`Ancient History Notes Year 11

Section 1: Investigating Ancient History: The Nature of Ancient History (15 marks) 5
Archaeology and Science 5
● The changing nature of archaeological excavation and recording techniques 5
● The contribution of archaeological and scientific techniques to the discovery and
investigation of the ancient past, including site surveys using radar, excavation,
dating methods, forensic examination and DNA analysis 6
● Problems associated with reconstructing the past through archaeological evidence,
for example in relation to understanding ancient customs and religious beliefs 10
● The contribution and limitations of ancient texts, inscriptions and iconography to an
understanding of the ancient past. 10
Authentication and Reliability 11
● The syllabus:
Problems of authenticity, including the identification and origin of ancient artefacts,
human remains and documents, and the reliability of ancient writers who did not
witness the events they describe 15
● Methods of authentication, including scientific and comparitive dating techniques
for documents and objects, and cross-referencing of ancient sources 15
● Ancient sources that have been deemed to be fakes or gorgeries over time and the
difficulties of authentication associated with these sources. 15
● The motivations of the perpetrators of fakes and forgeries 15
Preservation, conservation and reconstruction of Ancient Sites 15
● The nature of the site(s), and the condition and extent of the remains 15
● Issues of conservation and preservation of the site(s), including factors which
threaten the integrity or survival of the ancient site, for example environmental
factors, war, deliberate destruction, pillaging, poverty. 15
● The effectiveness/appropriateness of methods used to preserve, conserve and/or
reconstruct the site(s), including relevant national or international charters or
conventions, for example UNESCO, and international efforts to protect ancient sites
of World Heritage significance 16
● The reconstruction of the ancient site(s), for example to restore a site to its original
form, and digital reconstructions 16
Section 2: Investigating Ancient History: Case Studies (30 marks) 17
Tutankhamun’s Tomb 17
● Representations of Tutankhamun - ancient and/or modern, for example ‘tutmania’
and the ‘mummy’s curse’ 17
● The geographical and historical context, including: 17
- An overview of New Kingdom Egypt, the religious crisis and mystery of the
pharaonic line at the time of Tutankhamun 17
- Discovery and excavation of the Tomb by Howard Carter 17
● The range of sources, including: 17
- The structure and key features of Tutankahumn’s tomb 17
 - Tomb paintings and artefacts 17
- The condition of the human remains found in the tomb 17
● Burial customs at the time of Tutankhamun as revealed through the sources,
including: 17
- The evidence for funerary beliefs and practices: deities, afterlife, funeral procession
17
- The nature of mummification 17
- The limitations of evidence for Tutankhuman’s life and reign 17
- The methods and results of scientific analysis/forensic techniques: CT scans and
DNA testing, new theories about Tutankhamun’s life and causes of death 17
- 21st century archaeology and ethical issues in the preservation and examination of
Tutankhamun’s remains 17
Boudicca 18
● Representations of Boudicca - ancient and/or modern 18
● The geographical and historical context, including 20
- Backround of the Celts: tribal organisation of Britian, identification and location of
the iceni 20
- An overview of the Roman conquest of Britian and the nature of Romanisation 21
- Organisation of Roman Britain: role of governor; role of veterans eg) in the towns of
Camulodunom, Verulamium, Londinium; imperial cult at Camulodunum 24
● The range of sources, including: 25
- The works of Tacitus and Cassius Dio - reasons for the revolt, Boudicca,
Trinovantes and other Celts, descriptions of Boudicca 25
- Nature of the sources relating to Prasutagus and Boudicca 35
- Archaeological evidence of the revolt 36
Archaeological Sources 36
● Boudicca’s conflict with Rome as revealed through the sources, including: 38
- The nature of the campaign; Cletic fighting methods, Roman weapons and tactics
38
- The role of Boudicca and Suetonius Paulinus 38
- Aftermath of the revolt; results and consequences for the Cels and Romans 38
Section 3: Features of Ancient Societies (15 marks each) 40
● The chronological and geographical context of the society or societies within the
ancient world 40
● An overview of the key social, economic, religious and political features of the
society or societies 40
Weapons and warfare of Ancient Greece 40
HISTORICAL INTERPRETATION OF SOURCES 40
● The evidence for at least ONE key military encounter, including military strategy 40
● The nature of the sources for weapons and warfare 40
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE MILITARY 40
● The life of soldiers, their training and the conditions of service 40
● The significance of the military within society 40
 POLITICAL, SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF WARFARE 40
● The political, economic and social impact of warfare and conquest 40
CONTINUITY AND CHANGE IN WEAPONS AND WARFARE 40
● Evidence of continuity and/or change 40
● The composition and role of armies and/or navies and changes in forms of
weapons and military tactics 40
DEATH AND FUNERARY CUSTOMS 40
HISTORICAL INTERPRETATION OF SOURCES 41
● The nature of the sources for beliefs, rituals and funerary practices 41
SIGNIFICANCE OF FUNERARY PRACTICES 41
● Funerary practices, for example burial sites, forms of burial, ceremonies, and their
relationship to religious beliefs and social status 41
ATTITUDES AND BELIEFS ABOUT DEATH 41
● The key beliefs and rituals 41
● THe influence and significance of beliefs and rituals 41
● Attitudes to and beliefs about death, eg) the concept of the afterlife 41
CONTINUITY AND CHANGE IN FUNERARY CUSTOMS 41
● Evidence of continuity and/or change 41

Glossary of terms

Mycenaean age The last phase of the bronze age. 1600 -

1100 BC. First advantaged civilisation.

Classical age Persian wars. 5th century BC. Rise of

Macedonia - dath of Alaxander the Great.
War and conflict. Athenian - spartans.

Hellenistic age The period from the death of Alexander the

Great. Greak and macedonian emigration to
areas conquered by ATG.

Polis A greek city state broadly; a state or society

especially when characterised by a sense of
community.

Autonomy The right of organisation, country or region to

be independent and govern itself.
Section 1: Investigating Ancient History: The Nature of Ancient History (15 marks)

Archaeology and Science

● The changing nature of archaeological excavation and recording techniques

Archaeology and Science:
Archaeologists utilise many branches or disciplines in the social and physical sciences to help them
undertake archaeological research. This happens both on site and in the lab.

Archaeological finds may include human and animal remains, soil or other deposited material as well as
organic material. For example, the sciences of botany, zoology and biology can provide information about
the health and diet of ancient peoples as well as aspects of their environments. The application of
scientific techniques to archaeology is referred to as archaeometry.

The impacts of science in archaeology today can be seen in nearly every area of archaeology. Traditional
sciences such as biology, geology, physics and chemistry have contributed greatly in the past to
archaeological research nd now new scientific techniques using satellites, computers, molecular DNA
analysis as well as other new processes are further advancing archaeological research.

As well as the physical sciences, social sciences such as anthropology work alongside archaeologal
practice to create more detailed and accurate understanding of the ancient past and human societies.

What is archaeology?
Archaeology is the study of artefacts that are found as evidence of historical happenings such as
fossilised remains.
1. It is a science.
2. It is a study of human activity by excavation of sites and analysing artefacts or physical remains
and/or physical evidence
-Garbology
3. Multi disiplinarian (anthropologist, geologist, botanist, surveyors, forensic scientist, art historians,
photographers) etc.
4. Make inferences about the past. Explain why cultures change
Changing Nature of Archaeology over time.
Archaeology is a younger discipline than history. Historians have been writing history for 3000 years
whereas archaeology is less than 300 years old.

It its earliest days (pre 19th century) archaeology was largely a treasure hunting exercise. There was little
scietific enquiry or method and archaeologists excavated site to acquire beautiful artefacts to place in the
houses of the wealthy and palaces of Europe’s royal families. Little regard was given to how these
treasures were obtained using things such as battering rams and dynamite to get into tombs and buried
structures.

Eventually the desire to place artefacts in museums and showcase them to the public led to an approach
to educate and understand. Excavations became more scientific and even the plainest artefacts; broken
pottery (sherds) and human remains become important for study. Pioneers such as Giuseppe Fiorelle, Sir
Flinders Petrie and Sir Mortimer Wheeler developed what we know now as modern or scientific
archaeology.

Developments in human knowledge and understanding of the past helped in this evolution of
archaeology. This has been written about in Renfrew and Bahn’s archaeological textbook Arhcaeology:
Theory, Methods and Practice.

Christian Jurgensen Thomsen 1893

Three age system:
1. Stone
2. Bronze
3. Iron

Recording Techniques:

● The contribution of archaeological and scientific techniques to the discovery and investigation of
the ancient past, including site surveys using radar, excavation, dating methods, forensic
examination and DNA analysis
Excavation:
Archaeologists employ a strict methodology in excavation and research of a site. However, an
archaeological site must first be discovered. Obvious monumental structures have always been easily
recognisable as archaeological sites. Most sites however are not easily found pr identifiable. Chance
usually plays a role in the dosicovery of buried sites. Natural forces such as wind and water expose
remains as well as human activity like -
- Ploughing
- Land reclamation
Digging of building foundations
Quarrying and dredging
Onstruction of roads, railways, sewers, dams and canals
Fishing or underwater diving
Warfare
Metal detecting

Surveying:
Archaeologists use various surveying techniques to help discover and investigate archaeological sites.
These techniques have also involved as technology becomes more advanced.

Aerial surveys:
Aerial surveys are conducted from the air. The first aerial surveys were undertaken in the early 20th
century with the use of hot air balloons and later with aircraft. Archeologists were able to photograph the
earth below and see features that were not apparent on the ground. This process became increasingly
popular after world war 2.
Aerial surveys are good at identifying crop marks, soil and shadow marks. These features are often seen
from the air in dryer conditions. Many archaeological sites in Europe have been discovered using aerial
photography to identify these features.

Crop marks are a visible means whereby subsurface archaeology can be seen in the variation of
characteristics of the growth of crops. Crops, like all plants, require fertile soil to grow. Archaeological
features below the soil either inhibit or enhance this growth. Solid features such as walls, and roads will
lead to growing crops developing less lose greenery. This is often called a ‘negative crop mark’. In cases
where ancient ditches are dug the soil has more area and allows for deeper root growth and increased
fertility. Crops here grow more abundantly and are often taller or greener in dryer conditions. These are
called ‘positive crop marks’

Remote sensing technology:

More modern technologies also include satellite photography that allows for the use of satellites using
remote sensing technology to locate sites from space. LIDAR, another remote sensing techniques uses
lasers to map sites below the Earth’s surface.

Ground surveying:
Most common of the survey methods used by archaeologists. These occur either to locate or explore a
site. The simplest of these is field walking to identify artefacts on the surface of the ground.
Archaeologists map out sites in grids and plot the location of surface finds. Surface finds indicate
archaeology below the surface, however the finds on the surface indicate the disturbing of the material
usually due to farming or some other human activity.

Geophysical surveys use radar, electric currents and magnetic fields using specialised equipment to
locate archaeological material. Most archaeological projects will complete a geophysical survey on their
site before beginning to excavate. Geophysical surveys can be costly as you usually have to contract a
specialist with equipment to undertake the survey.

Ground penetrating radar (GPR)

GPr uses radar pulses to produce images of the subsurface, radar signals in the form of electromagnetic
pulses are directed into the ground. Reflections from objects, and also sometimes changes in soil
composition, are recorded. The depth of objects can also be measured based on the time it takes to get a
reflection. This process is non invasive and therefore can be used to pre-empt physical excavation or can
provide enough information to avoid physical excavation of a site.

Resistivity
A resistivity meter is used to pass an electric current between two metal probes in the ground. The
resistance of the soil to the current will indicate the p0resence of archaeological material. The surveys
can uncover differences in soil moisture to reveal buried structures up to 1.5m depth. Walls will be
indicated by high resistance whereas ditches or pits by low resistance. The method can be slow because
of the removal and reinsertation of probes at regular intervals but it does produce highly detailed results.

Magnetometry
Magnetometry is a surveying technique used to identify areas of human activity by mapping variations
and contrast of magnetic properties of oil and subsoil. Properties are detected using an electron
magnetometer. Highest readings come from iron, brick, burnt soil, and rock. Therefore, archaeological
material consisting of these materials is easily detected. Lower readings may also indicate disturbed soil
or decaying organic remains. A map of archaeological features can be constructed. These types of
surveys are particularly suited to dry deserts such as in Egypt.

Types of surveys Description Example of use

Aerial survey: Identify crop marks/shadow Drones, airplanes, hot air ballon
Conducted from satellite marks in the soil. Crops grow (20th century)
photography, locates sites from different when something is on
space. top eg) walls, less growth,
negative crop marks.

Ground penetrating radar: Field walking, slow, more Machine and walking, back and
Geophysical survey form. Uses accurate than air though. Uses forward, images are sent to
electric currents, magnetic fields radar pulses to reflect images. computer
to locate underground material. Non invasive

Resistivity survey: Passes electric current between Can uncover different soil
Geophysical two probes (metal) in the moisture.
ground. Resistance of soil to the Grid pattern
current indicates material.

Magnetic survey: Identifys human activity. Maps Dry deserts in Egypt. Map of
Highest from iron, brick, burnt variations of soil. (magnetic archaeological finds is
soil, rocks. properties) constructed.
Lowest from disturbed soil,
decaying organic material

Stratification: Layers of the Earth, how it is How materials are buried and at
Archaeoogists measure the level formed over time and the what level. Disasters change
of the Earth and record the type changes within it. Different layers drastically.
of artefact found in it. levels.

The excavation process

Archaeoloigcal excavations are carried out for research or rescue (salvage) purposes. Research
excavations are usually well planned and carried out over a longer period of time, sometimes through
many seasons. However, salvage digs occur in a more limited timeframe. Sometimes there is only time to
remove as many artefacts as possible before development needs to continue on a site.

Grid excavation:
Allows archaeologists to study the site by using a vertical layer by layer approach in a specifically marked
out grid area of a site. Often string is used to create the grid after careful measurement. Soil between the
grid areas is left untouched to provide a record of the layers. These untouched areas are called baulks.
Each baulk provides a vertical record of the sequence of layers and their relationship to each other. The
layers are called strata and the study of strata is called stratitgraphy. THe principle is that the oldest
material is on the lowest layers and the newest material is closest to the surface. Materials collected are
located by coordinates within the grid and their location when found is placed on a map or plan of the site.

An open area excavation:

Is a more common method. A horizontal approach and uncovers the whole site layer by layer. The
emphasis is on understanding the relationships between the things found in each layer of stratum. Each
succeeding stratum is not exposed until the layer above it is completely excavated and document or
recorded. Some archaeological sites are exposed with a combination of both open and grid methods,
dependent on the terrain, the research and complexity of the site.

Dating methods:
Relative dating:
Relative dating is based on the principles of stratigraphy and typology to establish approximate dates for
archaeological finds.
Stratigraphic dating:
Each layer represents a different period in human history. Records are kept to show which strata an
artefact came from. General rule: The closer to the surface - the younger the artefact.
Challenges include burrowing animals, erosion, landslides, digging etc. These can remove artefact from
original context.
Typology dating:
Organises artefacts in chronological sequence. Groups such as pottery, tools and weapons can be
arranged from earliest to latest.
- Distintice features (shape, decoration, materials object is made from)
- Generally early artefacts tend to be slimpler than later artefacts.

The three age system:

One of the earliest systems of organising finds in sequential order was Thomsen’s three age system. This
is another application of relative dating.
He decided to divide up artefacts based on the technology of stone, bronze and iron. Each technology
was understood to evolve into the next type.
Despite scientific advancements in the dating of artefacts, relative dating is still the most common
method.
Absolute dating:
Radiocarbon dating:
Dates organic material b/+ 400-500 000 years. All living things absorb radioactive isotope of carbon. At
death this ceases and carbon stored begins to decay at a known constant rate. Dacay rate is 50% after
5730 years. Zero at 50, 000 years.
A more sophisticated version of C-14 dating is AMS radiocarbon dating. THis is Accelerator Mass
Spectrometry. This dating is an improvement on traditional C-14 dating as it can date back to 70 000
years, needs smaller samples and is more accurate as well as producing results in a shorter time.

Archaeology and Science:

Archaeologists utilise many branches or disciplines in the social and physical sciences to help them
undertake archaeological research. This happens both on site and in the lab.

Archaeological finds may include human and animal remains, soil or other deposited material as well as
organic material. For example, the sciences of botany, zoology and biology can provide information about
the health and diet of ancient peoples as well as aspects of their environments. The application of
scientific techniques to archaeology is referred to as archaeometry.

The impacts of science in archaeology today can be seen in nearly every area of archaeology. Traditional
sciences such as biology, geology, physics and chemistry have contributed greatly in the past to
archaeological research nd now new scientific techniques using satellites, computers, molecular DNA
analysis as well as other new processes are further advancing archaeological research.
As well as the physical sciences, social sciences such as anthropology work alongside archaeologal
practice to create more detailed and accurate understanding of the ancient past and human societies.

● Problems associated with reconstructing the past through archaeological evidence, for example
in relation to understanding ancient customs and religious beliefs
Gaps in evidence
Perishable objects may not have survived
Environmental conditions can preserve or destroy
Damaged evidence can make it difficult for historians to draw conclusionsm
Bias can also cause writers to leave gaps in information

Archaeological sources
- Provide evidence of everyday life not usually available in written sources
- All archaeological sources require interpretation
- May draw conclusions about the function or nature of an artefact based on the resemblance
to modern structure
- Location may infer purpose
- Incomplete or damaged artefacts
E.g., looting of Egyptians tombs
- Tentative or speculative conclusion – scholarly debate
- Modern cultural bias
What we value may not be the same as they value
- Misleading clues
- Piltdown man Hoax
- Skull discovered in 1912 accepted as 500 000 years old
- Believed to demonstrate mankind’s evolution and Britain’s role in evolution
- Revealed that:
- Bones were not the same age
- Remains were a combination of human and ape bones
- Radiocarbon test indicated it was 600 years old
- Jawbone belonged to orangutan
- The skull and jawbone had been painted with pigment to give them the
appearance of old age

● The contribution and limitations of ancient texts, inscriptions and iconography to an understanding
of the ancient past.

Archaeologists face many problems in attempting to discover more about our past some include
limitations of evidence. Presence of modern cultural bias and the interpretation of sources are
required.
Limitations: bias, nonfactual evidence, incomplete or damaged artefacts.

Interpretation: Tentative or speculative of conclusions.

These problems limit historical understanding because the truth surrounding events, create
clouded
knowledge about artefacts and our understanding of it is not as it actually was.
Written sources
- Opinions, details not available in archaeological sources
- Texts may be incomplete or damaged
- Represent perspectives off a small, educated elite, mostly men
- Type of text
- Epigraphic: inscriptions
- Numismatic: coins, medals
- Context of author – purpose, opinion
- Social, political, and historical contex

- Audience – tone, language choice, and leaving information out

- Bias
- Gender
- Most ancient resources were composed by men
- Racial, cultural
- Generalisation, and stereotyping
- Political
- Who has the power
- Victor’s interpretation of an event is only an interpretation from his point of view
- Cross referencing of ancient sources (more than one person has written and stated their
opinion about the event creating confusion)

Authentication and Reliability

What is authenticity and reliability, what is the difference between them?

Definition of terms:
Relic authentic original artefact

Fake Altered deliberately, recreated

Replica Reproduction of the original artefact

Forgery new work to imitate the original

Provenance Documented history or record of ownership of an artefact

Where was it found, who made it, who discovered it, where was it held, who
held it?

Authenticity Question of whether it is real, whether it is what it says it is

Is it a true representation?

Reliability How trustworthy it is

 Judgement of the source
Bias?

Sothebys Auction house

Need the provenance for it to put the item on the market, or else there is no
way to prove it is true. They don’t want to sell fake, replicas or forgery, or they
will be fined.
Ways of authentication (sothebys or museums)
Method Examples What can be revealed

Visual examination Naked eye Construction methods,

Light microscopy evidence of wear,
Electron microscopy repair or alteration
Radiography

Materials analysis Pigment analysis Composition of the

Atomic absorption spectrometry original materials and
later additions.

Determination of age Radiocarbon dating Help determine the age

Dendrochronolgy of the material
X-ray diffraction independent of its
stylistic features.

Case studies
The talpiot tomb Contempary case to determine archaeological reliability.

World is non religious compared to years before.

The questioning of religious belief that has been around for 100s of years
is considered dangerous.
- Creates controversy and discrimination

Uncovered a tomb - ancient method of burial (ossauries and epigraphs)

“Yeshua bar Yeosef” - Jeshua, son of Jospeh.
- Interpreted as being Jesus. Tried to prove that it was, but could not
be proved. Considered an issue in terms of world religions.
Translation and interpretations have been widely distributed.
- Main belief of christians is that Jesus defeated death by coming
back to life. Impacts Christian faith.
- Also held various human remains and several carvings

Dude that found it kept it a secret for fear of antisemitism.

For - this being Claim 1. The inscriptions - Jesus son of Joseph, fits with the family tree of
the tomb of jesus Jesus
Claim 2. Mary Magdalene - Wife had a son theory that Jesus and Mary
 were related.
Claim 3. Ancient Christian symbol related to Paul, `
Claim 4.The James ossuary - Brother of Jesus.
James oussarie - missing oussarie.
Impact on the theology of Christian faith.

Against Jesus wasn’t physically resurrected. (Debate)

Those that witnessed his resurrection were convinced it was physical
Names on the ossuaries are very common Jewish names. (up to 25%
given Mary)
Odds of it being the holy family is 1 in 600.
- Statistics and epigraphy
No evidence of mary magdalene being married to Jesus, or anyone else
with a child (no written record).
DNA testing - not conclusive.
Mariame is buried with her husband - translations say.

Authenticity - authenticity is not reliable, there is not enough evidence that the ossuarie
(conclusion) contained Jesus. Can't tell whether the bones are the same person that
was labeled. Animal or human?

Reliability Many people were buried using those tombs, (ossuaries)

(conclusions) Controversy over whether the mary in the tomb is the mary in the holy
family tree.
Unreliable.
Patina does not have fingerprinting quality - cannot fully look at evidence,
so reliability is questionable of this authentication method.

Authentication DNA testing - not matched so not related to family tree of jesus unless she
methods was married in. (mary in the tomb). - controversial point.
Impossible - could be anyone.
Translations of the names by an epigrapher.
Patina - looking at the surface (the clay on top)
FBI photo -
Geochemistry - Analysis of the james ossuary was in the sunlight for up to
100 years.

Turin Shroud

○ What is the source?

Long linen cloth, of flux. Has faintimage of a man being crucified.
○ where, how and when was it found?
Found in Lirey France, in 1354. recorded in the hands of a famed knight, Geoffroi de Charnay,
seigneur de Lirey
○ who found the source?
Geoffroi de Charnay, seigneur de Lirey
○ who initially investigated the source?
Tryoes
 ○ what were some of the initial issues with the discovery?
Denounced as false
○ why is this a significant find?
Scholarly analyses—attempting to use scientific methods to prove or disprove
its authenticity—have been applied to the shroud since the late 19th century.
● What are the arguments regarding its reliability and authenticity?

○ what methods were used to investigate the source

Carbon dating, analysis of pigments. Carbon dated to back when jesus was alive. Use of
microscopy.
○ what were the outcomes of the investigation (was it a fake or forgery?)
● Why would people create historical fakes and forgeries?

The dead sea scrolls

What is the source?
A collection of ancient manuscripts
Who found the source?
Discovered by Bedouin shepherd Muhammed edh-Dhib
Where, how and when was it found?
Discovered in the Qumran Caves in modern Israel. Found in the dead sea, where the salt
content is too high for anything to live there. So the salt content preserved the manuscript.

Who initially investigated the source?

Roland de Vaux french archaeologist

What were some of the initial issues with the discovery?

Why is this a significant find?

Some of them shed light on scholars understanding of the historical context of Jesus and the
early christian church.

What are the arguments regarding its reliability and authenticity?

It predates the time when jesus died. The language is identical.
What methods were used to investigate the source?
Cross referencing, checking one sources accuracy against an older version.
What were the outcomes of the investigation?
Can be shown that the prophecies of Messiah were not introduced after the beginning of the
Church to validate Jesus’s ministry,
Why would people create historical fakes and forgeries?
People thought that it might have been introduced after the beginning of the church, but had
predated it by a long time.
Against:

For:
Although the radiocarbon method was developed at approximately the same time that the
scrolls were discovered, too much disposable material (several grams) was required for dating.

: parchment, papyrus and linen threads.

Pliny’s remark, Since the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered not far from the Dead Sea, Ibrahim Sowmy
suggested that they might have been hidden there by the Essenes during a period of persecution.

-essenes were a jewish sect during the second temple period from 2nd century BCE to 1st
century CE.

● The syllabus:
Problems of authenticity, including the identification and origin of ancient artefacts, human
remains and documents, and the reliability of ancient writers who did not witness the events they
describe
● Methods of authentication, including scientific and comparitive dating techniques for documents
and objects, and cross-referencing of ancient sources
● Ancient sources that have been deemed to be fakes or gorgeries over time and the difficulties of
authentication associated with these sources.
● The motivations of the perpetrators of fakes and forgeries

Preservation, conservation and reconstruction of Ancient Sites

● The nature of the site(s), and the condition and extent of the remains
● Issues of conservation and preservation of the site(s), including factors which threaten the
integrity or survival of the ancient site, for example environmental factors, war, deliberate
destruction, pillaging, poverty.
Natural and human agency : effects of climate and environment, human is the burial of
the dead or the hoarding of valued belongings.

Preservation is the act of ensuring that an ancient site or artefact stays in proper condition, so it
is not destroyed in any way. It is important so that future generations can see them as well, also
to maintain cultural heritage.

Conservation is the deliberate attempt to arrest the process of change and decay, and to protect
and preserve sites and artefacts from the damaging effects of both natural and human agency. It
is important, so that the site can properly represent the cultural heritage or identity of different
groups of people, and to provide accurate insights into the past.
Reconstruction is the process of rebuilding or restoring a site to its original state, or the state it
was in at the period of its history chosen for that particular representation. It is important so that
people can better understand the distant past. It is a visual representation of scientific research.

Modern Conservations Technologies:

Satellite imagery
Aerial photography - drones
GIS mapping
X ray radiology
Computerised image analysis
Neutron radiography
Infrared radiography

Natural agencys example Human agency example

Hot and dry climates Desert conditions Burial customs Interment in tombs,
prevent decay graves,
mummification
preserve

cold climates Extremely cold Continuos site rebuilding , formation

conditions occupations of tells

Preserves organic

Lakes and rivers fire Deliberate or

accidental, baking
clay tablets,
carbonised grain

Palmyra and silk road. Warfare

● The effectiveness/appropriateness of methods used to preserve, conserve and/or reconstruct the

site(s), including relevant national or international charters or conventions, for example UNESCO,
and international efforts to protect ancient sites of World Heritage significance
● The reconstruction of the ancient site(s), for example to restore a site to its original form, and
digital reconstructions
Reconstruction of Knossos

Textbook questions: Preservation, conservation and reconstruction of ancient sites.

 Focus questions Learning outcomes

What are the factors that preserve or threaten Explain the factors that preserve or threaten
the integrity of ancient sites? the integrity of ancient sites

How effective or apporopritae are methods Discuss and evaluate the methods used to
used to preserve and conserve ancient sites? preserve and conserve ancient sites

What are the challenges presented by Discuss the challenges presented by

reconstruction of archaeological sites? reconstruction of archaeological sites

Preservation:

Conservation

Reconstruction:

Section 2: Investigating Ancient History: Case Studies (30 marks)

Tutankhamun’s Tomb

● Representations of Tutankhamun - ancient and/or modern, for example ‘tutmania’ and the
‘mummy’s curse’
● The geographical and historical context, including:
- An overview of New Kingdom Egypt, the religious crisis and mystery of the pharaonic line
at the time of Tutankhamun
Egyptian history is divided into three main periods: Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and New
Kingdom Egypt. These relate to periods when Egypt was unified and had a strong central
government. The times between these periods, the Intermediate Periods, were times when
Egypt was invaded or the country was fractured by civil war

Old kingdom: (2700-2119)

During the Old Kingdom, the pharaoh was the divine ruler of ancient Egypt and was regarded as
the god Horus on earth. Much greater power was held by the pharaoh in the Old Kingdom than
at any later time in Egyptian history.

As a divine monarch, the pharaoh had absolute power. His main duty was to govern Egypt and
to maintain justice and order. As a god himself on earth (Horus), he interceded or mediated
between the rest of the gods and the people.
All of Egypt and the Egyptian people belonged to him. He owned all of the land and the people,
but was himself subject to Ma’at – the goddess of order, truth and balance in the natural order of
things. Through the annual Heb-sed festival, he magically renewed his powers so that he could
continue ruling.

When the pharaoh died he became Osiris in the afterlife and his son, the new Horus, took his
place. The welfare of Egypt thus depended on the well-being of both the dead and living
pharaoh, so great importance was given to building and maintaining tombs. Generally, the
pharaoh was succeeded by his eldest son, born to his ‘great queen’ or major wife. If the ‘great
queen’ did not produce a son, the son of a lesser wife was chosen.

The religious beliefs of Old Kingdom are confusing and often obscure. Little of the written
material on religion before the 5th Dynasty Pyramid Texts has survived. In the earliest times,
there appears to have been hundreds of local gods, many with similar characteristics and
functions. Gradually certain religious centres and their gods rose to prominence and the gods of
the most important centres became an official royal cult. For example, the Mnevis bull at
Heliopolis was associated with the cult of the sun-god Re. Heliopolis was the main religious
centre of the Old Kingdom.

MIddle kingdom: 2035 -1800 BC)

The rise once more of powerful kings heralded the beginnings of the Middle Kingdom and Egypt
became once more, wealthy and powerful. Additions to temples to honour a number of different
gods indicates that local gods were worshipped once more, instead of a single national god.
Funerary rites and mummification previously reserved only for royalty were now adopted by
anyone who could afford them. The traditional site of the tomb of Osiris at Abydos became a
national site of pilgrimage for the dead. During the Middle Kingdom, the royal capital moved to
Thebes, and the local god Amun was promoted and grew in power and status.

Towards the end of the Middle Kingdom, Asiatics from Palestine (the Hyksos) slowly began to
infiltrate the fertile Delta region assuming control of the northern areas of Egypt, basing
themselves in the city of Avaris. It was not until the last few decades of the 17th Dynasty did the
Egyptian kings at Thebes attempt to drive them out. The expulsion of the Hyksos signalled the
beginning of the New Kingdom (1575 -1224 BC), a new age of wealth and prosperity that
included relations with other foreign countries including the Babylonians, Greeks and Syrians.

New Kingdom (1570-1085 BC)

By the New Kingdom , a major change in Egyptian religion had occurred and Amun-Re of
Thebes became Egypt’s most important god. During this period the pharaohs claimed divine
right to the throne as sons of Amun-Re. This god became the promoter of the New Kingdom
nationalism and imperialism and in return for Amun’s divine sanction, the wealth from conquests
was lavished on the temples and priesthood.
The biggest change in religious reform came during the Amarna Age when the Pharaoh,
Akhenaten (formally changed his name from Amenhotep IV), made a revolutionary break with
Egyptian religion and devoted himself to Aten – a new sun disc god. Essentially changing the
religious focus from polytheism to monotheism.

- Discovery and excavation of the Tomb by Howard Carter

● The range of sources, including:

- The structure and key features of Tutankahumn’s tomb
- Tomb paintings and artefacts
- The condition of the human remains found in the tomb

● Burial customs at the time of Tutankhamun as revealed through the sources, including:
- The evidence for funerary beliefs and practices: deities, afterlife, funeral procession
- The nature of mummification
- The limitations of evidence for Tutankhuman’s life and reign
- The methods and results of scientific analysis/forensic techniques: CT scans and DNA
testing, new theories about Tutankhamun’s life and causes of death
- 21st century archaeology and ethical issues in the preservation and examination of
Tutankhamun’s remains

Boudicca

● Representations of Boudicca - ancient and/or modern

Different representations of Boudicca have been made over time. She has been
portrayed as a fierce celtic queen, a warrior that died in battle, and a symbol of the
resistance for the romans. However, in earlier centuries she was seen as some kind of
barbarian, who invoked harsh cruelty on civilians and layed waste to many Roman
settlements. For example, John Flether writes Boudicca as stupid and boastful in the
1614 play 'Bonduca'. After some time, and more historical research had been done, her
legacy began to change. It seems that with the arrival of the feminism movement, in
1848, arrived new interpretations of Boudicca's story. People began depicting her as a
strong and capable leader. Her statue started being built in 1850. Writers and poets
alike gave new insights into her character. For example, Alfred Tennyson's 1860 poem
left viewers imagining Boudicca as a beaeutiful and strong . Therefore, changing
cultural attitudes, historical research and new interpretations have casted Boudicca in a
much more postive manner than in ealier accounts
Extended response example

Boudicca’s representation has evolved significantly over time to reflect different contexts and
agendas, a sentiment that Snyder supports through his comments on her manipulated depictions for
a multitude of motives. Tacitus and Cassius Dio use Boudicca’s image to criticise the political
mismanagement of the Julio-Claudian empire as they depict her as an avenging woman, mother and
ruler who was subjected to Roman brutality. Her image shifts during the 1800s as Boudicca is
portrayed in parallel to Queen Victoria as “a symbol of British imperialism” and to demonstrate power
under female leadership during a time of British territorial expansion. The Women’s Suffrage
Movement appropriated many historic female icons including Boudicca as a metaphor for female
empowerment and freedom from oppression.

Driven by a motive to criticise the Julio-Claudian empire, Tacitus stereotypically depicts Boudicca as
a “dux femina” who was wounded by Roman barbarity while Cassius portrays her as a masculine
woman to highlight the political mismanagement. Tacitus accentuates the barbarity of Roman troops
who were “violating their own moral codes pertaining to warfare” (M. Johnson) through his accounts
that were “intended for the senatorial class in Rome rather than representing an accurate historical
account” (R. Hingley and C. Unwin). He states that “Boudicca was flogged, and their daughters
raped” and “kingdom and household were plundered alike” to reveal her motives of personal
vengeance against the cruelty and brutality of the Romans. Cassius Dio also shares a similar
political of using Boudicca to criticise Nero’s inability to manage affairs in Britain through his
“dramatic, hyperbolic and rhetorical style” (M. Johnson). Dio described Boudicca as a masculine
woman to juxtapose with the effeminacy of Nero, stating that she was “very tall, in appearance most
terrifying, in the glance of her eye most fierce, and her voice was harsh”. Dio aims his writing to
politicians with power and stresses that the “Romans owed their defeat not to Boudicca but Nero”
(A.M. Gowing) in which Boudicca is merely used as “a tool for political commentary” as C. Snyder
asserts. Tacitus and Dio use Boudicca’s image to criticise the rule of the Julio-Claudian empire
through their commentary on Boudicca as a woman wronged by Roman brutality and political
mismanagement.

Boudicca was used as a “figure of patriotic heroism” (R. Hingley and C. Unwin) to draw parallels
between the rule of Vicotria, particularly during a period of British territorial expansion and political
ambition. Boudicca’s legacy was “tailored to the fit the idea of 19th century nationhood” (D.J. Taylor)
and British imperialism, a sentiment that Snyder also shares, where she is used to create “an
emotive patriotic stir at the thought of the ‘virago of a queen’ defying great but alien power.” British
imperialism was symbolised through Boudicca’s representation as a patriotic leader of her nation in
leading them into battle and conquest whilst also focusing on her maternal role through her desire to
avenge familial wrongs. Queen Victoria draws drew upon Boudicca as a fierce warrior queen to
support her own rule as she “appealed to the morality and sense of Britain’s middle classes” (V.
Collingridge) to exemplify how under female leadership a nation can prosper, and further supported
in a Victorian Era statue of Boudicca in Wales where she is trampling a Roman shield while
sheltering her daughters, a reflection of “‘the virago of a queen’ defying a great but alien power”
whilst also being “a patriot, woman and mother” (R. Hingley and C. Unwin). William Cowper’s poem,
Boadicea: An Ode, depicts British triumph and heroism through a Druid’s description of Boudicca,
“Empire is on us bestowed, shame and ruin wait for you!”, to emphasise how her character and
actions assisted the development of British imperialism. Boudicca’s image during the Victorian Era is
used as an imperial icon to bolster the Queen’s image during British territorial expansion and political
ambition.
During the Women’s Suffrage Movement, Boudicca was used as “a tool for political commentary…
and military leadership” (Snyder) particularly in her acting as a symbol of women’s freedom from
oppression, supporting women’s desire and right to vote in political elections to influence the
government. The militant campaigns of the suffragettes mirrored the brutality of Boudicca’s revolt
against the Romans as their strategy of gaining attention and forcing politicians to take action
bordered on terrorism. Boudicca was “an example of militant women and those who died for their
cause” as Hilda Kean comments on and was an inspiration for the suffragettes who were “gaunt,
unprepossessing females… with a raucous voice and a truculent demeanour” which mirrors Didorus
Siculus’s depiction of the Iceni women who were “like men in stature” and a “match for them in
courage”. Mary Lowdes’ banner commemorates Boudicaa as an “eternal female, determined and
empowered by her cause” through its design featuring an Iceni war chariot. Sylvia Pankhurst aptly
invokes the history of Boudicca as an Iceni military leader as precedence for female strength and
militancy against counter-arguments of anti-suffragists who believed women shouldn’t have the right
to vote as they didn’t fulfil the requirements and obligations of a voting citizen. Boudicca was used as
a symbol of women’s rights and freedoms from oppression during the Women’s Suffrage Movement
as she was the embodiment of female military leadership which justified the cause of
twentieth-century Suffragettes.

Even though Boudicca’s image has been “appropriated throughout history for a variety of purposes”
(C. Snyder) that follows differing context and agendas, Boudicca remains an example of strong
female military leadership through her revolt against the Romans. Roman politicians, Tacitus and
Cassius Dio, are driven by their motive to criticise the Julio-Claudian empire and use Boudicca as a
“tool for political commentary” (C.Snyder) to highlight political mismanagement of Britain tribes.
Queen Victoria transforms Boudicca into a “symbol of British imperialism” during British territorial
expansion as a foundation for power and prestige of a nation under female leadership. During the
Women’s Suffrage Movement, Boudicca represented female rights to vote to influence government
and freedom from oppression and was used particularly by the suffragettes who had militant
campaigning methods. Snyder explores how Boudicca’s image has evolved throughout time to be
used as political commentary, a representation of female leadership and British imperialism.

● The geographical and historical context, including

- Backround of the Celts: tribal organisation of Britian, identification and location of the
iceni
The Iceni were a tribe of Britons who lived in
Norfolk and Suffolk. Very little is known about
them. Their coinage has revealed the names of
several pre-Roman rulers who were named
Can-dvro, Anted, Aesved and Saenv.
The iceni worshipped Andraste, the war godess. The Iceni believed she would lead them to
victory during battle. Before going into battle the Iceni people would make offerings to her and
pray. Boudicca prayed to her before leading the rebellion against the roman empire.

It is suggested that they were a wealthy tribe. Hoards of coins were found, including the gold
treasure, Strettisham torques which must have meant that tribal nobles were very wealthy. Their
coins are significant as they are the only coins that are minted to bear the tribal, and the rulers
names.

The iceni revolted after the actions of P. Ostorius Scapula, in 47-48AD. He tried to disarm the
tribes and pacify the province. This took away their independece

Prasutagus was the leader of the Iceni. By leaving the kingdom to his daugthers and emporer
nero he was attempting to protect its independence. After the romans seized his property, the
rebellion started he may have been trying to prevent the Iceni army being crushed by the
romans.

The iceni valued their independence which can be seen from two pieces of evidence. The motifs
used to decorate iceni coins, and they also led revolts against the romans twice.
Made a treaty.
They also maintained their own culture and language even after being conquered by the
romans.

Ancient Celtic Women

Celtic women were distinct in the ancient world for the liberty and rights they enjoyed and the
position they held in society, allowed much freedom of activity and protection under the law.
Nevertheless the Iron Age Celts were a patriarchal people and for the most part men had the
ultimate power in politics and the home. Classical author’s impressions tell how different they
are to whom those writers were familiar, i.e Diodorus of Sicily describes Gaulish women as
being “nearly as tall as the men whom they rival in courage”. Animated, overstated words of
Amiantus Marcellinus conjure images of formidable women among the ancient Celts. Ancient
Celtic women served as both warriors and rulers, and as children both genders could be trained
to fight with weapons. Famous female warriors include Scathach (skya) and Aife, women who
both led armies, and Cuchulainn (ku-khull-in), the greatest hero of Irish legend who was trained
with Scathach. The practice of bearing arms was relatively common among women, and
seemed to have made great use of psychological tactics such as screeching and dancing to
scare and hold off the Romans. Although the highest political authority was often vested in
males, women occasionally became ruling queens and military leaders. Boudicca and her story
is a good example of this. Romans did not take female rulers seriously and sought to take
advantage of what they considered Iceni’s weakness. Boudicca’s ability to unite her people in
revolt was remarkable considering the destabilising Celtic penchant for individual glory, a
consistent precipitating factor in the fall of Celtic Europe to Roman expansion. Queen
Cartimandua was another notable female Iron Age Celtic leader who ruled a tribe of northern
Britain, the Brigantes. She was remembered as a traitor who betrayed and handed over the
leader of Celtic resistance in the West to the Romans, likely for reasons of political expediency
attempting to maintain power through the backing of Rome. Though public life among the Iron
Age Celts was largely the domain of men, women managed to play a prominent role was well
being able to become druids, including priestesses, poets and healers, as well as diplomats and
being able to conduct business without the consent or involvement of their husbands. Plutarch
in the 2nd Century that there was a long standing tradition among the Celts of women acting as
mediators or judges in political and military disputes.

- An overview of the Roman conquest of Britian and the nature of Romanisation

Romanisation – as romans conquer, they influence their stuff.
they take their architecture, - Buildings, temples, sanitization.
Art
Gods
Laws
bring Latin
social structure
Education

Roman occupation
● 43ce-410ce
● Britian comes from the word pretani which is the Greco roman word for the
inhabitants of Britain
● The word was mispronounced the island was called Britannia

Extended their borders to the natural geographic parts, because that was all they could
manage. They did not have enough forces, to extend anymore. Germany was too hard to
defeat

Provinces.

Roman occupations
1. Julius Ceasar came to Britain in 55bce
2. Augustus planned an invasion in 34, 27 and25 BCE
3. Caligula brought 200 000 men to the channel, and had them collect seashells in
40ce
4. Under Tiberius Claudius the roman army occupied Britain in 43ce (400 000 soldiers)

The romans tried to invade Britain 4 times.

Caligula tried to but failed miserably. - FOUGHT POSEIDEN

Reasons
1. Celtic Britain was an important food producer
 2. The romans had enormous army
● When a roman soldier retired, after 20 Ish years, you had to hold your contract for
that amount of time, but when retired the romans had to give you money and land,
from out in the provinces, wherever they had conquered they would give you that.
3. The celts of Britain were supporting the celts of Gaul who were the romans enemy
4. Expansion of the empire

Roman occupation
The romans were determined to conquer the whole island but
A) The romans settled only in the present day England and Wales Cambria
B) The romans never went to Ireland Hibernia
C) The romans could not conquer Caledonia (Scotland) and built a Hadrian's wall.

The division of the celts

1) Those who experienced the roman rule (the Britons in England and wals) the Romanized
celts
2) Those who did not experience the roman rule (the Gaels, the Picts, the Scots, the Irish in
Ireland and Scotland).
]

Roamn life in Britain – language

Brought the skills of reading and writing to Britain – Latin
But
1) The Celtic peasantry remained illiterate
2) Town dwellers spoke Latin and Greek
3) Rich landowners used Latin

Roman towns
There were three different kinds of towns in roman britian
1) Colonia – peopled by roman settlers
2) Municupium – the whole population was given roman citizenship
3) Civitas were the old celtic tribal capitals through which the romans administered celtic
population in the counrtyside.

Roman towns
The roamns left
● About twenty large towns – 5000 inhabitants
● One undred smaller ones
● The latin word for camp, castra, has remained part of many towns names today ;
Lancaster, leicester, winchester.

● Roman sihester – settlement

 ● Forum – main metting place, centre of town.
● Uniformity in towns
● Ampithetre, games entertainement

Roman Roads
● All the roman towns were connected by roads
● Survived through out history and became the main roads of modern britian
● Six of these roman roads met in londinium

Roman countryside
- The face of the countryside has changed completely
- There appears a number of large farms
- Roman farms were called "Villas"

- Organisation of Roman Britain: role of governor; role of veterans eg) in the towns of
Camulodunom, Verulamium, Londinium; imperial cult at Camulodunum
Initially some tribal kingdoms were allowed to keep their local independence, as their rulers
became client kings.
But when those kings died their kingdoms were incorporated into the province.
- Local self government extended to the settlements of army veterans (colonies)
- To priveliged towns which were given the status of municipium
- Population of much larger areas were organised into civitates - local authorities.

Role of Governer:
The Roman Empire was divided into provinces ruled by the Senate in Rome or by the Emperor
on the Senate’s behalf. He would then entrust these areas to the power of a Governor.
- Provincial governors were chosen from men who had served in the Roman senate, and
in provinces with more than two legions (including Britain), from men who had held the
consulship in Rome.
Example of a governor is Agricola
The work:
As the province became more settled, campaigning became a less important part of the
governor’s role. The governor also oversaw law and order in the province, and was directly
concerned with criminal law and the Court of Appeal. Legal matters took up so much of the
governor’s time, in fact, that from the 70’s a deputy, known as a legatus iuridicus, was appointed
to ease this burden. The governor was also responsible for communications in the province,
including road and bridge-building and the running of the imperial post. Additionally, he was
expected to receive deputations and petitions, and to make periodic visits to different parts of
the province. To help him the governor had a large staff. Some of these were unofficial – friends
and advisors – but the official staff were overseen by a centurion and included ten soldiers
seconded from each of the legions who carried dispatches and helped in the administration of
law and order (speculators). Other soldiers served as beneficiarii, and inscriptions referring to
them occur as widely spread as Winchester, Wroxeter and Catterick. We believe their duties
included control of the supply routes in the province. Clerical staff included secretaries, clerks
and accountants, and these, like the speculators and advisors, used offices attached to the
governor’s residence in London.

● The range of sources, including:

- The works of Tacitus and Cassius Dio - reasons for the revolt, Boudicca, Trinovantes and
other Celts, descriptions of Boudicca
Boudicca’s story is based on three main written sources from the ancient world, two by Tacitus
and by Cassius Dio.
Tacitus, Agricola
A Roman senator and historian wrote a monograph (text on specific topic) on his father-in-law,
Agricola. Agricola was a soldier in Britain during the time of Boudicca’s revolt who eventually
became governor. There is no firm evidence that Agricola actually fought against Boudicca, but
he was in the country at the time of her revolt. In Agricola Tacitus presents reasons for Britons’
discontent with Roman rule, but mentions Boudicca’s revolt only briefly.
Tacitus, Annals
A more extended account of the revolt is given in Annals, a history of the Roman Empire written
about 50 years after Boudicca’s revolt. As a senator, he could have consulted a wide range of
official documents and military reports held in the imperial archives, and possibly private
sources which no longer exist. There are no acknowledgements of possible eyewitness
interviews.

Cassius Dio,History of Rome

Dio Cassius was born one hundred years after Boudicca’s revolt, who was a Roman senator
and historian. He had access to a similar range of written sources available to Tacitus, and he
was able to read Tacitus’ works. Only parts of Dio’s history have survived including his account
of Boudicca’s revolt.
Cassius Dio quotes:

Reasons for “An excuse for the war was found in the confiscation of the sums of money
rebellion that Claudius had given to the foremost Britons; for these sums, as Decianus
Catus, the procurator of the island, maintained, were to be paid back. This
was one reason for the uprising; another was found in the fact that Seneca,
in the hope of receiving a good rate of interest, had lent to the islanders
40,000,000 sesterces that they did not want, and had afterwards called in
this loan all at once and had resorted to severe measures in exacting it…But
the person who was chiefly instrumental in rousing the natives and
persuading them to fight the Romans, the person who was thought worthy to
be their leader and who directed the conduct of the entire war, was
Boudicca…This woman assembled her army, to the number of some
120,000, and then ascended a tribunal which had been constructed of earth
in the Roman fashion.” LX11:2

On the person “…Budica, a Briton woman of the royal family and possessed of greater
of Boudicca intelligence than often belongs to women. …In stature she was very tall, in
appearance most terrifying, in the glance of her eye most fierce, and her
voice was harsh; a great mass of the tawniest hair fell to her hips; around
her neck was a large golden necklace; and she wore a tunic of diverse
colours over which a thick mantle was fastened with a brooch. This was her
invariable attire. She now grasped a spear to aid her in terrifying all
beholders…” LXII:2

Place Names “Two cities were sacked, eighty thousand of the Romans and of their allies
perished, and the island was lost to Rome.” LXII: 1

Trinobantes
and other “Those who were taken captive by the Britons were subjected to every
celtic tribes known form of outrage. The worst and most bestial atrocity committed by
their captors was the following. They hung up naked the noblest and most
distinguished women and then cut off their breasts and sewed them to their
mouths, in order to make the victims appear to be eating them; afterwards
they impaled the women on sharp skewers run lengthwise through the entire
body. All this they did to the accompaniment of sacrifices, banquets, and
wanton behaviour, not only in all their other sacred places, but particularly in
the grove of Andate*. This was their name for Victory, and they regarded her
with most exceptional reverence.” LXII:7 *A goddess
“But finally, late in the day, the Romans prevailed; and they slew many in
battle beside the wagons and the forest, and captured many alike.
Nevertheless, not a few made their escape and were preparing to fight
again. In the meantime, however, Budica fell sick and died. The Britons
mourned her deeply and gave her a costly burial; but, feeling that now at last
they were really defeated, they scattered to their homes. So much for affairs
 in Britain.” LXII: 12

Boudicca’s “Nevertheless, not a few made their escape and were preparing to fight
death again/ In the meantime, however, Budica fell sick and died. The Britons
mourned her deeply and gave her a costly burial.” LXII: 12

Aftermath
Once the death of Boudicca is mentioned, Cassius Dio reverts back to
discussing events concerning Nero in Rome.

“The Britons mourned her deeply and gave her a costly burial; but, feeling
that now at last they were really defeated, they scattered to their homes. So
much for affairs in Britain.”
LXII: 13 “In Rome Nero first divorced Octavia Augusta, on account of his
concubine Sabina, and later he put her to death. He did this in spite of the
opposition out of Burrus, who endeavoured to prevent him from divorcing
her, and once said to him, "Well, then, give her back her dowry," by which he
meant the sovereignty…” (LXII:13ff)

Gender bias
“While this sort of child’s play was going on in Rome, a terrible disaster
occurred in Britain. Two cities were sacked, eighty thousand of the Romans
and of their allies perished, and the island was lost to Rome. Moreover, all
this ruin was brought upon the Romans by a woman, a fact which in itself
caused them the greatest shame.”’
LXII:1 “Budica, a Briton woman of the royal family and possessed of greater
intelligence than often belongs to women.”
LXII:2 “…Buduica, raising her hand toward heaven, said: "I thank thee,
Andraste*, and call upon thee as woman speaking to woman; for I rule over
no burden-bearing Egyptians as did Nitocris, nor over trafficking Assyrians
as did Semiramis (for we have by now gained thus much learning from the
Romans!), much less over the Romans themselves as did Messalina once
and afterwards Agrippina and now Nero (who, though in name a man, is in
fact a woman, as is proved by his singing, lyre-playing and beautification of
his person); nay, those over whom I rule are Britons, men that know not how
to till the soil or ply a trade, but are thoroughly versed in the art of war and
hold all things in common, even children and wives, so that the latter
possess the same valour as the men. As the queen, then, of such men and
of such women, I supplicate and pray thee for victory, preservation of life,
and liberty against men insolent, unjust, insatiable, impious, — if, indeed, we
ought to term those people men who bathe in warm water, eat artificial
dainties, drink unmixed wine, anoint themselves with myrrh, sleep on soft
couches with boys for bedfellows, — boys past their prime at that, — and are
 slaves to a lyre-player and a poor one too.
Wherefore may this Mistress Domitia-Nero reign no longer over me or over
you men; let the wench sing and lord it over Romans, for they surely deserve
to be the slaves of such a woman after having submitted to her so long. But
for us, Mistress, be thou alone ever our leader." LXII:6 *A Celtic goddess

Roman Bias
“An excuse for war was found in the confiscation of the sums of money that
Claudius had given to the foremost Britons.” LXII:2

Speech of Suetonius to his troops: “…Neither fear them because they have
burned a couple of cities; for they did not capture them by force nor after a
battle, but one was betrayed and the other abandoned to them. Exact from
them now, therefore, the proper penalty for these deeds, and let them learn
by actual experience the difference between us, whom they have wronged,
and themselves." LXII:9

“…the gods are our allies (for they almost always side with those who have
been wronged).” LXII: 11

“After addressing these and like words to them he raised the signal for battle.
Thereupon the armies approached each other, the barbarians with much
shouting mingled with menacing battle-songs, but the Romans silently and in
order until they came within a javelin's throw of the enemy.” LXII:12

Tacitus quotes:

Reasons for
Rebellion “The Icenian king Prasutagus, celebrated for his long prosperity, had
named the emperor his heir, together with his two daughters; an act of
deference which he thought would place his kingdom and household
beyond the risk of injury. The result was contrary — so much so that his
kingdom was pillaged by centurions, his household by slaves; as though
they had been prizes of war. As a beginning, his wife Boudicca was
subjected to the lash and his daughters violated: all the chief men of the
Icenians were stripped of their family estates, and the relatives of the king
were treated as slaves. Impelled by this outrage and the dread of worse
to come — for they had now been reduced to the status of a province —
they flew to arms, and incited to rebellion the Trinobantes and others,
who, not yet broken by servitude, had entered into a secret and
 treasonable compact to resume their independence.” XIV:31
“…but now she was avenging, not, as a queen of glorious ancestry, her
ravished realm and power, but, as a woman of the people, her liberty lost,
her body tortured by the lash, the tarnished honour of her daughters.”
XIV:35

On the person of /
Boudicca

Place Names
“Meanwhile, for no apparent reason, the statue of Victory at
Camulodunum fell, with its back turned as if in retreat from the enemy.”
XIV:32
“Suetonius, on the other hand, with remarkable firmness, marched
straight through the midst of the enemy upon London, which, though not
distinguished by the title of colony, was none the less a busy centre,
chiefly through its crowd of merchants and stores." XIV: 33
“A similar catastrophe was reserved for the municipality of Verulamium;
as the natives, with their delight in plunder and their distaste for exertion,
left the forts and garrison- posts on one side, and make for the point
which offered the richest material for the pillager and was unsafe for a
defending force. It is established that close upon seventy thousand
Roman citizens and allies fell in the places mentioned.” XIV: 33

Trinobantes and
other celtic tribes “Impelled by this outrage and the dread of worse to come — for they had
now been reduced to the status of a province — they flew to arms, and
incited to rebellion the Trinobantes and others, who, not yet broken by
servitude, had entered into a secret and treasonable compact to resume
their independence.” XIV:3
“…the tribes which had shown themselves dubious or disaffected were
harried with fire and sword. Nothing, however, pressed so hard as famine
on an enemy who, careless about the sowing of his crops, had diverted
all ages of the population to military purposes, while marking out our
supplies for his own property. (Still, hatred of Rome was persistent); and
the fierce-tempered clans inclined the more slowly to peace…” XIV:38
“Again, that the Ocean had appeared blood-red and that the ebbing tide
had left behind it what looked to be human corpses, were indications
read by the Britons with hope and by the veterans with corresponding
alarm.” XIV:32
“…the victorious Britons routed the legion and slaughtered the infantry to
a man…” XIV:32
 “The glory won in the course of the day was remarkable, and equal to
that of our older victories: for, by some accounts, little less than eighty
thousand Britons fell, at a cost of some four hundred Romans killed and a
not much greater number of wounded.” XIV:37

Boudicca’s death “Boudicca ended her days by poison…” XIV: 37

Aftermath
Two chapters outlining events that followed the death of Boudicca are
included.
XIV: 38 “The whole army was now concentrated and kept under canvas,
with a view to finishing what was left of the campaign. Its strength was
increased by the Caesar, who sent over from Germany two thousand
legionaries, eight cohorts of auxiliaries, and a thousand cavalry. Their
advent allowed the gaps in the ninth legion to be filled with regular troops;
the allied foot and horse were stationed in new winter quarters; and the
tribes which had shown themselves dubious or disaffected were harried
with fire and sword. Nothing, however, pressed so hard as famine on an
enemy who, careless about the sowing of his crops, had diverted all ages
of the population to military purposes, while marking out our supplies for
his own property. Still, hatred of Rome was persistent; and the
fierce-tempered clans inclined the more slowly to peace because Julius
Classicianus, who had been sent in succession to Catus and was not on
good terms with Suetonius, was hampering the public welfare by his
private animosities, and had circulated a report that it would be well to
wait for a new legate; who, lacking the bitterness of an enemy and the
arrogance of a conqueror, would show consideration to those who
surrendered. At the same time, he reported to Rome that no cessation of
fighting need be expected until the supersession of Suetonius, the
failures of whom he referred to his own perversity, his successes to the
kindness of fortune.
39 Accordingly Polyclitus, one of the freedmen, was sent to inspect the
state of Britain, Nero cherishing high hopes that, through his influence,
not only might a reconciliation be effected between the legate and the
procurator, but the rebellious temper of the natives be brought to
acquiesce in peace. Polyclitus, in fact, whose immense train had been an
incubus to Italy and Gaul, did not fail, when once he had crossed the
seas, to render his march a terror even to Roman soldiers. To the enemy,
on the other hand, he was a subject of derision: with them, the fire of
freedom was not yet quenched; they had still to make acquaintance with
the power of freedmen; and they wondered that a general and an army
who had accounted for such a war should obey a troop of slaves. None
the less, everything was reported to the emperor in a more favourable
light. Suetonius was retained at the head of affairs; but, when later on he
lost
a few ships on the beach, and the crews with them, he was ordered,
 under pretence that the war was still in being, to transfer his army to
Petronius Turpilianus, who by now had laid down his consulate. The
new-comer abstained from provoking the enemy, was not challenged
himself, and conferred on this spiritless inaction the honourable name of
peace.” (XIV:38,39)

Gender bias “On the beach stood the adverse array, a serried mass of arms and men,
with women flitting between the ranks. In the style of Furies, in robes of
deathly black and with dishevelled hair, they brandished their torches;
while a circle of Druids, lifting their hands to heaven and showering
imprecations, struck the troops with such an awe at the extraordinary
spectacle that, as though their limbs were paralysed, they exposed their
bodies to wounds without an attempt at movement. Then, reassured by
their general, and inciting each other never to flinch before a band of
females and fanatics…” XIV:30

Roman Bias “It is established that close upon seventy thousand Roman citizens and
allies fell in the places mentioned. For the enemy neither took captive nor
sold into captivity; there was none of the other commerce of war; he was
hasty with slaughter and the gibbet, with arson and the cross, as though
his day of reckoning must come, but only after he had snatched his
revenge in the interval.” XIV:33

Overbeck quotes:

Reasons for rebellion /

On the person of /
Boudicca

Place Names At the outset of his narrative Dio tells is that two towns were sacked
and eighty thousand Romans and allies killed. He does not name
the towns, either at this point or later. Tacitus names three towns,
and volunteers the additional information that Camulodunum
(Colchester) was a colonia and Verulamium (St Albans) a
municipium, while Londinium (London) was distinguished by the
name of colonia.” p130.

Trinobantes and other /

celtic tribes

Boudicca’s death /

Aftermath “Once the crisis is resolved and Boudicca out of the way Dio drops
the British business without further ado. He is no more concerned
with the consequences of the revolt than he was with its
background, apart from the immediate causes that he cites*.
 Tacitus, however, follows up with two more chapters..., continuing
the story until the immediate consequences have played
themselves out.” p 137

Gender bias /

Roman Bias /

- What reasons for the rebellion do each of the authors give?

Cassius dio says They didn't want to pay back the loans. The romans resorted to severe
measures to get them.
Tasticus says the reason for the revolt is the romans oublically flogging the queen and
voilating the princesses, the chief got their titles and land taken away.

2. How could both these accounts be true, despite the differences in reasons for
the rebellion?
They are both coming from different perspectives, highlighting what they thought was the
main reason. It is their interpretation of the events.

3. What is communicated about Boudicca as a person: her abilities, background

and appearance?
" Greater intellenge than often belongs to women." Spear- terrifies people- romans would
not grasp a spear – warrior.. Harsh voice – strong. Golden torc – she is royal – took on
leadership of her husband. A tunic of diverse colours – wealthy people wear that.

4. What could Cassius Dio be trying to achieve in providing this description of

Boudicca and portraying her in such a manner?
vil, terrifying – Shameful.

5. Consider Tacitus’ account and his omission of a description of Boudicca. How

does this reflect on the way she is portrayed and the tone of Tacitus’ account?
(Consider also the information that Tacitus includes which Cassius Dio omits,
as considered in the previous point on reasons for the rebellion).
He doesn’t mention anything. He is more focused on the facts – not as biased, more
reliable. Doesn’t see it as important
6. How many towns are mentioned in each of the accounts?
Dio mentions two, tacitus mentions 3.
7. How do the two ancient accounts differ in their mention of place names in
relaying details of Boudicca’s rebellion?

8. Which one would you consider more historically reliable? Why? Refer to
Overbeck’s comment.

9. How does Cassius Dio speak of the Celtic tribes compared to Tacitus?
 Tacitus is more factual. Dio is more biased against the celts and their treatment.
10. Which account seems to be more factual and reliable? Why?
Tacitus – less bias. Closer to that time period- actual roman records.
11. Which account seems more accurate? Why? (Some things to consider here
may be other Roman writings, dating of these two records and a consideration
of Cassius Dio’s reliability against that of Tacitus, as assessed so far).
Dio sayas that some celts escaped and boudica fell sick and died.
Tacitus says she was poisoned.
Tacitus is closer to that time period so his view is more accurate.
Dio is more biased so e doesn’t want to show that she chose to end her life.
The celts saw it as an honour to take control of their death.
12. What is revealed about the two writers through the account of the aftermath of
the revolt?

13. What comments reveal the Roman view of women of being weaker, less
intelligent, and less deserving of respect?
14. Why might it be difficult to believe that Boudicca actually gave the exact
monologue that Cassius Dio records (focussing on the gender bias issue)?
15. How does the pro-Roman perspective permeate through the record of the
revolt in these extracts?

Assess the value of Sources for investigating the Boudiccan revolt in 60-61 CE
- Adjust introduction and conclusion to show you are making an assessment of the value
of the sources you have found
- What is a key quote from both of these historians? What is their bias and what is the
propaganda?
- Be specific ‘some, or these sources’ is not proper language.
- Researchers must carefully analyse and contextualise any available Celtic or british
accounts
- What bias and/or errors does Cassius Dio’s account have?
- You will need to decide which of these three aspects of the revolt that the source/s
addresses

In order to investigate the Boudiccan revolt in 60-61 CE it is important to asses the value of
sources, to determine their reliability, credibility and potential bias. In order to give an accurate
depiction of the events.

Written sources from Tacitus and Cassius Dio give valuable information of the revolt but are not
reliable. They are both roman accounts, so may not be accurate due to potential bias. For
example, Tacitus does not give a description of Boudicca, however Cassius Dio described her
as “most terrifying with a harsh voice”, portraying her as terrifying and shameful. They both give
different reasons for the rebellion, Dio thought they didn’t want to give back the loans but
Tacitus’s reasons are the flogging of Boudicca and violation of the princesses. These
descriptions of Boudicca, and the reasons for the rebellion are valuable but not accurate, they
are the author’s interpretation of the events. Although Tacitus may be more accurate as he was
more factual and closer to the time period than Cassius Dio.

Archaeological sources provide valuable evidence of the Boudiccan revolt, from the Iceni
perspectives of the events. However, are not reliable as they are incomplete. For example,
hoards of coins were found, as well as Strettisham torques, give evidence of the tribe’s wealth.
The coins revealed the roman rulers of the time of the revolt. These sources provide valuable
insight into the context of the revolt, although it is limited, and must be carefully analysed.

To get an accurate understanding of the Boudiccan revolt, it is important to properly evaluate all
written and archaeological sources to assess their value. Each source must be analysed to
determine their reliability, accuracy and bias potential.

Tacitus: Causes of the Revolt

Explain the factors that contributed to Boudicca’s revolt against Roman Rule.
Boudicca, the Celtic Queen of the Iceni tribe, revolted against the Romans due to several
factors. The long term factors include the Trinovantes, Iceni protectiveness over their
independence, and Roman oppression. The short term factors include the death of Prasutagus,
the Iceni debt to the Romans, Celtic crop failure, and the attack on Druid stronghold at Mona.

The Trinovantes were a Celtic Tribe that contributed to Boudicca’s revolt because of their
extensive Romanisation. They were a tribe thought to have occupied an area roughly
corresponding to Essex and south Suffolk. In AD43, when the Romans invaded Britain and
started seizing Camulodunon, they had destroyed the local mint, established a fortress as part
of the first stage of conquest, and changed the name of the city to ‘Camulodunum’, a more
Romanised version of the original. Camulodunum was the capital and principle centre of the
Trinovantes, so at that time, the Romans had endeavoured on a very complex attack. In 49AD,
they settled a veteran’s colony which was allowed to take whatever land they wanted, when they
wanted. With this consent intact, they captured Camulodunum completely, and designated it as
‘agri captivi’ (captured territory). The Romans also tormented the local Celts, and this has been
seen through examination of 6 Celtic skulls found in a ditch dating from AD55. Heavy wounds
have been revealed from the skulls, suggesting that they were left on pikes as a taunt or sign of
warning. Evidence such as the Temple of Claudius, suggests that Romans had a tremendous
amount of power in the north side of the Thames estuary as there they had built a temple
symbolising oppression and capture. Not only was this a mockery to the Celts, it also drained
them of their wealth as priests abused their power in order to gain funds from the local Celts so
that the temple could be built.

In 47AD, Roman Governor, Publius Ostorius Scapula attempted to disarm the Iceni tribe, and
this led to them rising against the Romans, but they were defeated by him in a fierce battle.
After that conflict, the Romans still allowed them to retain their independence. Even though the
Iceni were granted their independence, they were still acting under a voluntary alliance with the
Romans, and that belittled them.
After the Iceni’s clash with the Romans, Prasutagus was given a grant by the Romans, but the
Romans then redefined this as a loan. This sudden change caused oppression on the Iceni as
they were pressed to repay the Romans. Many other Celts were also in financial problems as
they were taxed heavily and some given hefty levies, although most client kingdoms were less
affected. The Celts despised the Romans because they had robbed them of their land, pride
and reputation, but with a military conscription in force, Celtic men were required to join the
Roman army. If the Celts did not abide by the Romans’ regulations, they were subjected to
punishments.

In AD60 when Boudicca’s husband Prasutagus died, his client kingdom agreement had been
terminated, and the arrangement had to be renegotiated with the Romans. Prasutagus had left
half of the Iceni land to Roman Emperor Nero and half to his daughters. He had done this in
hope for his debt to be settled but instead the Romans wanted all the land, and that was one of
the most significant factors provoking the Iceni into a revolt. The Iceni requested that they stay
an independent tribe as a client kingdom but the Romans didn’t allow them to. The reason for
this was because of their conflicting views on women; in this case, Prasutagus’ daughters and
wife. Culturally, the Romans didn’t believe that women were fit as rulers, whereas the Celts were
more accepting. Roman law prohibited Boudicca and her two teenager daughters to inherit royal
property because they were female. Also following Prasutagus’ death, Iceni lands and goods
were confiscated by the procurator, Decianus Catus who was acting in the interests of Emperor
Nero. The only acceptable option that the Iceni were left with was to revolt, in order to regain
possession of their land. After Boudicca’s failed first attempt at a revolt, she was flogged by
hundreds of Romans and her virgin daughters were raped. Because of these events, the
daughters’ marriage prospects were damaged and Boudicca’s power, reputation and dignity was
destroyed publicly.

Since the Iceni hadn’t resolved their debt to the Romans, the Romans had called in for the loan
to be paid back but the Iceni were unable to pay. The reason for this being that the loans were
huge sums of money, and the Iceni being pressured by the Romans only disadvantaged them.

Crops were a crucial factor for the Celtics to live. Through scientific examinations, it has been
revealed that the local Iceni crops may have failed at the time of the Boudiccan revolt. If the
Celts did incur crop failure, they would have to resort to imports such as grain. Importing would
increase the burden on the local Celts who couldn’t afford to pay their taxes or tributes. The
Romans were gradually draining the Celts of their resources; developing more reason for them
to revolt.

In AD60, Suetonius Paulinus, the Roman general, had launched attack on the island of
Anglesey, or Mona as it was known at the time of the attack because the Romans wanted to
completely seize all of the Celtic land that they were able to. Mona was the sacred home of the
druids, the spiritual leaders of the native people. Many, if not most, of the druids were definitely
on the island when Suetonius attacked, as it was their home. It was believed by the Romans
that the druids practiced human sacrifice and alike rituals, and that acted as another motive for
their attack. When Suetonius and his legions reached the shores, they had eventually attacked
the druid stronghold; men, women and children, whom were either armed or unarmed, young or
old, had been slayed viciously by the bold and highly prepared Romans.

Whether it be a long term cause, or a short term cause, the Romans forced the Celts into
revolting by using their grand power. Despite Roman oppression being the biggest factor to
contribute to Boudicca’s revolt, all of the provocative acts that they executed were the reasons
for the revolt.

- Nature of the sources relating to Prasutagus and Boudicca

On the eastern edge of Britain lived the Iceni tribe. The tribal chief of the Iceni was Prasutagus.
Prasutagus became a client king or friendly king to the Romans.

- Prasutagus’ wife was Boudicca. Boudicca and Prasutagus had two daughters.
- Boudicca and Prasutagus were the elite class of the Iceni tribe.
- The client kingdom agreement meant that the Iceni had one of their own as a leader rather
than a foreign leader. Despite Prasutagus’ agreement with Rome, the threat of Roman
domination is always present. Once the Romans install their army to an area, that army needs
to be supported by local resources, so they’d have started sucking those resources in terms of
money and in terms of agricultural surplus
60 A.D. Celtic Britain. The Romans had occupied this land since 43 A.D. Prasutagus, the king of
the Iceni tribe had made a friendly relationship with Rome, knowing that he could not defeat his
conquerors. After a long and prosperous reign, King Prasutagus died. History is uncertain on
the cause of the death, but it is certain that with him died the ability for the Iceni to enjoy peace
and prosperity.
- The leadership of the tribe passed onto Boudicca when her husband, Prasutagus, died. She
became the queen of the Iceni tribe.
- Women in Britain in the late Iron Age enjoyed considerable status. There was no distinction in
the sexes when it came to appointing leaders or heads of state. This was something that had
happened to Britain for centuries.

The king leaves behind a world described by the Roman historian Tacitus, “Prasutagus had
made the Emperor co-heir with his own two daughter. He hoped by this act to preserve his
kingdom.” This is kind of a bribe trying to get the Emperor on his side so that he would use
official power to protect his property and to ensure that his will would be carried out.
- Prasutagus’ will was examined by the senior Roman tax collector in Britain, Catus Decianus.
He took it as an offence that Prasutagus expected Emperor Nero to share a kingdom with two
girls. He decided this was a golden opportunity to get a hold of the nation of the Iceni and to turn
them from an allied client state into concord provincials.

- Archaeological evidence of the revolt

Archaeological Sources

Romans trheatened iceni way of life

Until boudicca uprising
Small tribe
Norfolk

NEW DIG
Discover Aftermath of revolt
1928 – pilots
Take aerial photographs of a field
Looks different from up in the air
Street grid of roman town
Geophisics
Major dig
Baths, temples, forums

1948:
Farmer found metle
British Museum
Gold torque
175 objects found
Symbol of iron age
Made by iceni
Only worn by select few
Scanning microscopes – SEMS – Determines patters
Copper, silver and gold

New team:
Technology – detail of town, more significant
Underneath the town
Iron age structures beneath
Older iceni settlement
Iron age – round houses

Finding physical evidence

Excavation
Major trenches dug out
Skull – sword cut it in half

Vasudicas became king – DIED 59AD

Rare coin bares his image
Left emporer nero half his stuff
ROmans tried to get it all
Boudicca started the revolt

Decainus Catus – the financial procurator of Britian

 Colchester – roman capital of britian – first town Boudicca targeted

Bulk of army in wales getting rid of drewitts

Templein in centre of town – safest place

Imperial temple of Divine claudius – They fled to
Imperial cult- worship of the emporer .

Decapitation

● The head of a bloke found in a river – in british museum

London – next town boudica goes to after colchester

The goverer of the province of britian – seutonius Paulinus

● Was in wales and is now bringing advance force to stop boudica
● Also destroys st albans and watling street.
Governer lead them into open area – romans wer strongest and defeated the iceni
Stopping the rebellion.
Boudicca escapes and dies later either posion or sickness.
Britian now under roman rule for centuries.

Archaeology evidence of the total destruction of londonand conchester has been found.

● 43 AD – Romans invade
● 11 british tribes became client kingdoms, inceni included
● Romans needed to destroy the drewitts- religious leaders
● Some tribes were still revolting
● The romans demanded the iceni give up their weapons so they could destroy them
● Resistance and revolt

● Boudicca’s conflict with Rome as revealed through the sources, including:

- The nature of the campaign; Cletic fighting methods, Roman weapons and tactics
- The role of Boudicca and Suetonius Paulinus
- Aftermath of the revolt; results and consequences for the Cels and Romans
"To what extent is it true to say that there is nothing that can be said about Boudicca with certainty other than she was an Iceni queen who lived in the
mid-first century CE?"

Address some of the following:

1. the written sources

● male Roman writers and their aims

● bias against powerful women
● contradictory accounts
● speeches that include words that were never spoken by Boudicca

2. the archaeological sources

● there is no evidence specifically for Boudicca

3. the causes of the rebellion against the Romans

● where do we get our evidence that Boudicca was directly responsible (is this an issue?)
● the evidence of her treatment by the romans
● other possible causes - Romanisation, treatment of Britons by the Romans, e.g. Caratacus' resistance, the role played by the Druids,
what the Romans did to the Druids

4. Leadership of the rebellion

● evidence about Boudicca as the sole warrior leader or figurehead

● evidence that Boudicca decided on tactics
● any evidence that linked her to the utter destruction of Camulodunum, Londinium and Verulamium and the supposed killing of 70,000
people mentioned by Tacitus
● evidence of the final battle against Suetonius Paulinus, except for fictional speech

5. Boudicca's death

● contradictory reports of her death in written sources

● no archaeological evidence of her burial.

Aftermath of Boudicca’s Revolt (Long term)

Due to Roman losses, reinforcements were required to be sent from Germany; 7000 men in all,
giving an indication of the Roman losses however also of the harsher military policies enacted
by Paullinus. Suetonius Paullinus harried (harassed) the lands of the tribes which had rebelled,
creating famine conditions. The famine may have been caused by Britons who had not sown
that year having diverted their efforts to the Boudiccan Revolt. A quarrel between the the
Governor (Suetonius Paullinus) and the new Procurator, Julius Classicianus. The next governor
was advertised to introduce a new and more pacific policy, as his begged for the recall of
Paullinus (whose revenge created havoc). The new Governor, Petronius Turpilianus, who came
to Britain new in AD61 [accused by Tacitus of not asserting himself by further provocation]. The
advent of Turpilianus signalled a new attitude towards Britain, ceasing further military action and
began reconciliation to calm British tribes and introduce a capitalist economy (under J.
Classicianus) and the concept of urban civilisation. Archaeologist Brian Stanley revealed a
major Roman for at Lunt in the Midlands, illustrating the constantly changing demands placed
on the military in the years following Boudicca’s rebellion. After the quelling of the revolt, the
location of the fort is determined to be a major supply base for Paullinus’ (vengeful policies and
activities) systematic retribution against the Britons, undergoing incredible reconstruction in the
aftermath. It was determined that AD63 added a large circular compound added to the ground,
appearing to be a gyras, a training ring or arena for horses — perhaps those confiscated from
the Iceni and other warring tribes. By depriving the tribespeople of their horses, they also
stripped them of their pride as horses were not only invaluable means of transport, but was a
integral to the soul of the horse-culture of Britain. By undermined and subjugated the Iceni, it
broke their spirits in addition to the wild grazing lands of the Iceni being forcibly drained and
turned over to agriculture; their people broken into servitude. The impact of the confiscation of
horses on the Britains could explain the famine, in response to the loss of manpower and the
scorched earth policy, causing the mass starvation that followed. The Romans continued to
extract their taxes and food supplies from the famine stricken Britons.

Impacts summary
• Boudicca took Roman invaders by surprise; Boudicca plotted her revenge while the governor
was away, thus shocking and surprising the Romans by the uprising and its size and
aggressiveness
• Boudicca’s warriors successfully defeated the Roman Ninth Legion and destroyed multiple
cities. The cost of human lives during the victories were high and towns were decimated in the
brutal warfare. Up to 80,000 people are said to have been killed, a majority civilians.
• Boudicca showed that women could be strong, brave and leaders in a patriarchal society
. • Because of her uprising

Section 3: Features of Ancient Societies (15 marks each)

● The chronological and geographical context of the society or societies within the ancient world
● An overview of the key social, economic, religious and political features of the society or societies

(ANSWER THE QUESTION IN ONE CASE STUDY)

Weapons and warfare of Ancient Greece

HISTORICAL INTERPRETATION OF SOURCES

● The evidence for at least ONE key military encounter, including military strategy
● The nature of the sources for weapons and warfare
Major wars provide the subject matter of much of Greek historical writing. The greeks talked a
lot about war and they talked about it in terms of right and wrong.
Three greek ages of civilisation:
1. The mycenaean age
2. The classical period
3. The hellenistic age of Alaxender the Great and the Macedonians.

War was celebrated and also brought about freedom, autonomy and plunder.

Greek society described the ritualistic aspect of their warfare, whether Homeric warriors or the
hoplite phalanx. To win honour and win a war.
In mycenaean society, war was focussed on honour. It resulted in a destruction of a city. There
is no written primary sources available, so all mycenaean evidence must come from
archaeologucal sources.
Greek writers in the classical age like Herodotus, thucydides and xenophon, described the
horrors of total war against external enemies like the persians or inter-greek conflict in the
peloponnesian war, while also praising war with examples of national heroism and individual
leadership personalities.
The original narrative sources that survive for the hellenistic period about Alexander are
non-contempary. Alexander the Great died in 323 BCE and historians such as Plutarch’s write a
biography in c.100 CE, and Arian’s narrative history of a little later in the second century CE.

Greek writer Sources for warfare

Herodotus The histories

Thucydides The peloponnesian war

Xenophon Anqabasis

Arrian Anabasis History of Alexander

Plutarch Greek lives: life of alexander.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE MILITARY

● The life of soldiers, their training and the conditions of service

● The significance of the military within society

POLITICAL, SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF WARFARE

● The political, economic and social impact of warfare and conquest

CONTINUITY AND CHANGE IN WEAPONS AND WARFARE

● Evidence of continuity and/or change

● The composition and role of armies and/or navies and changes in forms of weapons and military
tactics
Mycenaean Warfare c. 1350 - 1200 BCE.
- Meant for war and invasion
- Citadels (cities) were heavily fortified palace complexes with thick perimeter walls.
- (citadels) Dominated the mainland Greek countryside for 300 years until abandonment.
- Mycanaean infantryman during the palatial period had three major components. Spear,
large body shield, helmet. Often carried a thrusting sword as a secondary weapon.
- Charioteers had ‘dendra’ armour (unique to them) with 15 breast plates which cover
torso, arms, legs. Offered protection in close combat.

Hoplite warfare in the classical age

- Monarchy replaced by aristrocratic rule
- Development of the city state (polis)
 - Citadel became the religious, political and economic centre
- Momentous changes in warfare
- Development of the phalanx movement formation

Hoplite:
- Mainstay of the greek army
- Long spear, short sword, circular bronze shield, if afford he would have a bronze helmet,
bronze breastplate and greaves, ankle guards.
- Close combat.
- Show of manliness and excellence
- Lighter armour to get better mobility, laminated linen corselet, open faced helmet.
- Lighter armoured warriors like the Peltast warrior and the psiloi challenged hoplite
dominance of the battlefield.
- Peltast warrior has short javelins and more lightly armoured.
- Javelin throwers - akonisai
- Archers - toxotoi
- Slingers - sphendonetai used stones and lead bullets
- Cavalry - hippeis deployed but only limited numbers because expensive and terrain.
Athens had the largest cavalry force during peloponnesian war, 1000 mounted troops.
- Decisive and more devastating cavalry offensives would have to wait until macedonians
were led by Philip and alexander in mid 4th century BCE.
- Armies became more structured, split into separate unties with hierarchies of command.
- Lochoi (basic unit of phalanx) were a line of well armed and armoured hoplites, usually 8
to 12 men attacking as a tight group.
- In athens the lochos were led by a captian - lochagos and combined to form 10
regiments - taxeis - each led by a taxiarchos.

Army of Alexander the great:

- ATG conquered most of the kown world of his time
- Inherited a versatile, well trained army from his father King Philip of Macedonia.
- Fought as one.
- “Remember upon the conduct of each depends the fate of all” - ATG
- Phillip || reformed the military, became king in 359 BCE inherited an army that was
relatively ineffective. So ATG and him created an army that was unlike anything the
world ever seen.
- Persian and Peloponessian wars are examples of wars that demonstrated the ineffective
and undependable former army. How untrained they were.
- Phillip increased the size of the army from 10,000 to 24,000 and enlarged the cavalry
from 600 to 3,500. No longer an army of citizen warriors. Also created a corps of
engineers to develop weaponary like towers and catapults. Later would be used at Tyre
to kill 6000 people.
- Phalanx required constant drilling and Alaxender and Phillip would both require a sn of
swearing allegiance to the king. Uniforms were provided - give sense of unity and
solidarity. Soldiers would no longer be loyal to a town or province.
 - Philips victory in athens proves this.
- Phillip reconstructed the army. Reorganised the phalanc, each unit had its own
commander - better communication. Taxes were broken into distinct subdivisions.
- Phillip changed the principal weaponry from the hoplite spear to the sarissa. - 18-20 feet
pike. Had advantage of reaching over shorter spears. Demanded strength tho because it
was so big. Hoplite became a pezhetairoi - foot companion. Carried a shield - aspis -
carried on the by a sling over the shoulder. Xiphos - double edged sword was also
carried.
- Drawback of the phalanx was that it worked best on flat, unbroken country, but
Alexander used this with success. Changes were made at Hydaspes where archers led
the field against Prous’s elephants.
- Cavalry were on the right and left flanks. Army’s main strike force and made the
breakthrough to enemy lines. Battle of Granicus, Issus and Gaugamela. Pezhetairoi
would hit the centre of the opposing army in an oblique angle while the cavalry would
punch holes on the flanks.

DEATH AND FUNERARY CUSTOMS

HISTORICAL INTERPRETATION OF SOURCES

● The nature of the sources for beliefs, rituals and funerary practices

SIGNIFICANCE OF FUNERARY PRACTICES

● Funerary practices, for example burial sites, forms of burial, ceremonies, and their relationship to
religious beliefs and social status
ATTITUDES AND BELIEFS ABOUT DEATH

● The key beliefs and rituals

Ancient Egyptian religion was a complex system of polytheistic beliefs and rituals. It centred on
the Egyptians' interaction with many gods who were believed to be present in, and in control of,
the forces of nature.

● THe influence and significance of beliefs and rituals

● Attitudes to and beliefs about death, eg) the concept of the afterlife

CONTINUITY AND CHANGE IN FUNERARY CUSTOMS

● Evidence of continuity and/or change