Lecture-5

Distributed Generation (DG)

Dr. Omar Abdulaziz Hafez

 Conventional Electric Utility Service
Transmission Distribution Load
Disadvantages:
• High power losses

• Service Reliability
• 100,000 $/mile
• 6-7% electric losses Back-up
• Quality of Service

• Permits for
construction of
infrastructure
• 200 hours per year
• Environmental limit
impacts and Generation • Exempt from
emissions emissions
• $400-500/KW regulations
• Difficult to • Not interconnected
permit • Does not support
the grid but
operates after the
grid has failed
Regulated 2
31-Mar-20
 Restructured Electric Industry
Competitive
Competitive Transmission & Distribution Customer Service
Generation (Retail Electric
Providers)
REP

Customer
Regulated
3
Centralized vs. Deregulated Structures

Centralized Deregulated
4
Drives for Deregulated Environment

♦ Competition will improve customer focus

♦ Cost is expected to drop

31-Mar-20

5
Deregulation Consequences

— Allowing Independent Power Producers IPP to

hook their generators on the grid (Distributed
Generation)

— Competition

— Innovation

31-Mar-20

6
Obligations
Efficiency

Quality
Reliability

All three factors can be achieved by allowing Distributed

Generation (DG) to be connected to the grid.
31-Mar-20

7
Definitions of Distributed Generation

— No common agreement on the DG definition

— Diversities in the definitions from one country to another

depend on the definition bases such as [18]:
— Voltage level.
— Unit connection.
— Type of prime mover, e.g. renewable or co-generation (CHP).
— Generation not being dispatched.
— Maximum power rating.

8
 DG Definitions
— The International Council on Large Electricity Systems (CIGRE) (WG 37
– 23) defines distributed generation as the units that is [9]:
— not centrally planned.
— today not centrally dispatched.
— usually connected to the distribution network.
— smaller than 50-100 MW.

— IEEE defines DG as “the generation of electricity by facilities that

are sufficiently smaller than central generating plants so as to
allow interconnection at nearly any point in a power system” [18]

9
DG Definitions
— The International Energy Agency (IEA) defines distributed
generation as “units producing power on a customer’s site
or within local distribution utilities, and supplying power
directly to the local distribution network”. [18]

— The California Public Utility Commission (CPUC) defines

distributed generation as “Generation, storage, devices,
measures and/or technologies that are connected to or
injected into the distribution level of the T&D grid and
located at customer’s premises on either side of meter or
at other points in distribution system, such as utility
substation”. [17]
10
Distributed Generation Classification

Distributed Generation
Technologies

Renewables Non-Renewables Storage

Devices

- Super-conducting
- Wind Power magnetic energy
- Solar Photovoltaic storage (SMES)
- Small Hydro Power - Reciprocating Engine - Battery energy
- Biomass - Micro-turbine storage system
- Tidal Energy - Fuel Cell (BESS)
- Waver Energy - Flywheel
- Geothermal - Ultra-capacitors
- Modular pumped
hydro

11
Why Using DGs?

— Improve system reliability

— Environmental Aspects
— Renewable & low emission fuel
— Alternative for transmission expansion
— Peak Power Shaving
— System operation Aspects
— Small lead time, fast construction
— Higher Efficiency for Combined Heat and Power Plants
CHP
— Mostly feasible solution for isolated system

12
Reliability

— Network reliability:

— Reliability importance for industrial customers

— Technology: Combined backup system with an UPS unit.

13
Environmental Aspects and Concerns
Efficient Use of Cheap Fuel

— Increase opportunity of using cheap fuels, e.g. burning landfill

gases when distributed generation facilities are installed near
landfills.

— Allow the utilization of costless fuels such as wind, water, and

solar for renewable-based distributed generation.

14
 Expansion (or Local Network Use)
Alternatives
— DGs can bypass the costs for transmission and distribution systems
expansions.

— Fuel transportation costs.

— About 30 % savings in electricity costs can results from on site

generation.

— Stand alone mode of operation. This can result in reduction in grid

losses and 10 – 15 % saving in network costs.

15
[Link]
Power rating categories of DG

Micro DG: < 5 kW

Small DG: 5 kW - 5 MW
Medium DG: 5 MW - 50 MW
Large DG: 50 MW - 300 MW

Main characteristics
Ø Geographically dispersed.
Ø Low installed capacity.
Ø Renewable or low emission energy sources as primary energy.
Ø Cogeneration and new technologies.
Ø Not centrally planned.
31-Mar-20

22
 Advantages
— Deferral of new capacity

— Reduces dependence on long-distance national

transmission grid (releasing transmission lines
capacities).

— Avoid cost of new transmission lines

— Reduces transmission and distribution line losses.

— Reduces environmental impacts and greenhouse-gas

emissions.

— Most DG are renewable or low emission generators

23
Network Voltage

— Voltage profile along distribution systems is greatly altered with the

installation of distributed generation.

— The DG capacity is dependent on the maximum allowable voltage

variation level and the voltage level at minimum loading
conditions.

— Distributed generation may also cause a voltage dip when

consuming reactive power from the grid as in the case of induction
generator based DGs (used for wind generation).

24
 Power Flow
— Voltage levels and power flow is
determined by the generation and the
penetration level of distributed
generation.

— Distributed Generation units always

generate active power but they can
generate or absorb reactive power.

— DG installation may result in reverse

power flow.

25
 Network Fault Levels
— Most types of distributed generation (Rotational based DG)
contribute in increasing the fault level of the distribution
network.

— In some cases, the increased fault level may exceeds the

switchgears rating especially in rural areas.

— Increasing the fault level with the presence of DGs can be

diminished by inserting an impedance between DGs’
generators and the network. However, this result in an
increase in the voltage variation and system losses.

26
 Distribution Network Operation

— Distribution network with embedded distributed generation

can be energized and supplied from more than one point.

— Safety regulations and policies for workers are affected.

— Reducing flexibility due to difficulty resulting in obtaining

outage for planned maintenance.

27
Impacts of DGs on Transmission
Systems
— Power flow is affected.

— Reducing transmission system losses.

— Reducing transmission congestion

— Reducing transmission systems operating charges.

28
Impacts of DGs on Central Generation
Plants
— Reduces the net generated power from central generation
plants. This might affect the generation cost either positively
or negatively.

— Generated power from some types of distributed generation

are very difficult to be predicted. This results in increasing the
uncertainty in the generation scheduling.

— DG installation will affect the central plants generation cost

specially the start up and fuel saving cost.

29
DG Promoting Policies
— Feed In Tariff ( FIT)
An incentive structure to encourage the adoption of renewable energy through
government legislation.

— Subsidies and Tax Credit

30
Ontario – Feed In Tariff ( On-going)
— The Green Energy Act, 2009 (GEA) was introduced to
the Ontario Legislature on February 23, 2009.
— Propose a new renewable energy Feed-in Tariff (FIT)
Program
— Designed to further encourage the development of
renewable energy supply.
[Link]

31
General Characteristics of Wind Power
— Performance is very site specific
— Cost effectiveness improves with turbine size
— Turbine output increases with height

— Structure must consider vibration

— Maintenance required (1 to 2¢/ KWh)
— Installed cost $1K-$22K / kW
— Wind farms: 6¢to 8¢/KWh
— Small turbines: 20¢to 30¢/KWh

33
 Advantages
Wind energy offers many advantages such as:

— Wind energy is a clean fuel source that doesn't pollute the

environment.

— Wind energy relies on the renewable power of the wind that

can't be used up.

— Wind energy is one of the lowest-priced renewable energy

technologies available today, costing between 6 and 8 cents
per kilowatt-hour.
34
 Disadvantages
— Wind is irregular and it does not always blow
when electricity is needed.

— Not all winds can be harnessed to meet the

timing of electricity demands.

— High level of uncertainty in production (un-

dispatchable)

— Wind energy cannot be stored (unless batteries

are used).
35
— Good wind sites are often located in remote locations, far
from cities where the electricity is needed.

— Land Use

— Noise produced by the rotor blades,

— Visual impacts

— Birds.

36
 Wind Turbine Construction
- Wind turbines are used to convert the kinetic energy associated with the
wind into mechanical power that rotates generators. These generators convert
the mechanical power into electricity.

- Wind turbines are usually mounted on towers to capture the most of the
kinetic energy. Turbines catch the wind's energy with their propeller-like
blades as shown below.

A cross-sectional area of a turbine blade (Manwell)

37
Turbine Construction

38
 Wind Turbine Classification:
.
Wind Turbine Classifications

Axis of Rotation Wind Direction

Vertical Axis Horizontal Axis Upwind Downwind

39
Offshore Wind
— Introduction

— Conceptual Design

— Cost of Energy

— Future Research Directions, deep water off shore

wind

— Analysis of Future Offshore Wind

41
Typical Offshore Wind
farm

Middelgrunden Wind Farm (off Copenhagen, Denmark)

Photo: J. Manwell
Offshore Wind Turbine Requirements

— Windy Areas
— Shallow depths (now < 45 meters, mostly < 20 m )
— Big power production = Large areas to place a large
number of turbines
— Accessibility to the area
— A market for the power
— Power output proportional to the wind speed, type,
size of turbines and number of turbines installed
— Winds over waters are generally better than nearby
land areas - faster at lower heights, less turbulent
Offshore Wind Farms
— Multiple wind turbines
— Bottom mounted foundation
— Electrical grid between turbines
— Power cable to shore
— Infrastructure for operation &
maintenance
 Conceptual Design of Typical Offshore
Wind Plant
•Foundation
–Bottom mounted up to ~ 60 ft.
depth
–Floating structure in deep
water
Wind Turbine

Grid
Connection Onshore Staging Area
and
Control Room Maintenance
Installation
Vessel
Crane

Submarine Cable
Conceptual Design of Typical Offshore
Wind Plant
•Submarine cable to mainland for
power and communication

Wind Turbine

Grid
Connection Onshore Staging Area
and
Control Room Maintenance
Installation
Vessel
Crane

Submarine Cable
Conceptual Design of Typical Offshore
Wind Plant
•Barge with crane for installation

Wind Turbine

Grid
Connection Onshore Staging Area
and
Control Room Maintenance
Installation
Vessel
Crane

Submarine Cable
Installation

Photos: Courtesy GE Wind

Determinants of Cost of Energy
— Total installed costs
— Turbines, Foundations, Electrical System
— Installation
— Energy produced
— Wind resource
— Turbine operating characteristics
— Turbine spacing
— Operation and Maintenance (O & M)
— Scheduled maintenance and repairs
— Financial considerations (interest rates, etc.)
Factors Affecting Cost of Energy
— Number of turbines
— Size of turbines
— Distance from shore
— Water depth
— Mean wind speed
— Turbine reliability and
maintainability
— Site accessibility
Typical Offshore Capital Costs
— Turbine costs (inc. tower): $800-1200/kW
— Cable costs: $500k-$1,000,000/mile
— Foundation costs:
— Costs depend on soil and depth
— Shallow Water: $300-350/kW
— Price increases ~15%-100% when depth
doubles (from 25 ft to 50 ft)
— Total installed costs: $2000-$4000/kW
Offshore Capital Cost Breakdown

— Turbine (w/out tower): 17-40%

— Tower and foundation: 28-34%
— Electrical grid: 9-36%
— Other: 6-17%
Offshore vs. Onshore Cost
Energy Production
1600

1200

Power, kW
— Wind resource 800

400

— Turbine power curve 0

0 5 10 15 20 25

— Capacity factor
Wind Speed, m/s

— Actual energy/maximum energy

— Typical values offshore: 35-45%
— Availability
— Fraction of time turbine can run
Typical O & M Costs
— 1.0 – 2.0 US cents/kWh
— O & M increases with
— Increased distance from shore
— Increased occurrence of bad
weather
— O & M decreases with
— More reliable turbine design
— Greater number of turbines
Cost of Energy
— Cost of energy (COE), $/kWh, depends on:
— Installed costs, C
— Fixed charge rate, FCR – fraction of installed costs paid
each year for financing
— O&M
— Annual energy production, E
— COE = (C*FCR+O&M)/E

— More Details to be covered in Future Lecture

Simple Payback

— Simple alternative economic

measure
— Simple payback period (SP), years,
depends on:
— Installed costs, C
— Annual energy production, E
— Net price obtained for electricity, P
— SP = C/(E*P)
More Details to be covered in Future Lecture
Social (External) Costs of Electricity
Production
— Costs not accounted for directly in fuel price or
production costs
— Examples:
— Air pollution health affects
— Damage due to global warming
— Typical estimates:
— Coal: 2-15 cents/kWh
— Gas: 1-4 cents/kWh
Costs as a Function of Distance and Total
Size
— 1997 European study:
— 7.5 MW wind farm, 1.5 MW turbines,
— 5 km from coast – 4.9 US cent/kWh
— 30 km from coast – 6.9 US
cent/kWh
— 200 MW wind farm, 1.5 MW
turbines,
— 5 km from coast – 4.1 US cent/kWh
— 30 km from coast – 4.4 US
cent/kWh
Sample Economic Assessment
— Assume
— Installed cost: $1500/kW
— Capacity factor: 40%
— Availability: 95%
— Value of Energy: 8.3 cents/kWh, based on:
— Wholesale: 4 cents/kWh
— PTC: 1.8 cents/kWh
— RPS: 2.5 cents/kWh
— Operation & Maintenance: 1.5 cents/kWh
— Fixed charge rate: 14%
— Simple payback = 6.6 years
— COE= 7.8 cents/kWh
Technical Considerations with Sites
Further from Shore
— Greater energy production
— More extreme environment
— Greater cable length
— Deeper water, larger foundation
costs
— Technology development useful to
reduce costs
— Floating supports for deep water
Deep Water Possibilities
Summary
— Offshore wind energy is a reality in shallow
water, close to shore
— Cost of energy higher than from conventional
sources, ignoring externalities
— COE competitive, including RECS and PTC
— Technology for moderately deep water still
expensive
— Technology for deep water, far from shore
remains to be developed
Simple Calculations of Wind Turbine Power
Wind Turbines’ Tip Speed Ratio
— Wind turbine’s Tip Speed Ratio (TSR) is defined as the ratio
between the moving speed of the outer tip of the turbine
blades to the wind speed.

N
xp D
Rotor tip Speed 60
TSR = =
Wind Speed v

Where N is the rotational speed of the turbine’s rotor in RPM;

D is the rotor diameter; and v is the incident wind speed.

64
Wind Turbines’ Efficiency

— The overall efficiency of the wind turbines is given by;

Where Poutput is the output generated power from the turbines and Pwind is the power in the wind

— The aerodynamic power in the wind is given by:

Where rair is the air density and is equal to 1.225 kg/m3 and A is the rotor swept area.

The rotor swept area equals to where D is the diameter

Slide 65
Example 1
— A three-blades, 40 m diameter wind turbine generating
600 kW at an incident wind speed of 14 m/s. Given that
the Air density is 1.225 kg / m3

— Calculate:
1. The rpm of the rotor when it operates with TSR of 4.

2. The tip speed of the rotor.

3. The needed gear ratio to rotate the generator at 1800 rpm.

4. The overall turbine’s efficiency.

66
Solution
1. The rpm of the rotor can be calculated form the TSR formula as
follows.
rpm
xp D
TSR = 60
v
rpm
x 40p
4= 60
14

Therefore, the rotor’s rpm is 26.7 revolution per minute.

2. The tip speed of the rotor is

rpm 26.7
Tip Speed = xp D= x 40p = 55.9 m / s
60 60

67
3. The needed gear ratio if the generator to rotates at 1800 rpm
can be calculated as follows
Generator rpm 1800
Gear Ratio = = = 67.4
Rotor rpm 26.7

4. To calculate the overall turbine’s efficiency we need to calculate

the power associated by the wind first which is given by

1 1 p
Pwind = r air A v 3 = x1.225 x 40 2 x 14 3 = 2112 kW
2 2 4

Then the overall percentage efficiency of the turbine is

Poutput 600
% h overall = x 100 = x 100 = 28.4 %
Pwind 2112

68
Wind Power Probability Density Function (p.d.f.)
— The figure below presents the probability density function (p.d.f.) for wind speed. The area under the curve
between any two points represents the probability that the incident wind speed is within this range. This function
f(v) can be expressed numerically using the Weibull probability density function (Weibull p.d.f.) given by

k ævö
k -1
é æ v ök ù
f (v ) = ç ÷ expê- ç ÷ ú
c ècø êë è c ø úû
2
Where k is the shape parameter and c is the scale parameters given by c = v @ 1.128 v
p
and v is the average wind speed.

Wind power probability density function [1]

69
— The effect of changing the shape parameter k on the shape of
the function is shown below. A special case arise when k = 2
where the function is known as the Rayleigh probability density
function and can be expressed numerically by

pv é p æ v ö2 ù
f (v ) = 2
expê- ç ÷ ú
2v êë 4 è v ø úû

Weibull probability density function [1]

70
¨ The effect of changing the average wind speed value (and hence c)
on the shape of the Rayleigh probability density function is shown
below.
¨ The cumulative
distribution function for
Weibull statistics can be
given by:

F (V ) = prob(v £ V ) =
V
k ævö
k -1 é æ v ök ù
ò
0
ç ÷
cècø
exp ê- ç ÷ ú dv
êë è c ø úû
é æ V ök ù
= 1 - exp ê- ç ÷ ú
êë è c ø úû Rayleigh probability density function [1]

¨ This function can be rewritten for Rayleigh statistics as

follows;
é p æ V ö2 ù
F (V ) = prob(v £ V ) = 1 - expê- ç ÷ ú
ëê 4 è v ø ûú

71
— Example 2: For a 54 m diameter, 1000 kW wind turbine that has cut in speed
VC = 4 m/s, rated wind speed VR = 14 m/s, and a furling (cut-out) wind speed
of generating VF = 25 m/s. The turbine is located in a site with Rayleigh winds
distribution and average wind speed of 10 m/s. Find:
1. The hrs/year when the wind speed is below the cut in wind speed.
2. The hrs/year when the wind turbine is in a shut down mode due to
excessive wind speed.
3. The generated kWh/year when the turbine is running at rated power.

The ideal power curve for wind turbines is shown below.

Ideal turbine power curve

72
 Solution:
— 1. The probability that the incident wind speeds are below the
cut in wind speed is
é pæ4ö ù 2

F (4 m / s ) = prob(v £ 4 m / s ) = 1 - expê- ç ÷ ú = 0.1181

êë 4 è 10 ø úû
Therefore, the number of hours when the wind speed is below the
cut in wind speed is
Hours (v £ 4 m/s) = 8760 x 0.1181 = 1034 hrs/year
2. The probability that the incident wind speeds are higher than the
furling wind speed is
ìï é p æ 25 ö 2 ù üï é p æ 25 ö 2 ù
prob(v ³ 25 m / s ) = 1 - í1 - expê- ç ÷ ú ý = expê- ç ÷ ú = 0.0074
ïî ëê 4 è 10 ø ûú ïþ ëê 4 è 10 ø ûú

Therefore, the number of hours when the wind speed is higher than the
furling wind speed and will result in shutting down the turbine is.
Hours (v ³ 25 m/s) = 8760 x 0.0074 = 65 hrs/year

73
— 3. The probability that the incident wind speeds are higher
than 14 m/s is
ìï é p æ 14 ö 2 ù üï é p æ 14 ö 2 ù
prob(v ³ 14 m / s ) = 1 - í1 - expê- ç ÷ ú ý = expê- ç ÷ ú = 0.2145
ïî êë 4 è 10 ø úû ïþ êë 4 è 10 ø úû

The number of hours when the wind speed is higher than 14 m/s is
Hours (v ³ 14 m/s) = 8760 x 0.2145 = 1879 hrs/year
Therefore, the number of hours when the wind speed is ranging
between 14 m/s and 25 m/s when the turbine is generating rated power is
Hours (14 m/s £ v £ 25 m/s) = 1879 - 65 = 1814 hrs/year
The corresponding generated energy is
Energy (14 m/s £ v £ 25 m/s) = 1814 x 1000 = 1814 GWh/year

74
— Example 3: A 60 m diameter, 1 MW wind turbine installed at a site
having Rayleigh wind statistics with an average wind speed of 7 m/s.
The turbine power curve is represented by the following table:

Calculate the annual energy production (kWh/year) from this turbine.

For simplicity, assume that the power curve varies in steps during the
maximum power tracking period, i.e.
Pgenerated (V £ v < V+1) = Pgenerated (v = V)
(example Pgenerated (5 £ v <6) = Pgenerated (v = 5) =86 kW),
Where v is the desired wind speed.

75
 Solution:
The probability that the incident wind speed is less than or equal
to V for Rayleigh statistics in terms of the average wind speed is
given by
é p æ V ö2 ù
F (V ) = prob(v £ V ) = 1 - expê- ç ÷ ú
êë 4 è v ø úû
Then, the probability that the incident wind speed has a value
between V1 and V2 can be expressed by;
ìï é p æ V1 ö 2 ù üï ìï é p æ V2 ö 2 ù üï
prob(V1 < v < V2 ) = F (V1 ) - F (V2 ) = í1 - expê- ç ÷ ú ý - í1 - expê- ç ÷ ú ý
ïî êë 4 è v ø úû ïþ ïî êë 4 è v ø úû ïþ
é p æ V2 ö 2 ù é p æ V1 ö 2 ù
= expê- ç ÷ ú - expê- ç ÷ ú
ëê 4 è v ø úû ëê 4 è v ø ûú

The following table presents the probability function, number of

hours, and the energy production for each interval. The summation of
the energy production over all intervals presents the annual energy
production for the turbine under investigation.

76
Therefore, the
annual
energy production
(kWh/year)
from this turbine is
2537216.062
kWhr/year
or 2.537
GWhr/year.

77
 Capacity Factor (CF) Calculations

♦ The Capacity Factor (CF) is defined as the average power output

during all the hours over a defined period of time divided by the
nameplate rating of the generation resource.
Pave
CF =
Prated

♦ Wind CF calculations can be performed using different methods.

Among them:

1- Capacity Factor Calculation using Wind PDF

2- Hourly Calculation of the CF

78
1) Capacity Factor Calculation using Wind PDF
The annual capacity factor is given by
Ea
CF =
Prated * 8760
Where Ea is the annual energy produced by the wind turbine
The annual energy is calculated by multiplying the power output of the turbine at
certain speed by the probability of having that speed in a year as shown in the
following equation:
v2
E a = 8760 ´ å f ( v ) P ( v )
where v1
v1 and v2 are the cut-in and cut-out speed, respectively;
p(v) is the power output at speed v;
f(v) is the Rayleigh PDF value at v. Energy (GWh) Power output (kW) Probability

0.3 1000

Power output (kW)

Energy (GWh)
Probability & 0.2
500
0.1

0.0 0
0

9
12

15

18

21

24
Speed (m/s)

79
Typesof Solar Power
Solar Thermal Power Generation
— Concentrating Type ( CSP)
- Line Focusing system
— - Parabolic Trough Systems
- Fresnel Trough Collector Systems

- Point Focusing
- Dish Stirling Systems / Concentrating Dish
- Solar Tower Plants using central Receiver
System
— Concentrating Photovoltaic (CPV)
Typesof Solar Power
— Solar Photovoltaics
— Conventional Silicon based (Crystalline and thin film)
— Concentrating PV (CPV): The latest to emerge on the
scene
Concentrating Solar Thermal Power (CSP)
— Has the possibility of supplying base and peak load
due to storage option
— Lower costs than PV/CPV
— Storage options greatly increase Plant Load Factor
and dispatchable electricity
— Over 11,000 MW CSP in development throughout the
world;
— Bulk of Projects under development in USA / Europe
— Feed-in Tariffs announced in few countries
— Eg: Spain - 0.27 Euro / kWh for 25 years with adjustment for
inflation.
— Ontario: Review Ontario FIT program
CSP - TROUGH TECHNOLOGY, PROJECTS IN USA,
SPAIN
 Trough Technology

— Trough Collectors (single axis

tracking)
— Heat-Collection Elements
— Heat-transfer oil (Therminol VP1)
— Oil-to-water Steam Generator
— Oil-to-salt Thermal Storage
— Conventional steam- Rankine cycle
power block
 Power Tower Technology

Focus on
— Heliostats (two-axis tracking) molten-salt plant
— Air or Molten-Salt Receiver
— Air or Molten-Salt Working Fluid
— Thermal Storage
— Conventional steam- Rankine cycle
power block, or Combustion
Turbine
— Under Development
Dish Stirling Technology

— Dish (two-axis tracking)

— 10 and 25 kW Stirling Engines
— Thermal receivers
— Distributed generation or bulk
power
— 8 different system
configurations built and tested
over the last 20 years
— Utility interest growing
PV- SILICON (CONVENTIONAL) NELLIS SOLAR PLANT 14 MW, NEVADA
 PV Construction
¨ The output of an individual cell is rather low, about a watt or two at 0.5-0.6 V. Therefore, several cells must be connected in a series-parallel
configuration to obtain practical outputs. Several cells (typically around 36-72) are connected in series-parallel to form a module. Many of
such modules are usually combined (again in a series-parallel arrangement) together to constitute an array (string). For larger industrial or
utility installations a collection of several arrays are connected in a segment (or subfield).

¨ Today's large-scale plant or system will consist of several segments feeding into a bank of inverters, which convert the DC input into utility-
grade ac, for injection into the grid.

89
— Several fabrication stages exist between a laboratory cell and a PV system.
They are: production cells, production modules, operating array, and
operating systems. At each stage, a certain decrease in efficiency is
experienced. The overall efficiency of conversion of insolation into electrical
energy of a system could be as low as 60% of the efficiency of a laboratory cell.

— The PV cell is an all-electrical device. Without any moving parts inside the PV
module, the tear-and-wear is very low. Thus, lifetimes of more than 25 years
for modules are easily reached. However, the power generation capability may
be reduced to 75-80% of nominal value due to ageing.

— A typical PV module is made up around 36 or 72 cells connected in series,

encapsulated in a structure made of aluminum.

90
 General Features of a PV Power Generator
— Features:
Size: 0.3 kW – 2 MW Efficiency: 5 – 15%
Installed cost ($/kW): 6,000 – 10,000 O&M cost ($/kWh): 0.2
Fuel: sunlight Emission: zero
Main components: batteries, battery chargers, a backup generator, a controller
Other features: no moving parts, quiet operation, little maintenance
Commercial status: commercially deployed, advanced PV films under development
Power of an individual photovoltaic cell: 1 – 2 watts

— PV Materials:
Crystalline silicon:
– Used in more than half of all solar electric devices
– Consists of a positive (p-type) layer and a negative (n-type) layer
– Applications: small (watch, calculator), large (satellites, electricity for utilities)
Thin films:
– Lighter, more elastic, and easier to manufacture than crystalline silicon module
– Materials used: amorphous silicon (best), cadmium telluride, and copper indium diselenide
– Cost saving because of relatively little semiconductor materials
– Flexible solar electric roofing shingles
Concentrators:
– Need optical lenses or mirrors to concentrate the sunlight
– Components: a lens, a solar cell assembly, a housing element, a secondary concentrator, various contacts and adhesives
– Materials used: crystalline silicon, gallium arsenide, and gallium indium phosphide
– Cost saving because of using inexpensive semiconductor materials

91
— Advantages:
- Work well for remote locations
- Require very little maintenance
- Environmentally friendly (No emissions)

— Disadvantages:
- Local weather patterns and sun conditions directly affect the potential of
photovoltaic system. Some locations with poor solar intensity/climates lacking
reliable sun exposure and high cost of land will not be able to use solar power
- In general, almost one acre of land would be needed to provide 150 kW of
electricity

— Future Research Issues:

- Increase energy density several hundred times using a lens or reflective
surface
- Use of more exotic solar cell technology for greater efficiency
- Lower an overall cost/watt competitive with flat plate technologies

— Manufacturers:
- AstroPower, Baekert ECD Solar Systems LLC, BP Solar, DayStar Technologies,
Inc., Solec international, Inc., Xantrex Technology, Inc.

92
 PV Output Characteristics and Modeling

— There are many significant differences between the output characteristics of PV systems and conventional power generation systems.
— First of all, while the input (fuel) depends on the required output in a conventional power plant, the input to a PV system is
determined by external factors such as location, geometry, orientation, cloud cover, time of day, and the season.
— Secondly, PV plants produce inertia-less generation and their outputs can vary much faster due to say, moving clouds, than the outputs of
conventional thermal and hydro units. Some of the other differences stem from the unique current-voltage characteristic of solar cells
(modules).
— A typical current-voltage characteristic of an illuminated solar cell is shown. The fill factor is a measure of the PV cell quality.
— The output characteristics of PV cells are very much dependent on the insolation level and cell temperature. These effects are illustrated in
the following figures.

93
 PV Electrical Modeling
1) Simple Equivalent Circuit

( )
I = I SC - I d = I SC - I o e 38.9 Vd - 1
æI ö
VOC = 0.0257 ln çç SC + 1÷÷
è Io ø

Where ISC is the cell current when short circuited; Id is the diode
current; Io is the diode reverse saturation current; Vd is the diode
voltage; and VOC is the cell voltage when open circuited.

94
Example 1
— A 100 cm2 photovoltaic cell

— Reverse saturation current of 10-12 A/cm2.

— The cell generates a short circuit current of 40 mA/cm2 at full

sun and 25°C.

— Find:
1. The open circuit voltage at full sun.

2. The open circuit voltage at 50 % full sun.

95
Solution
1. The short circuit current at full sun is

ISC = 40 x 10-3 x 100 = 4 A.

The reverse saturation current of the diode is

Io = 10-12 x 100 = 10-10 A.

Therefore, the open circuit voltage of the cell is

æ 4 ö
VOC = 0.0257 ln ç -10 + 1÷ = 0.627 V
è 10 ø
2. The short circuit current at 50 % sunlight is

ISC, 50% = 4 x 0.5 = 2 A.

Therefore, the open circuit voltage of the cell is

æ 2 ö
VOC = 0.0257 ln ç -10 + 1÷ = 0.61 V
è 10 ø

96
 2) Exact Equivalent Circuit
¨ If two photovoltaic cells are connected in series and one of them is shaded from
the sun, then the shaded cell will not generate nor passes any current.

¨ Zero net current for this arrangement will be produced which contradicts with the
practical behavior of such arrangement.

¨ To overcome this defect, the equivalent circuit is modified by adding a parallel

leakage resistance to the current source and the diode.

¨ Moreover, the exact equivalent circuit should also include a series resistance to
represent the contact resistance between the cell and its wire leads.

(
I = I SC - I d - I P = I SC - I o e38.9 Vd - 1 - ) Vd
RP

V = Vd - I RS

97
 Parallel Resistance Effect

¨ The added resistance reduces the generated current at any given

voltage by V/RP.

Where V is the junction voltage and RP is the added parallel

resistance.

Series Resistance Effect

¨ The added series resistance reduces the generated voltage at any

given current by ΔV = I RS.

Where ΔV is the drop in the cell’s voltage and RS is the added

series resistance.

98
Example 2
— A PV module consisting of 36 identical PV cells connected in
series.

— Each cell has:

— A short circuit current of 3.4 A at sun insolation of 1 kW/m2 and
at 25°C.

— A reverse saturation current of 6 x 10-10 A,

— A parallel resistance of 6.6 W

— A series resistance of 0.005 W.

— Calculate the voltage, current, and delivered power when the

junction voltage of each cell is 0.5 V:

99
Solution
— The total cell current is

( )
I = I SC - I o e 38.9 Vd - 1 -
Vd
RP
(
= 3.4 - 6 x 10 -10 e 38.9 x 0.5
)
-1 -
0.5
6.6
= 3.16 A

— The voltage generated by the module (n = 36 cells) is

Vmodule = n(Vd – I RS) = 36 x (0.5 – 3.16 x 0.005) = 17.43 V

— The delivered power is

Pdelivered = Vmodule x I = 17.43 x 3.16 = 55.1 W

100
PV Cell Shading Effect

V V
DV = + I (RS + R P ) @ + I R P as RS <<< RP
n n
Where ΔV is the drop in the generated voltage, V is the generated
voltage without shading, n is the number of cells connected.

101
Example 3

— A PV module consisting of 36 identical PV cells connected in

series
— Each cell has:
— A parallel resistance of 6.6 W
— A series resistance of 0.005 W.

— Total current at full sun is 2.14 A

— Total voltage at full sun is 19.41 V.
— If one cell is shaded from the sun while the total current remains
the same.
— Find:
1. The module output voltage and power with one cell shaded.
2. The voltage drop across the shaded cell.
3. The dissipated power in the shaded cell.

102
Solution
1. The drop in the generated voltage due to the shaded cell is

V 19.41
DV = + I RP = + 2.14 x 6.6 = 14.66 V
n 36
Then, the new generated voltage by the module is
Vmodule = V – ΔV = 19.41 – 14.66 = 4.75 V
and the new generated power of the module is
Pmodule = Vmodule x I = 4.75 x 2.14 = 10.1 W.

2. The voltage drop across the shaded cell is

VShaded cell = I (RP + RS) = 2.14 x (6.6 + 0.005) = 14.14 V.
3. The dissipated power in the shaded cell is
PShaded cell = VShaded cell x I = 14.14 x 2.14 = 30.2 W.

103
 Hydro Power System

The maximum hydropower power output is entirely

dependent on:
- how much Head and Flow is available at the site,
- so a tiny micro-hydro system might produce just 2 kW,
- whereas a large utility-scale hydro system could easily
produce hundreds of Megawatts (MW).

Electrical Engineering Umm Al-Qura University Slide 105

 Hydropower
The equation for calculating hydropower:
P = m x g x Hnet x η
Where:
P power, measured in Watts (W).
M mass flow rate in kg/s (numerically the same as the flow rate in liters /second because 1 liter of
water weighs 1 kg)
G the gravitational constant, which is 9.81m/s2
Hnet the net Head. This is the gross head physically measured at the site, less any head losses. To
keep things simple head losses can be assumed to be 10%,
so
Hnet=Hgross x 0.9η
the product of all of the component efficiencies, which are normally the turbine, drive system
and generator

For a typical small hydro system the turbine efficiency would be 85%, drive efficiency 95% and
generator efficiency 93%, so the overall system efficiency would be:

0.85 x 0.95 x 0.93 = 0.751 i.e. 75.1%

Electrical Engineering Umm Al-Qura University Slide 106

 Hydropower
Therefore, if you had a relatively low gross head of 2.5 meters, and a turbine that
could take a maximum flow rate of 3 m3/s, the maximum power output of the system
would be:
First convert the gross head into the net head by multiplying it by 0.9, so:
Hnet = Hgross x 0.9 = 2.5 x 0.9 = 2.25 m

Then convert the flow rate in m3/s into liters/second by multiplying it by 1000, so:
3 m3/s = 3,000 liters per second

Remember that 1 liter of water weighs 1 kg, so m is the same numerically as the flow
rate in liters/second, in this case 3,000 kg/s.
Now you are ready to calculate the hydropower power:
Power (W) = m x g x Hnet x η = 3,000 x 9.81 x 2.25 x 0.751 = 49,729 W = 49.7 kW

Electrical Engineering Umm Al-Qura University Slide 107

 Hydropower
Now, do the same for a high-head hydropower site where the gross head is 50
meters and maximum flow rate through the turbine is 150 liters / second.
In this case Hnet = 50 x 0.9 = 45 m and the flow rate in liters/second is 150, hence:
Power (W) = m x g x Hnet x η = 150 x 9.81 x 45 x 0.751 = 49,729 W = 49.7 kW

What is interesting here is that for two entirely different sites, one with a net head
of 2.25 meters and the other 45 meters, can generate exactly the same amount of
power because the low-head site has much more flow (3,000 liters / second)
compared to the high-head site with just 150 liters/second.

This clearly shows how the two main variables when calculating hydropower
power output from a hydropower system are the head and the flow, and the power
output is proportional to the head multiplied by the flow.

Electrical Engineering Umm Al-Qura University Slide 108

 Hydro Energy
To estimate how much energy a hydropower system produces accurately needs
specialist software, but you can get a good approximation by using a ‘capacity factor’.
Capacity Factor is basically the annual amount of energy produced by a hydro system
divided by the theoretical maximum if the system operated at maximum power output
24/7.
For a typical site with a good quality turbine and a maximum flow rate of Qmean, it can
be shown that the capacity factor would be approximately 0.5.
The Annual Energy Production (AEP) from the system can be calculated from:
Annual Energy Production (kWh) = Maximum power output (kW) x No. hours in
a year x capacity factor
Note that there are 8,760 hours in a (non leap) year.
As an example, for the low-head and high-head example, both of which had maximum
power outputs of 49.7 kW,
So the Annual Hydro Energy Production (AEP) would be:
AEP = 49.7 (kW) X 8,760 (h) X 0.5 = 217,686 (kWh)

Electrical Engineering Umm Al-Qura University Slide 109

References

— REN21, Renewable Global Status Update.

— Ontario Power Authority
— [Link]
ydropower-learning-centre/how-much-energy-
could-i-generate-from-a-hydro-turbine/

31-Mar-20

110
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