision balance at unit of demand. the PL or PC level.
402-108, Rev. C
SUMMARY

Summary Week 1
GB121-1
Purpose
You have been exposed to a number of tools and techniques this week You now must plan to put those tools to use on your project This module will provide some insight as to what the expectations are for your project for next weeks presentation Take the next few hours to develop your action plan for your project efforts over the next few weeks
GB121-2
Page 1 402-108, Rev. C
SUMMARY
Getting Ready for Week 2 Training

A project team is in place and functioning with the Project Leader effectively facilitating The team understands the business impact of the project Definition of the business and project metrics are complete and documented in the Charter A detailed level 1 process map is developed and reflects key customer requirements and all process variables The initial Value Stream Map is developed
GB121-3
Getting Ready for Week 2 Training

The relationship between process inputs and customer requirements has been investigated to provide direction for variable investigation (C&E Matrix) Risk assessment and reduction efforts are documented and implemented as a result of the FMEA The measurement system is in place and the measurement system capability studies are completed for both variables and attributes Initial Capability Studies have been completed
GB121-4
Page 2 402-108, Rev. C
SUMMARY
Project Tracking
Project Description MSA
1st Capability Study & SPC
Process Map
C&E Matrix
Measure
Preliminary FMEA
Multi-Vari
Analyze
These are typically done These are typically done Before the second class. Before the second class.
DOE (or other improvement activities)
Improve
Control Plan Hand Off Training Final Capability Study Owner Sign-Off Final Project Report
Control
GB121-5
Level 0 Process Map / Initial Value Stream Map

Importance to Improvement Process
ALL processes need to be mapped Identifies ALL potential Key Process Input Variables (Input Variables) affecting the process If not done correctly and in detail, further actions may not be effective(dont miss the noise !) All other tools in the DMAIC process rely on a welldefined, well-documented process map The results of this effort will be the input for Input Variable selection later on
IT MUST BE DONE THOROUGHLY
GB121-6
Page 3 402-108, Rev. C
SUMMARY

Application Methods
A cross functional team is utilized to document the process steps and Input Variables through a series of focused meetings facilitated by the Project Leader All pertinent process experts need to be involved
Outputs
A documented process A complete list of Input Variables by step Visual representation of the process Each Input Variable classified as Controlled or Uncontrolled Initial Control Plans for Output Variables
GB121-7

Questions to Ask Who was on your team? How were the Customer Requirements identified? What does the team feel are the most important Uncontrolled Input Variables in the process? Does this map reflect the current process or the one we want? Where are the rework loops identified? What are the non-value added processes? Where are the measurement points in the process? What does your Control Plan include at this time? How many Input Variables did you identify per step (on average)? What is the team going to do next?
GB121-8
Page 4 402-108, Rev. C
SUMMARY
C&E Matrix
Importance to Process Aids in the prioritization of process steps and Input Variables to evaluate further Provides a method to reduce the efforts in FMEA by only addressing Input Variables correlated highly to Customer Requirements Application Methods The Project Leader will develop the matrix and use the Team members to determine the correlation scores In processes with many steps (over 10), process steps are first prioritized using a C&E Matrix Then, all Input Variables from the key process steps are prioritized for further action Marketing, Sales, QA/QC, and others should be utilized to determine customer ranking scores for Customer Requirements
GB121-9
C&E Matrix
Outputs
A prioritized list of Input Variables to investigate further using FMEA, Multi-vari, etc. Updated Control Plan focused on variables related to Customer Requirements Prioritization of potential Measurement Systems to be analyzed
GB121-10
Page 5 402-108, Rev. C
SUMMARY
C&E Matrix
Questions to Ask Who was on your team? Who determined the Customer Requirements weighting? Did you use the C&E Matrix to prioritize Process Steps to address first? How did the team determine the correlation values? Does the prioritization make sense? How many Uncontrolled Variables rated highly in the sorted matrix? How did the team determine the cut-off for variables to investigate further? Did your team include internal customer requirements? What are your next steps?
GB121-11
C&E Matrix - Example

Rating of Importance to Customer 5 1 10 2 Quality to meet Expectations 7 3 8 1 10 2 8 3 5 4
1st Pass Efficiency
Capacity
On-time Delivery
Uptime
Total
Speed
Safety
Total
Process Step 14 16 7 9 17 19 2 8 5 26 10 28 6 11 21 Pre-Heat Pre-Heat Pre-Heat Pre-Heat Pre-Heat Pre-Heat Pre-Heat Pre-Heat Pre-Heat Pre-Heat Pre-Heat Pre-Heat Pre-Heat Pre-Heat Pre-Heat
Process Input Plan Limits Roll Cleaning (frequency and procedure) Roll Surface Temperature Valve Positions Air Pressure to Control Valves Steam Pressure from Boiler Sheet Gauge (Variation) Roll Surface Quality Sheet Dryness Airborne Contaminant Level Roll Speeds Resin Properties Inlet Sheet Temperature Dancer Load Cell Calibration Bearing Lubrication 9 3 3 3 3 3 3 9 3 1 3 3 3 3 1 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 3 1 1 9 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 1 3 3 3 1 1 198 126 126 126 126 126 126 156 112 102 126 126 66 32 22 9 3 9 9 9 9 9 3 3 3 3 1 3 3 3 3 9 3 3 3 3 1 3 3 3 1 0 0 3 3 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 3 1 1 9 1 3 3 3 3 3 1 1 1 3 3 9 3 1 219 191 189 189 189 189 169 131 131 131 121 95 93 77 67
GB121-12
Page 6 402-108, Rev. C
SUMMARY
FMEA
Importance to Process Identifies potential risks to the process performance as related to the Customer Requirements Identifies prioritized actions to reduce risk Provides a history of actions taken to improve the process Provides a basis for a Troubleshooting Guide Application Methods The Project Leader will develop the initial FMEA inputs and use the Team members to complete the inputs and rate Severity, Occurrence, and Detection values Each prioritized Input Variable from the C&E Matrix should be evaluated with the FMEA Members of the Team determine top ranked Input Variables (highest RPNs) and assign actions to reduce the risk
GB121-13
FMEA
Outputs
A prioritized list of actions to take to reduce risk
Actions identify Who, What, and When
Re-evaluated impact of actions taken (new RPN value) Identification of variables to be investigated further using:
Measurement Systems Analysis Multi-vari studies DOE methods Control methods (Poka-yoke, SOPs, etc.)
Updated Control Plan Initial Troubleshooting Guide / Reaction Plan

GB121-14
Page 7 402-108, Rev. C
SUMMARY
FMEA
Questions to Ask Who was on your team? How were the Severity, Occurrence and Detection values determined by the team? What was the source of the rating scales for Severity, Occurrence and Detection? What are the top Input Variables? What actions are being taken and by whom? What barriers exist to completion of the top ranked items? Are there any quick fixes to be completed? Were Safety items included? How did the team decide what items to investigate further? How did the actions affect the process performance?
GB121-15
FMEA - Example
Process Step Key Process Input Potential Failure Mode Potential Failure Effects S E V How Severe is the effect to the cusotmer? Potential Causes O C C How often does cause or FM occur? Current Controls D E T How well can you detect cause or FM? 3 Alarm / operator response 3 Failed pressure transducer 10 Incorrect set-point 10 Control hardware failure 10 Control power failure 10 Control software error 10 Temperature sensor incorrect 10 Alarm setting incorrect 10 Alarm annuciator failure 10 1 3 None 10 100 4 None 10 300 2 Calibration PM 5 200 2 Unknown 10 200 3 None 10 200 6 Unknown 10 300 4 Plan limits 9 540 Calibration PM 5 200 3 90 90 R P N What is the process step What is the Key In what ways does the Key What is the impact on the Key Process Input? Input go wrong? Output Variables (Customer Requirements) or internal requirements? What causes the Key Input to go wrong? What are the existing controls and procedures (inspection and test) that prevent eith the cause or the Failure Mode? Should include an SOP number.
MDO Preheat
Roll Surface Temperature
Too high
Pick-off, scuffs, increased cleaning, increased scrap, decreased uptime
Control valve sticking 10 Control valve sticking 10 3
Valve positioner and valve PM
GB121-16
Page 8 402-108, Rev. C
SUMMARY
Studying Measurement Systems

Once we have the right data we must determine our ability to measure it Information to be attained
How big is the measurement error? What are the sources of measurement error? Is the measurement system stable over time? Is it capable for this study? How do we improve the measurement system?
GB121-17

Importance to Process
Measurement System error must be understood to determine the impact to ANY measurement made Measurement error can have a negative impact on a variety of future actions:
Capability assessment Multi-vari studies Statistical Process Control methods Testing for improvements (any statistical evaluation) Design of Experiments Tolerancing of designs Supplied material assessment Final product assessment etc.
GB121-18
Page 9 402-108, Rev. C
SUMMARY

Application Methods
The Project Leader will conduct Measurement Systems Analysis (MSA) for appropriate process measures Team members and support personnel will be involved in MSA activities and improvements Initially, each measurement system used for measuring Output Variables and project metrics must be evaluated Eventually, measurement systems for Critical Input Variables must be evaluated and tracked
This is completed after the verification that the Input Variable has a need to be controlled through DOE
GB121-19

Outputs
Assessment of measurement system capability to measure:
Process changes (%R&R) Compliance to customer requirements (% P/T)
Actions required to make the measurement system effective in measuring process change and compliance to customer requirements Updated Control Plans and FMEA
GB121-20
Page 10 402-108, Rev. C
SUMMARY

Questions to Ask Who performed the MSA? What are the %P/T and %R&R values? What was the main source of measurement error? What actions are necessary for improvement, and what impact will they have? How were the samples selected for the MSA? What is the measurement system acceptable for use in assessing Process Shift or Acceptance to Spec? What variable(s) have you completed MSA on - Output Variables or Input Variables? What effect will this measurement system have on Capability assessments, Multi-vari studies, and DOEs? How is the measurement capability going to be monitored into the future?
GB121-21
MSA - Example
GB121-22
Page 11 402-108, Rev. C
SUMMARY
Attribute Data MSA

If many people are evaluating the same thing they need to agree:
With each other With themselves
Attribute data contains less information than variables data, but often it is all thats available
Therefore, we must be diligent about the integrity of attribute measurement systems
The issue is
Can I rely on the data coming from my measurement system?
GB121-23
Attribute MSA Goals

Determine:
% overall agreement % agreement within appraisers (Repeatability) % agreement between appraisers (Reproducibility) % agreement with known standard (Accuracy) Kappa (how much better the measurement system is than random chance)
GB121-24
Page 12 402-108, Rev. C
SUMMARY
Kappa Techniques Kappa will be between -1 and +1 Kappa will be between -1 and +1
Kappa Value -1 to 0.0 > 0.60 > 0.70 > 0.90 Suggested Interpretation Random agreement Marginal - Significant effort required Good - Improvement warranted Excellent
A Kappa value of +1 means perfect agreement General Rule: If K<0.70, the measurement system needs attention!
GB121-25
Measurement Systems - Questions to Ask

Have you picked the right measurement system? Is this measurement system associated with either critical inputs or outputs? What do the precision, accuracy, and stability look like? What are the sources of variation and what is the measurement error? What needs to be done to improve this system? Have we informed the right people of our results? Who owns this measurement system? Who owns trouble shooting? Does this system have a control plan in place? Whats the training frequency? Is that frequent enough? Do identical systems match?
GB121-26
Page 13 402-108, Rev. C
SUMMARY
Capability Studies
Importance to Process
Initial capability (baseline) of the process to perform to customer requirements (Output Variables) needs to be determined before changes are made Assessment after improvements are made are used to establish the level of improvement and long-term performance to specification This is the basis for Statistical Tolerancing (used in designing new products) to provide more designs aligned better with manufacturability Provides an estimate of the percentage of product that will be non-conforming Provides first look into the sources of variation in the process through data-mining techniques
GB121-27
Capability Studies
Application Methods The Project Leader will conduct Capability Studies on appropriate project measures
Output Variables Business Metrics
Team members and support personnel will be involved in data collection Baseline performance, project goals and process entitlement values are established based on these studies Outputs Baseline, Goal and Entitlement values for Business Metrics and Updated Charter and FMEA reflecting new data Initial data analysis to identify potential sources of variation
GB121-28
Page 14 402-108, Rev. C
SUMMARY
Capability Studies
Questions to Ask What variables have you conducted capability studies on? What is the expected Short Term and Long Term performance of that variable? What are the suspected contributing factors to the variation in the process? How does the measurement system performance impact the process capability? What should the goals for the process capability (Cp / Cpk) be based on the baseline data? Over what time frame were the data taken? How many data points / sub-groups were used to determine the process capability? Was the data normally distributed? How do we handle non-normal data?
GB121-29
Capability Study - Example
GB121-30
Page 15 402-108, Rev. C
SUMMARY
Project Presentation
<Project Name>
<Belt> <Business Unit> <Champion> <Project Review Date>
GB121-31
Project Presentation <Name of Project>

<Brief Statement of Project Scope>
Belt Candidate: <name> <email> Team Members: <name> <email>
<Projected Financial Results>

GB121-32
Page 16 402-108, Rev. C
SUMMARY
Project Accomplishments To Date

Key Learning: Tools Used:
GB121-33
Project Accomplishments To Date

Obstacles Overcome: Benefits to Date:
Financial Results to Date:
GB121-34
Page 17 402-108, Rev. C
SUMMARY
Tools Overview
<List tools utilized since the last project review>
GB121-35
Specific Tools Review

<What tool was used, where, how> <Output from Minitab> <Impact> <Benefit gained>
GB121-36
Page 18 402-108, Rev. C
SUMMARY
Project Plans
<Upcoming planned activities and tools to be used to achieve the project deliverables>
GB121-37
Project Issues
<Obstacles that need to be overcome>
GB121-38
Page 19 402-108, Rev. C
SUMMARY
Example Process Map

Questions
Who helped develop the map and what organizations do they represent? Does it reflect current state or the desired process? Are all non value-added steps included? What quick-hits did you find from this effort? What process steps does the team feel can be eliminated or combined to reduce opportunities for scrap and increase rate? What characterizes an Uncontrolled and a Controlled variable? How do we measure the product for defects within the process?
2
INPUTS
Techniques Procedures Raw Materials Rework Equipment Environment Cleanliness Dicy Solution Temp
PAPERWORK TURN STEAM ON TO DICY TANK
COMPOUNDING
OUTPUTS
Reactivity (Gel) Viscosity Cleanliness Color Homogeneity Consistency Batch to Batch Digestion Time Temperature
LOAD DMF
LOAD DICY
LOAD 2MI
BILL OF MATERIALS ISO PROCEDURES REWORK
SCALE ACCURACY PREHEATING
LOAD ACCURACY CLEANLINESS RAW MATERIAL
LOAD ACCURACY ENVIRONMENT (HUMIDITY) RAW MATERIAL MIXER SPEED LOAD DRUM STOCK TO PORTABLE
LOAD ACCURACY ENVIRONMENT (HUMIDITY) RAW MATERIAL MIXER SPEED
GET PORTABLE
CLEAN IF NECESSARY
LOAD SOLVENT TO PORTABLE
PROPER SIZE REWORK
CLEANLINESS CROSS CONTAMINATION
LOAD ACCURACY ENVIRONMENT RAW MATERIAL
LOAD ACCURACY ENVIRONMENT RAW MATERIAL MIXER SPEED
LOAD BULK MATERIAL TO PORTABLE LOAD ACCURACY ENVIRONMENT RAW MATERIAL MIXER SPEED
PUMP DICY SOLUTION TO PORTABLE PUMP RATE MIXER SPEED FILTERING TEMPERATURE COMPLETE SOLUTION
DIGEST
STAGE
BATCH TO TREATER
TIME MIX SPEED VENTING ENVIRONMENT
TIME MIX SPEED VENTING ENVIRONMENT
GB121-39
Example Cause and Effects Matrix

Questions
Who provided inputs to the Customer Requirements for this matrix? What groups determined the relationship ratings for the Inputs and Outputs? What method was used to determine the final relationship score? What actions are being taken on the top ranked Input Variables? Are there any quick hits that can be assigned to lower ranking Input Variables? Do the current Control Plans reflect the need to monitor these top Input Variables?
Cause and Effect Matrix
Rating of Importance to Customer 7 1 9 2 4 3 10 4 8 5 10 6
thickness
C overage
hardness
Process Step 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Total Paint Paint Paint Prime Paint Paint Prime Prime Prime Prime Paint Paint Paint Prime Prime Prime
Process Input Nozzle type Paint viscosity Air pressure Primer age Paint age Surface contamination Air pressure Nozzle type Surface contamination Relative humidity Ambient temp Surface roughness Lot number Surface roughness Lot number Ambient temp 9 9 9 9 9 1 9 9 1 1 1 3 0 0 1 1 504 0 9 3 9 9 9 1 0 3 9 9 1 1 1 3 3 630 9 9 9 9 9 3 9 3 3 9 9 3 0 3 0 9 384 9 9 9 3 3 9 9 9 9 1 0 3 3 3 3 0 820 9 3 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 1 9 1 3 928 9 3 3 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 3 9 0 3 0 310 Total 351 324 318 282 282 272 270 237 208 206 196 174 137 123 102 94
Lower Spec Target Upper Spec This table provides the initial input to the FMEA. When each of the output variables (requirements) are not correct, that represents potential "EFFECTS". When each input variable is not correct, that represents "Failure Modes". 1. List the Key Process Output Variables 2. Rate each variable on a 1-to-10 scale to importantance to the customer 3. List Key Process Input Variables 4. Rate each variables relationship to each output variable on a 1to-10 scale
GB121-40
scheme
Surface
quality
Proper
Paint
Paint
R ate
Page 20 402-108, Rev. C
SUMMARY
Example FMEA
Questions
Who helped develop the FMEA and what organizations do they represent? Does the tool reflect current state or the desired process? What quick-hits did you find from this effort? What type of ranking system did you use ? Did you complete the actions recommended section of the tool ?
Process Step/Input Potential Failure Mode Potential Failure Effects S E V Potential Causes O C C Current Controls D E T R P N
Load DMF/DMF Load Accuracy Steam to DICY/Scale Accuracy Load DMF/DMF Load Accuracy Steam to DICY/Scale Accuracy Steam to DICY/Scale Accuracy
Mischarge of DMF
Viscosity out of spec
SOP not Followed
Operator Certification/ Process 5 175 Audit
Scale Not Zeroed
Mischarge DMF
Faulty Scale
None Maintenance Procedure (SOP 5821)/Visual Check Visual Check of Jacket (SOP 5681) Visual Check (SOP 5681)
54
Mischarge of DMF
Viscosity out of spec
Equipment Failure
42
Scale > 0
Low DMF Charge
Water in Jacket
24
Scale Inaccurate
High DMF Charge
Tank Hanging Up
24
GB121-41
Example Baseline Capability Data

Questions
What variables were evaluated? Are they stable? Are there explanations for out of control points? How long was the process monitored to determine stability? What are the largest types of variation over time - shift to shift, week to week, etc.?
6.00% 5.00% 4.00% 3.00% 2.00% 1.00% 0.00%
Registration Scrap Registration Scrap
Fiscal Week
GB121-42
Page 21 402-108, Rev. C
SUMMARY
Example MSA Results

Questions
What are the major sources of measurement error? How much measurement error exists in comparison to the process variation? In comparison to the customer requirements? Is the measurement system acceptable for the process improvement efforts? If not, what actions do you suggest? How were the samples chosen? Was the team sensitive to subgrouping for sample selection?
Gage R&R %Contribution (of VarComp) 10.67 3.10 7.56 2.19 5.37 89.33 100.00 Study Var (5.15 * SD) 0.34306 0.18509 0.28885 0.15553 0.24340 0.99282 1.05042 %Study Var (%SV) 32.66 17.62 27.50 14.81 23.17 94.52 100.00 %Tolerance (SV/Toler) 68.61 37.02 57.77 31.11 48.68 198.56 210.08 Source Total Gage R&R Repeatability Reproducibility Operator Operator*Sample Part-To-Part Total Variation VarComp 0.0044375 0.0012917 0.0031458 0.0009120 0.0022338 0.0371644 0.0416019
Source Total Gage R&R Repeatability Reproducibility Operator Operator*Sample Part-To-Part Total Variation
StdDev (SD) 0.066615 0.035940 0.056088 0.030200 0.047263 0.192781 0.203965
Number of Distinct Categories = 4
GB121-43
Example Capability Summary

Questions
What are the long and short term process capability values? How does this compare to the customers perspective of performance? Is there a significant opportunity to improve beyond current levels (i.e., how large is the gap between Cp and Ppk)? What are the definitions of defects and opportunities? Are the capabilities established for Input Variables and Output Variables from the C&E?
Customer Requirement (Output Variable) Fire Retardency Selvage Edge Consistency Membrane Stability Upper Lower %R&R or Spec Target Spec Cp P/T Ratio Limit Limit 25% 15% None 3 4.5 0.75 1.5 4 0.5 na 3.5 na 1.15 0.85 1.1 0.65 50 25
Measurement Technique UL 700 On-line Physical Measurement Oven Test
Cpk
Sample Date Size
Status
No Data Available Improvement Sep-95 Plan in Place Measurement Aug-95 Study Scheduled
GB121-44
Page 22 402-108, Rev. C
SUMMARY
Summary of Week 1 Training

Effective team in place with clear goals and plans to achieve success Good understanding of the current process and its capabilities Measurement systems established and their capabilities understood Initial Control Plans in place and gaps identified Linkage between project goals and business impact is internalized by all Visible project plans at all levels
GB121-45
Page 23 402-108, Rev. C

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402-108

SIX SIGMA TRAINING FOR GREEN BELTS WEEK 1

16Feb04 Rev C EC 0990-0196-04

Six Sigma Operational Excellence

Rev C February 16, 2004

Process Improvement Methodology

Rev. A Printed 3/10/2004 2003 by Sigma Breakthrough Technologies, Inc.

Rev. A Printed 3/10/2004 2003 by Sigma Breakthrough Technologies, Inc.

Page 1 402-108, Rev. C

Rev. A Printed 3/10/2004 2003 by Sigma Breakthrough Technologies, Inc.

Rev. A Printed 3/10/2004 2003 by Sigma Breakthrough Technologies, Inc.

Page 2 402-108, Rev. C

Agenda 1st Session

Introduction to Lean 11:00 - 11:30 Team Building LUNCH

11:30 - Noon Noon - 12:30

Capability Studies (cont.)

Effective Team Meetings and Presentation Skills

Introduction to Multi Vari Analysis

Agenda 2nd Session

Rev. A Printed 3/10/2004 2003 by Sigma Breakthrough Technologies, Inc.

Page 3 402-108, Rev. C

Guidelines / Code of Conduct

Expectations & Roles

Rev. A Printed 3/10/2004 2003 by Sigma Breakthrough Technologies, Inc.

Page 4 402-108, Rev. C

STATISTICS REFERENCE GUIDE

Quality Tools and Statistics Reference Guide

QUALITY TOOLS AND STATISTICS REFERENCE GUIDE

Purpose of the Reference Guide

Page 1 402-108, Rev. C

STATISTICS REFERENCE GUIDE

Obtaining Additional Copies

Maintained under document control

Page 2 402-108, Rev. C

STATISTICS REFERENCE GUIDE

The 8 Discipline Model for Problem Solving

8 1 Celebrate and Define concern, Communicate Organize and Success Plan

2 Describe Opportunity/ Problem

Page 3 402-108, Rev. C

STATISTICS REFERENCE GUIDE

8D: Example Details

Reference Guide: Section 1-9 Reference Guide: Section 1-9

Use For This Section on 8 - D

Page 4 402-108, Rev. C

STATISTICS REFERENCE GUIDE

The DMAIC Process

When To Use DMAIC

Green Belt Projects:

Page 5 402-108, Rev. C

STATISTICS REFERENCE GUIDE

What is the Result Of the Define Step?

Page 6 402-108, Rev. C

STATISTICS REFERENCE GUIDE

Checklist Define Step

Define Step Leadership Questions

Page 7 402-108, Rev. C

STATISTICS REFERENCE GUIDE

Reference Guide Lean Technologies

Reference Guide Lean Technologies, cont.

Page 8 402-108, Rev. C

STATISTICS REFERENCE GUIDE

The Basic Quality Tools