INSTITUT OF TECHNOLOGY OF DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND

CAMBODIA ENERGY ENGINEERING

ASSIGNMENT
DISTRIBUTED GENERATION
Lecturer : SEAN PISETH

Group : I4-GEE-EE

Students :

1. PET PANHAVISAL e20160481

2. NGEM SOKPHEA e20160426

3. SEU SOPHANY e20160605

4. TANG SANGNGOV e20160713

Academic Year
2020-2021
 Distribute Generation
I. Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 1
II. Overview .................................................................................................................................... 1
i. Wind Energy .............................................................................................................................. 1
1. History and Status .................................................................................................................. 1
2. Definition ................................................................................................................................ 2
3. Reason of using wind energy .................................................................................................. 3
4. Processing ............................................................................................................................... 3
5. Type of wind turbine .............................................................................................................. 6
6. Application ........................................................................................................................... 11
ii. Solar Power .............................................................................................................................. 12
1. History and Status ................................................................................................................ 12
2. Definition .............................................................................................................................. 12
3. Types of solar panels ............................................................................................................ 13
4. Why should we use solar power? ......................................................................................... 15
5. How does solar panel work? ................................................................................................ 16
6. Application ........................................................................................................................... 17
III. Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 19
IV. Reference .................................................................................................................................. 19
 Institute of Technology of Cambodia

I. Introduction
“Distributed Generation,” or DG, refers to the small scale generation of electric power by a
unit sited close to the load being served. DG technologies range in size from 5 kW to 30+ MW,
and include both fully commercial systems, such as reciprocating engines, and others that are
primarily in the laboratory, such as solar and wind power.
Distributed generation (DG) technologies can provide energy solutions to some customers that
are more cost-effective, more environmentally friendly, or provide higher power quality or
reliability than conventional solutions. Understanding the wide variety of DG options available in
These DG technologies include:
 Wind turbine systems (Wind Power) - Wind turbines are currently available from many
manufacturers and range in size from less than 5 to over 1,000 kW. They provide a
relatively inexpensive (compared to other renewables) way to produce electricity, but as
they rely upon the variable and somewhat unpredictable wind, are unsuitable for
continuous power needs. Development efforts look to pair wind turbines with battery
storage systems that can provide power in those times when the turbine is not turning. Wind
turbines are being used primarily in remote locations not connected to the grid and by
energy companies to provide green power.
 Photovoltaics (Solar Power) Commonly known as solar panels, photovoltaic (PV) panels
are widely available for both commercial and domestic use. Panels range from less than 5
kW and units can be combined to form a system of any size. They produce no emissions,
and require minimal maintenance. Photovoltaics are currently being used primarily in
remote locations without grid connections and also to generate green power.
II. Overview
i. Wind Energy
1. History and Status
Windmills have been used for many years to harness wind energy for mechanical work
such as pumping water. Before the Rural Electrification Act in the 1920’s provided funds to
extend electric power to outlying areas, farms were using windmills to produce electricity with
electric generators. In the US alone, eight million mechanical windmills have been installed. Wind
energy became a significant topic in the 1970s during the energy crisis in the U.S. and the resulting

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search for potential renewable energy sources. Wind turbines, basically windmills dedicated to
producing electricity, were considered the most economically viable choice within the renewable
energy portfolio. During this time, subsidies in the form of tax credits and favorable Federal
regulations were available for wind turbine projects to encourage the penetration of wind turbines
and other renewable energy sources.

2. Definition
Wind is the use of wind turbines at homes, farms, businesses, public facilities and off-grid
locations Distributed wind energy systems offer reliable electricity generation in a wide variety of
global settings, including households, schools, farms and ranches, businesses, towns, communities
and remote locations, as depicted below? Projects range for example from a 1-kilowatt (kW) or
smaller off-grid wind turbine at a remote cabin or cell phone tower to a 10-kW wind turbine at a
home, small business, or small agricultural load to several multi-megawatt (MW) wind turbines at
a university campus, manufacturing facility or any large energy user.

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3. Reason of using wind energy

We are using wind energy system because it is fueled by the wind, so it's a clean fuel
source. Wind energy doesn't pollute the air like power plants that rely on combustion of fossil
fuels, such as coal or natural gas. Wind turbines don't produce atmospheric emissions that cause
acid rain or greenhouse gasses Wind energy is a source of renewable energy. Wind energy is no
greenhouse gas emission which are released into the atmosphere when we use wind turbine to
create electricity. For these reasons, producing electricity through wind energy and its
efficient use contributes to sustainable development.
 Wind energy is one of the lowest-priced renewable energy technologies available today,
costing between 4 and 6 cents per kilowatt-hour, depending upon the wind resource and
project financing of the particular project.
 Wind turbines can be built on farms or ranches, thus benefiting the economy in rural areas,
where most of the best wind sites are found.
 The Wind Fluctuates. Wind energy has a similar drawback to solar energy in that it is not
constant.
 Installation is Expensive. Although costs are reducing over time, wind turbines are still
expensive.
 Wind Turbines Pose a Threat to Wildlife.
 Wind Turbines Create Noise Pollution.
 They Also Create Visual Pollution.
4. Processing
Wind energy (or wind power) describes the process by which wind is used to generate
electricity. Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy in the wind into mechanical power. A
generator can convert mechanical power into electricity. When mechanical energy enhances a unit
by harnessing wind power, it may be called a windmill, wind pump, or wind charger. Wind
energy can be used for anything from power on boats, battery charging, or electricity to
be used commercially
When the wind energy work by wind turbine operate on a simple principle. The energy in
wind turn two or three propeller like blades around rotor. The rotor is connected to the main shaft,
which spins a generator to create electricity.

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Inside wind turbine

 The blades: lifts and rotates when wind is blow over them, Cussing the rotor is spin. And
most turbine either two or three blades.
 Rotor: blades and hub together from the rotor.
 Low speed shelf: turns the low speed shaft about 30-60rpm.
 Gear Box: connect low speed shaft to high speed shaft and increases the rotational speed
from about 30-60rotation per minute (rpm) to 1000-18000 rpm. This is rotational speed
required by most generator to produce electricity. The gear box is costly (and heavy) part
of turbine and engineer are exploring “direct drive “generator that operate at low speed
shaft and do not need gear box too.
 High speed shelf: driver the generator.
 Generator: produce 60 cycle electricity, it is usually an off the shelf induction generator.
 Anemometer: measures the wind speed and transmits wind speed data to the controller.
 Controller: start up the machine at speeds of about 8to 16 miles per hour (mph) and about
55mph. Turbines do not operate at wind speeds above about 55 mph because they may be
damaged by the high winds.
 Pitch system: Turns (or pitches) blade s out of the wind control the rotor speed and to keep
the rotor from turning in wind that are too high or too low to produce the electricity.
 Brake: stop the rotor mechanically, or electricity, hydraulically, in emergencies.

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 Wind vans: Measures wind direction and communicate with the yaw drive to orient the
turbine properly to respect the wind.
 Yaw driver: orients upwind turbine to keep them facing the wind when direction change.
Downwind turbine does not require a yaw drive because the wind manually blows the rotor
away from it.
 Yaw motor: power the yaw driver.
 Tower: made from tubular steel, concrete, or steel lattice. Supports the structure of the
turbine. Because wind speed increases in height, taller tower enable turbines to capture
more energy and generate more electricity.
 Nacelle: sits top of tower and contain the gear box low and high speed shafts generator,
and brake. some nacelles are large enough for a helicopter to land on.
Note: For generator has two types important.
Synchronous generator (D)
 Wound rotor synchronous generator (WRSG).
 Permanent magnet synchronous.
 generator (PMSG)Operate at constant rotational speed to create constant voltage
frequency.
 Need magnetic fields,
 Permanent magnet rotor for small machine.
 Almost all wind turbine with synchronous generator creates magnetic field by DC current.
 Require slip rings and brushes, adds to maintenance routine required by the machine.
 Expensive
Asynchronous generator (A, B, C)
 Squirrel cage induction
generator (SCIG)
 Wound rotor induction
generator (WRIG)
 Do not operate at fix speed
 Magnetic field is induced
from AC voltage.
Betz’law

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 Do not require separate circuit (exciter) for magnetic field.

 Do not require slip rings and brushes. So, less maintenance cost.
 Very common for wind
 turbine, less expensive
5. Type of wind turbine
a. Horizontal-axis turbines
Horizontal-axis turbines have blades like airplane propellers, and they commonly have three
blades. The largest horizontal-axis turbines are as tall as 20-story buildings and have blades more
than 100 feet long. Taller turbines with longer blades generate more electricity. Nearly all of the
wind turbines currently in use are horizontal-axis turbines.
b. Upwind
Upwind machines have the rotor facing the wind. The basic advantage of upwind designs is
that one avoids the wind shade behind the tower. The basic drawback of upwind designs is that the
rotor needs to be made rather inflexible, and placed at some distance from the tower (as some
manufacturers have found out to their cost). In addition, an upwind machine needs a yaw
mechanism to keep the rotor facing the wind
 Wind start being away from the tower before it reaches the tower itself.
 The rotor passes the tower, the power from turbine drops slightly.
 In addition, an upwind machine need yaw mechanism to keep the rotor facing wind.
 Complex yaw control system.
 Keep blade facing wind.
 Operate more smoothly.
 Deliver more power.

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c. Downwind Turbine
Downwind machines have the rotor placed on the lee side of the tower. They have the
theoretical advantage that they may be built without a yaw mechanism, if the rotor and nacelle
have a suitable design that makes the nacelle follow the wind passively. For large wind turbines
this is a somewhat doubtful advantage, however, since you do need cables to lead the current away
from the generator. How do you untwist the cables, when the machine has been yawing passively
in the same direction for a long period of time, if you do not have a yaw mechanism? (Slip rings
or mechanical collectors are not a very good idea if you are working with 1000 ampere currents).
 Rotor may be made more flexible.
 Blades will bend at high wind speed
 Built somewhat lighter than upwind.
 Let the wind control left-right motion (the yaw).
 Orient itself correctly to wind direction.
 Wind shadowing effect by the tower, cause the blade to flex.
 Increase noise and reduce power output.

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d. Vertical-axis turbines look like egg beaters

Vertical-axis turbines have blades that are attached to
the top and the bottom of a vertical rotor. The most
common type of vertical-axis turbine the Darrieus wind
turbine, named after the French engineer Georges
Darrieus who patented the design in 1931—looks like a
giant, two-bladed egg beater. Some versions of the
vertical-axis turbine are 100 feet tall and 50 feet wide.
Very few vertical-axis wind turbines are in use today
because they do not perform as well as horizontal-axis
turbines.
For Vertical axis it has:
 Advantage
 Always turn into the wind direction (no control).
 The generator and gearbox can be placed near the ground (easy maintenance).
 Cheaper to produce than horizontal axis turbines.
 More easily installed compared to other wind turbine types.

 Transportable from one location to another.

 Equipped with low-speed blades, lessening the risk to people and birds.

 Function in extreme weather, with variable winds and even mountain conditions.

 Disadvantage
 Self-starting is impossible.
 The pulsating torque generated by the rotor (mechanical problem).
 dynamic stall of the blades as the angle of attack varies rapidly.
 While this design is less likely to be damaged by gusty wind conditions, they are more
likely to stall out and stop spinning.
 These types of turbines aren’t typically well suited for use in areas of high wind speeds.
 Due to the vertically oriented blade design, the blades tend to flex and twist as the rotor
assembly spins faster and faster.

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 The centrifugal force generated by the spinning blades has been reported to cause stress
and fatigue on some blade designs that occasionally results in them breaking.
e. Wind Turbine Size Designations
The size of wind turbines in distributed applications can vary widely, including:
 Smaller wind turbines commonly up to 50 kW fostering energy independence for
households, small farms and ranches, and other consumers and providing local grid
support, charging batteries and supplying power at cabins and other off-grid sites, and
 Wind projects up to multiple MW reducing energy costs at or near agricultural,
commercial, industrial, and institutional sites and facilities.
Wind turbines up to 100 kW are eligible for the 30% federal Business Energy Investment
Tax Credit through 2016. For the purposes of certification, international wind turbine standards
apply to:
 “Small” wind turbines having rotor swept areas up to 200 square meters (approximately 50
kW);
 “Medium” wind turbines having rotor swept area between 201-1,000 square meters
(approximately 50 kW up to approximately 500 kW). And we can Find the average wind
speed and average power in the wind [W/m2]

The table below gives you a rough idea of the initial costs of small domestic wind turbine system

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The best places for wind farms are in coastal areas, at the tops of rounded hills, open plains
and gaps in mountains - places where the wind is strong and reliable. Some are offshore. To be
worthwhile, you need an average wind speed of around 25 km/h. Wind turbines can be built on
land or offshore in large bodies of water like oceans and lakes too.
 Advantages of Wind Energy
 Clean & Environment friendly Fuel source: it doesn’t pollute air like power plant relying
on combustion of fossil fuel. It does not produce atmospheric emissions that cause acid
rain or greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide (CO2) or methane (CH4)).
 Renewable & Sustainable: Winds are caused by heating of atmosphere by the sun, earth
surface irregularities and the rotation of the earth. For as long as the sun shines the wind
blows, the energy produced can be harnessed and It will never run out, unlike the Earth’s
fossil fuel reserves
 Cost Effective: Wind energy is completely free. There’s no market for the demand and
supply of wind energy’s,
 Industrial and Domestic Installation: Wind turbines can be built on existing farms or
ranches where most of the best wind sites are found
 Disadvantages of Wind Energy
 Fluctuation of Wind and Good wind sites: Wind energy has a drawback that it is not a
constant energy source. Although wind energy is sustainable and will never run out, the
wind isn’t always blowing
 Noise and aesthetic pollution: Wind turbines generate noise and visual pollution. A single
wind turbine can be heard from hundreds of meters away

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 Not a profitable use of land: Alternative uses for the land might be more highly valued
than electricity generation.
 Threat to wildlife: Birds have been killed by flying into spinning turbine blades. However,
it is believed that wind turbines pose less of a threat to wildlife than other manmade
structures such as cell phone masts and radio towers.
6. Application
Wind turbines are packaged systems that include the rotor, generator, turbine blades, and
drive or coupling device. As the wind blows through the blades, the air exerts aerodynamic forces
that cause the blades to turn the rotor. Most systems have a gearbox and generator in a single
unit behind the turbine blades. The output of the generator is processed by an inverter that
changes the electricity from DC to AC so that the electricity can be used. Most of the turbines in
service today have a horizontal axis configuration (as shown in the figure). Wind conditions limit
the amount of electricity that wind turbines are able to generate, and the minimum wind speed
required for electricity generation determines the turbine rating. Generally, the minimum wind
speed threshold is attained more frequently when the turbine is placed higher off of the ground.
Also important to consider when siting a wind turbine is the terrain. Coastlines and hills are
among the best places to locate a wind turbine, as these areas typically have more wind.

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ii. Solar Power

1. History and Status
In 1839, French physicist Edmund
Becquerel discovered that certain materials
produced small electric currents when
exposed to light. His early experiments were
about 1 to 2 percent efficient in converting
light into electricity and precipitated
research into these photovoltaic effects. The
next breakthrough came in the 1940s when
material science evolved and the Czochralski
process was developed to produce very pure crystalline silicon (The process is named after Jan
Czochralski, the Polish scientist credited with inventing it). In 1954, Bell Labs used this process
to develop a silicon photovoltaic cell that increased the light to electricity conversion efficiency
to 4 percent. Photovoltaic systems, commonly known as solar panels, are currently widely
available, produce no emissions, are reliable, and require minimal maintenance to operate.
Photovoltaic systems are not used widely because they are one of the most expensive DG
technologies to buy, only work while sunlight is available, and have a fairly large footprint.
2. Definition
Solar power is the generation of electricity from sunlight. This can be direct as with
photovoltaics (PV), or indirect as with concentrating solar power (CSP), where the sun's energy is
focused to boil water which is then used to provide power.
Solar Photovoltaic (PV) is a technology that converts sunlight (solar radiation) into direct
current electricity by using semiconductors. When radiation from the sun hits the semiconductor
within the PV cell, electrons are freed and it produces an electric voltage differential between both
faces that makes the electrons flow between one to the other and generating an electric current.
Solar PV technology is generally employed on a panel (hence solar panels). PV cells are typically
found connected to each other and mounted on a frame called a module. Multiple modules can be
wired together to form an array, which can be scaled up or down to produce the amount of power
needed. PV cells can be made from various semi-conductor materials. The most commonly used

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material today is silicon but other materials, such the ones listed below, are being tested and used
to increase the efficiency of converting sunlight to electricity.
 Monocrystalline Silicon
 Polycrystalline Silicon
 Amorphous Silicon
 Cadmium Telluride (CdTe)
 Copper Indium Gallium Selenide (CIGS)
3. Types of solar panels
These solar panels vary in how they’re made, appearance, performance, costs, and the
installations each are best suited for.
Monocrystalline solar panels
These are made using cells sliced from a single cylindrical crystal of
silicon. This is the most efficient photovoltaic technology, typically
converting around 15% of the sun's energy into electricity. The
manufacturing process required to produce monocrystalline silicon is
complicated, resulting in slightly higher costs than other technologies.
Polycrystalline solar panels
Also sometimes known as multi-crystalline cells, polycrystalline silicon
cells are made from cells cut from an ingot of melted and recrystallized
silicon. The ingots are then saw-cut into very thin wafers and assembled
into complete cells. They are generally cheaper to produce than
monocrystalline cells, due to the simpler manufacturing process, but they
tend to be slightly less efficient, with average efficiencies of around 12%.
Thin-film solar panels
Unlike monocrystalline and polycrystalline solar panels, thin-film panels are made from a variety
of materials. The most prevalent type of thin-film solar panel is made from cadmium telluride
(CdTe). To make this type of thin-film panel, manufacturers place a layer of CdTe between
transparent conducting layers that help capture sunlight. This type of thin-film technology also has
a glass layer on the top for protection.

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Thin-film solar panels can also be made from amorphous silicon (a-Si), Thin-film

which is similar to the composition of monocrystalline and

polycrystalline panels. Though these thin-film panels use silicon in their
composition, they are not made up of solid silicon wafers. Rather, they’re
composed of non-crystalline silicon placed on top of glass, plastic, or metal.
Lastly, Copper Indium Gallium Selenide (CIGS) panels are another popular type of thin-film
technology. CIGS panels have all four elements placed between two conductive layers (i.e. glass,
plastic, aluminum, or steel), and electrodes are placed on the front and the back of the material to
capture electrical currents.
 Advantagies of solar photovoltaic
 PV panels provide clean – green energy. During electricity generation with PV panels there
is no harmful greenhouse gas emissions thus solar PV is environmentally friendly.
 Solar energy is energy supplied by nature it is thus free and abundant. Average life time
of solar power panels are up to 20 to 25 years.
 Solar energy can be made available almost anywhere there is sunlight, especially rural
areas where conventional electricity is not present already or it may cost more to setup
electric grid station.
 Operating and maintenance costs for PV panels are considered to be low, almost negligible,
compared to costs of other renewable energy systems
 PV panels are totally silent, producing no noise at all; consequently, they are a perfect
solution for urban areas and for residential applications
 Residential solar panels are easy to install on rooftops or on the ground without any
interference to residential lifestyle.
 Solar energy reduces the amount of energy lost in generation, long-distance transmission.
 Solar power plants can also be connected to existing source of power generation to form
hybrid system to boost energy requirements during sunny, hot and dry day.
 Disadvantages
 Sun does not shine consistently.
 Solar energy is a diffuse source. To harness it, we must concentrate it into an amount and
form that we can use, such as heat and electricity.
 Addressed by approaching the problem through:1) collection, 2) conversion, 3) storage.

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4. Why should we use solar power?

People often ask themselves 'Why is solar energy good?' and, as a result, fail to realize the
importance of solar technology. Solar power has evidently become the trend in renewable energy.
Homeowners around the UK installed solar panels on their roof, managing accordingly to reap all
the solar energy advantages. Apart from the obvious financial benefits, there are other pertinent
reasons why you should convert to using solar power instead of fossil fuels. What other reasons
should you consider when going solar? Here are seven compelling reasons.
 Solar Power Is Good for the Environment
The most commonly known fact about solar energy is that it represents a clean, green source
of energy. Solar power is a great way to reduce your carbon footprint. There’s nothing about solar
power that pollutes mother nature. Solar power doesn’t release any greenhouse gasses, and except
for needing a source of clean water to function, it uses absolutely no other resources. Hence, it’s
safe and environmentally-friendly. Yet, people are still in doubt why solar energy is good. Solar
power is self-sufficient and installing solar panels on your roof is a safe and easy path to contribute
to a sustainable future. Starting on your home is a great way to show you care about the
environment.
 Solar Electricity Makes Your Home Go Off-the-Grid
The decrease in the cost of solar panels serves as a great example of why there should be
an increase in the use of solar energy. Traditional electricity relies heavily on fossil fuels such as
coal and natural gas. Not only are they being bad for the environment, but they are also limited
resources. This translates into a volatile market, in which energy prices alter throughout the day.
Solar electricity boosts your electricity independence! By investing in a 4kW solar system, which
is the most common domestic size, you can easily protect yourself against unpredictable increases
in utility prices, and enjoy cheap electricity throughout the entire day - the sun will never increase
its rates and it gives you energy security.
 Solar Power Can Use Underutilized Land
You may continue to wonder why solar power. With the increasing need of solar energy, it’s
become easily accessible to most of us. Across countries, there are vast land that are far away from
big cities or capitals, and are not used for anything at all. With solar power, we can actually make
use of the land and subsequently generate great value; solar energy provides a source of power for
everyone. In this way, we don’t need to use high priced land that might be better suited for other

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applications. You might have heard of solar farms - panels used to harvest solar energy in large
numbers. This highlights perfectly how solar power makes use of underutilized land. For instance,
a 45 acre solar farm has been recently built in the UK, and it’s able to power 2,500 homes.
 Solar Power Causes Less Electricity Loss
Electricity needs to be transported from big power plants to end-consumers via extensive
networks. Long distance transmissions equal power losses. Ever wondered what are solar panels
used for? They’re on your roof to get energy from the sun. Rooftop solar power is helpful in
increasing electricity efficiency, considering the short distance. Your energy becomes
domestic and as a result you’re in control of your own bills and energy usage. Furthermore, solar
power systems are durable, thus chances of service interruption are reduced.
 Solar Power Improves Grid Security
When there are many of us switching to solar power, we are less likely to experience blackouts
or brownouts. Every household in the UK that have solar cells installed, functions as a small power
plant. This, in turn, provides us with a greater electricity grid security, especially in terms of natural
or human-caused disasters.
5. How does solar panel work?
The diagram shows how it’s all connected and helps you understand how solar panels work.
a. The sun gives off light, even on cloudy days.
b. PV cells on the panels turn the light into DC
electricity.
c. The current flows into an inverter, which
converts it to AC electricity ready to use.
d. The current is fed through a meter and then
into your home’s consumer unit.
e. Plug in and switch on. Your system will
automatically use the free electricity you’ve
generated, then switch back to the grid as
needed.
f. Any electricity you don’t use is exported to the grid for others to use.

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6. Application
Photovoltaic (PV) solar panels are composed of discrete cells connected together that
convert light radiation into electricity. The PV cells produce direct-current (DC) electricity. Since
the electricity supplied by the electric utilities and used by most residential end-users is AC
electricity, the electricity generated by solar panels cannot be used until it is converted from DC
to AC using an inverter. In some instances, additional power conditioning equipment may be
required if the solar panel is connected to the electric grid.
Insolation is a term used to describe available solar energy that can be converted to electricity.
The factors that affect insolation are the intensity of the light and the operating temperature of the
PV cells. Light intensity is dependent on the local latitude and climate and generally increases as
the site gets closer to the equator. Another major factor is the position of the solar panel. In order
to maximize light intensity, the panel should be positioned to maximize the duration of
perpendicular incident light rays. Even with these adjustments, the maximum theoretical
efficiency that can be attained by a PV cell is 30 percent.

Since solar radiation is intermittent, solar power generation is combined either with storage
or other energy sources to provide continuous power, although for small distributed
producer/consumers, net metering makes this transparent to the consumer. On a larger scale, in
Germany, a combined power plant has been demonstrated, using a mix of wind, biomass, hydro-,
and solar power generation, resulting in 100% renewable energy.
 In Buildings

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The building is at a considerable distance

from the public electricity supply (or grid) in
remote or mountainous areas PV may be the
preferred possibility for generating electricity, or
PV may be used together with wind, diesel
generators and/or hydroelectric power. In such off-
grid circumstances batteries are usually used to
store the electric power. In locations near the grid,
however, feeding the grid using PV panels is more practical, and leads to optimum use of the
investment in the photovoltaic system. This requires both regulatory and commercial preparation,
such as net-metering or feed-in-tariff (FiT) agreements. To provide for possible power failure,
some grid tied systems are set up to allow local use disconnected from the grid. Most photovoltaics
are grid connected. In the event the grid fails, the local system must not feed the grid to prevent
the possible creation of dangerous islanding. The power output of photovoltaic systems for
installation in buildings is usually described in kilowatt-peak units (kWp).
 In Transport
PV has traditionally been used for auxiliary power in space. PV is
rarely used to provide motive power in transport applications, but is
being used increasingly to provide auxiliary power in boats and cars.
Recent advances in solar race cars, however, have produced cars that
with little changes could be used for transportation.
Until a decade or so ago, PV was used frequently to power
calculators and novelty devices. Improvements in integrated circuits
and low power LCD displays make it possible to power such devices
for several years between battery changes, making PV use less
common. In contrast, solar powered remote fixed devices have seen increasing use recently in
locations where significant connection cost makes grid power prohibitively expensive. Such
applications include parking meters, emergency telephones, temporary traffic signs, and remote
guard posts & signals.
 Rural electrification

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Developing countries where many villages are often more than five kilometers away from
grid power have begun using photovoltaics. In remote locations in India a rural lighting program
has been providing solar powered LED lighting to replace lamps. The solar powered lamps were
sold at about the cost of a few months’ supply of kerosene Cuba is working to provide solar power
for areas that are off grid. These are areas where the social costs and benefits offer an excellent
case for going solar though the lack of profitability could relegate such endeavors to humanitarian
goals.
 Agriculture and horticulture
Greenhouses like these in the Westland municipality of the Netherlands grow vegetables, fruits
and flowers. Agriculture and horticulture seek to optimize the capture of solar energy in order to
optimize the productivity of plants. Techniques such as timed planting cycles, tailored row
orientation, staggered heights between rows and the mixing of plant varieties can improve crop
yields. While sunlight is generally considered a plentiful resource, the exceptions highlight the
importance of solar energy to agriculture. During the short growing seasons of the Little Ice Age,
French and English farmers employed fruit walls to maximize the collection of solar energy. These
walls acted as thermal masses and accelerated ripening by keeping plants warm. Early fruit walls
were built perpendicular to the ground and facing south, but over time, sloping walls were
developed to make better use of sunlight
III. Conclusion
The distributed generation help us to reduce the cost of the transmission line and the
transmission losses .distributed generation playing important role in the field of the electricity
generation whereas Different issues related to power quality when DR is integrated with the
existing power system has been discussed in the report .It can be concluded from this discussion
that when interconnecting DR to the power system, these issues must be considered which could
affect power quality and safety. Penetration of DR can be successfully integrated with the power
system as long as the interconnection designs meet the basic requirements that consider not only
power.
IV. Reference
o Advanced Stationary, Reciprocating Natural Gas Engine Workshop, Department of Energy,
San Antonio, Texas. January 12-13, 1999.
o Renewable and Efficient Electric Power Systems. By Gilbert M. Masters in 2014

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