IB Physics Revision Notes on Thermal Energy Transfer &
Black Body Emission
Thermal energy transfer
Thermal energy transfer
Thermal energy transfer occurs when there is a difference in temperature between two bodies.
Thermal energy:
- is transferred from an area of higher temperature to an area of lower temperature
- until thermal equilibrium is reached
Thermal equilibrium - process of heat moving from one area to another until both areas are
balanced with the same amount of thermal radiation.
Conduction
Conduction - transfer of thermal energy due to collisions between particles in direct contact with
each other
Conduction occurs best in solids, as particles are in contact with each other.
As thermal energy is supplied to one part of the solid, the particles closest to the heat source
gain more kinetic energy, causing them to vibrate more vigorously. Then, they collide with
neighboring particles, transferring kinetic energy to them. The vibrations are transmitted through
the material from particle to particle.
Once thermal equilibrium is reached, the net energy transfer = 0.
Metals are the best thermal conductors, because they have delocalised electrons that can move
through the metal and transfer kinetic energy to other electrons or metal ions by colliding with
them.
Conductors - materials that are good at transferring thermal energy by conduction
Insulators - materials that are poor at transferring thermal energy by conduction
Formula for rate of thermal energy transfer by conduction:
∆Q = change in energy (J)
∆t = change in time (s)
k = thermal conductivity of the material (W m-1 °C-1 or W m−1 K−1)
A = cross-sectional area of the material (m2)
∆T = difference in temperature between where thermal energy is transferred from and to (K)
∆x = distance over which the conduction occurs (m)
Convection
Convection - transfer of thermal energy due to mass movement of molecules caused by
differences in density
Convection occurs best in liquids & gases, as molecules can move freely.
As thermal energy is supplied to one part of the fluid, the particles closest to the heat source
gain more kinetic energy, causing them to move faster. Then, they collide with neighboring
particles more energetically, causing them to spread further apart. Thus, this part of the fluid
becomes less dense, so it rises and is displaced by a cooler, denser volume of fluid particles
that sinks to the bottom. This process repeats in a cycle, forming convection currents.
Thermal Radiation
Thermal radiation - the transfer of energy by electromagnetic waves.
- Unlike conduction and convection, thermal radiation does not need any particles to
transfer heat – it can occur in a vacuum.
- All objects at a temperature above 0 K emit, absorb or reflect thermal radiation.
- Objects at higher temperatures emit thermal radiation of higher intensity.
- The amount of radiation given out or absorbed by an object depends on its temperature
& surface.
Type of As an emitter of As an absorber of As a reflector of
surface radiation radiation radiation
Dull black Good Good Poor
Bright shiny Poor Poor Good
Black Body Emission
Intensity
Intensity - amount of power transferred per unit area
Formula for intensity of energy:
I = intensity (W m-2)
P = power (W)
A = area (m2)
Intensity is inversely proportional to the area, because as the area increases, the energy gets
more spread out, so its intensity decreases.
I.e. energy emitted becomes less intense as it gets further away from the heat source.
Intensity of energy emitted from stars
As the energy emitted from a star is distributed over a spherical surface, the area (A) in I = P / A
becomes 4πr2.
Hence, equation for intensity of energy emitted from stars:
For stars, intensity is inversely proportional to the distance squared between the star and the
object on which its energy is incident.
Black bodies
Black body - object that emits and absorbs all wavelengths of light from the electromagnetic
spectrum.
Black body emission spectrum
Emission spectrum for a black body at 6000 K:
Based on the graph, it can be deduced that:
● Some radiation is emitted at all wavelengths.
● A black body has a maximum intensity at a specific wavelength.
Emission spectrum for black bodies at different temperatures:
How the emission spectra for a black body changes as its temperature decreases:
1. Peak intensity is lower.
2. Overall intensity is lower.
3. Area below the curve decreases, so the total power emitted is less.
4. Peak intensity occurs at a longer wavelength.
Wien’s Law
The wavelength at which the maximum intensity of radiation is emitted is inversely proportional
to the absolute temperature of a black body.
Equation representing Wien’s Law:
λmaxT = 2.9 × 10−3 mK
λmax = wavelength at which maximum intensity is emitted (m)
T = absolute temperature (K)
Luminosity and the Stefan-Boltzmann law
Lumosity - amount of energy a black body emits per second
Equation representing the Stefan-Boltzmann law, used to calculate luminosity:
L = σAT4
L = luminosity (W)
σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67 × 10−8 W m−2 K−4)
A = surface area of the sphere (m2)
T = absolute temperature (K)
Luminosity is directly proportional to the area of a star & to its absolute temperature (to the
power 4).
Equation used to calculate luminosity of a star:
L = 4πσT4r2
Luminosity of a star is directly proportional to its radius squared.
Apparent brightness
Apparent brightness (or apparent magnitude) - measure of how bright a star appears to an
observer, i.e. amount of power per m2 received by an observer from the star.
Apparent brightness is affected by:
- Luminosity of the star
- Distance between the star and the observer
Apparent brightness vs luminosity:
- Apparent brightness depends on the intensity of light received by an observer.
- Luminosity is a property of the star’s power output.
Equation used to calculate apparent brightness:
b = apparent brightness (W m-2)
L = luminosity (W)
d = distance between the emitter and the observer (m)
Brightness of a star is:
- directly proportional to its luminosity
- inversely proportional to its distance squared from the observer.
