(a) Tensile test of metals and alloys.

Objective:
To comprehend uniaxial tensile testing and acquire practical skills in operating the tensile testing machine to
determine the necessary tensile properties, the objectives include:
1. Understanding the stress-strain relationship and effectively expressing it graphically.
2. Identifying the yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, and percentage elongation of a material.
3. Gaining insights into the material's strain-hardening behavior and fracture toughness properties.

Theory:
A fundamental aspect of a material's characterization is its mechanical property, which denotes how the material
responds to external forces. Tensile testing stands out as a crucial method for evaluating this property. Tensile
strength, a key parameter, represents the maximum stress a material can endure before undergoing breaking or
failure. This characteristic is determined through the process of tensile testing, involving the recording of the
engineering stress versus strain curve.
In the case of most ductile metals, the tensile strength extends beyond the yield point on the stress-strain curve. On
the other hand, brittle materials tend to exhibit tensile strength closer to the yield point. This distinction in behavior
provides valuable insights into the material's mechanical performance and helps in assessing its suitability for
various applications.

Materials used: Mild Steel 400 grade (HKG)

Equipment Used: Universal Testing Machine (UTM), Slide Calipers

Procedure:
The testing procedure involved the following steps:
1. Dimension Measurement: The specimen's dimensions were measured using slide calipers to ensure
accuracy.
2. Gauge Length Setting: A specific gauge length of 200mm was established for the specimen, providing a
standardized reference point for testing.
3. Universal Testing Machine Setup: The specimen was positioned in the universal testing machine, and force
was applied gradually until failure occurred.
4. Analysis of Stress-Strain Curve: The resulting stress-strain curve was carefully examined to extract
coordinates necessary for calculating yield strength and ultimate tensile strength.
5. Post-Testing Inspection: After removal from the testing machine, the specimen underwent further analysis.
This included remeasuring the length and other dimensions of specific portions.
6. Calculation of Elongation and Area Reduction: Using the updated measurements, the percentage of
elongation and percentage of area reduction were calculated. These calculations provide insights into the
material's deformation characteristics and resilience under applied stress.
Data Collection:
Materials used Mild steel 400 grade (HKG)

Diameter (mm) 25

Cross-Sectional Area (mm2) 490.87

Gauge length (mm) 200

Load at the upper yield point 226.2329

(kN)

Load at lower yield point 224.1129

(kN)

Upper Yield strength σy 460.878

(Mpa)
Lower Yield strength σy 456.559
(Mpa)

Ultimate Tensile Strength, σuts (MPa) 731.5489

%elongation 23%

TS/YS ratio 1.602309

Result:

Ultimate Yield Point

Upper Yield Point

Lower Yield Point

Observation:

Ductile (Cup & Cone Fracture)

 Ductility Calculation:
The observation of a cup and cone fracture pattern in the steel bar, resulting from uniaxial loading, strongly
indicates its ductile nature. Ductility, a crucial mechanical property, can be quantitatively expressed through two
key parameters: percent elongation and percent reduction in area.

L−L0
Percent Elongation = ×100%
L0
= ((246-200)/200 )×100%

= 23%

Discussion:
1. A tensile test serves as a crucial method for assessing a material's strength and ductility. Parameters such as
yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, elongation, and reduction in area are measured to provide valuable
insights into the material's mechanical behavior. Additionally, Young's Modulus is employed to characterize
the material's stiffness.
2. Steel stands out as one of the most ductile metals, with an elongation of 23%. This high level of ductility is
evident in its ability to undergo significant deformation before failure.
3. Cup and cone fracture. The cup and cone fracture observed indicates high ductility in the material, with
significant elongation before ultimate failure in the tensile test.
4. In structural applications, yield strength is often prioritized as a design parameter over ultimate tensile
strength. The choice of yield strength is strategic because it ensures that structures operate within the
material's elastic region. This prevents permanent deformation and provides a safety margin before the
initiation of plastic deformation and potential failure. Designing structures based on yield strength is a
preventive measure against unexpected and catastrophic failures under normal operating conditions.
(b) Hardness (RH, BH, VH/ Microhardness/Shore hardness) test of metals, ceramics, and
polymers.
Objective:
Understanding Hardness Testing Principles: Gain a thorough understanding of hardness testing principles
spanning various scales, ensuring a comprehensive knowledge base.
Proficiency in Machine Operation: Develop proficiency in operating a range of hardness testing machines,
acquiring hands-on experience to enhance skills and efficiency.
Accurate Data Interpretation: Acquire the ability to interpret hardness test data accurately, emphasizing precision
in analyzing results obtained from diverse testing methods.
Comparative Hardness Analysis: Develop skills to effectively analyze and compare hardness variations among
different materials, enabling a comprehensive assessment of material properties.
Application of Testing Techniques: Apply acquired knowledge to choose and employ appropriate hardness testing
techniques based on material characteristics, contributing to informed material selection and evaluation processes.

Introduction:
Hardness, a fundamental property, defines a material's resistance to penetration, reflecting its intricate connection
with mechanical characteristics. Factors like microstructure, grain size, and strain hardening intricately influence
hardness, with heightened hardness typically aligning with elevated yield strength and ultimate tensile strength
(UTS). This significance prompts specifications to often prioritize hardness test outcomes over tensile tests.
Prominent methods include Brinell, Vickers, and Rockwell tests for metals, whereas the Shore hardness test finds
common application in assessing polymer composites, offering a nuanced understanding of material durability and
strength.

Materials Used:
Sand Cast, Chill Cast, Pure Aluminum, Aluminum Alloy, Welded Sample, Polymer Composites (Jute Mat-PS, Glass
Mat-PS).

Equipment Used:
1. Rockwell Hardness tester
2. Brinell Hardness tester
3. Microhardness (Vickers) tester.
4. Different test specimens.

Procedure:
1. Rockwell Hardness Testing:
 We determined the appropriate Rockwell hardness scale and calibrated the tester.
 We conducted five readings per specimen to ensure accuracy in hardness assessment.
2. Brinell Hardness Measurements:
  We performed Brinell hardness measurements on designated specimens, capturing three readings for
each to establish consistent results.
3. Shore Hardness Measurements:
 We conducted Shore hardness measurements on designated specimens, employing the specified
method for assessing hardness in polymer composites.
4. Microhardness Testing (Vickers Hardness Number - VHN):
 We used a microhardness tester to determine the VHN at 0.20 mm distance on a welded sample,
offering a detailed understanding of hardness variations within the material.
5. Hardness Variation Analysis:
 We evaluated hardness variations:
 (a) Compared sand cast and chill cast samples to discern differences in hardness.
 (b) Assessed hardness variations between as-cast and deformed/wrought samples.
 (c) Examined differences in hardness between pure metals and alloys, providing insights into
material behavior and suitability for specific applications.

Vickers Hardness:
For this test, a digital Vickers hardness tester was used. Test load was 3kg F and load time was 10 sec.
Indenter: Tungsten carbide diamond shape.
Result:
Sample 1: Treated Aluminum: HV- 59
Sample 2: Pure Aluminum: HV- 51
Sample 1’s Vickers hardness is greater than that of sample 2
Brinell Hardness:
For this test 500 kg Force was loaded for 10 sec.
Indenter: Tungsten carbide, 10mm Diameter, 10 mm diameter ball shape.
After load application, the result is-

Sample 1 Sample 2

Calculation:
Here, applied force F= 500 KG
Diameter of the ball Indenter, D= 10mm
For sample 1, Diameter of indentation d= 53 div = 3.926 mm
For sample 2, Diameter of indentation d= 72 div = 5.33 mm
As 13.5 div= 1mm
For sample 1,

=388.51

For sample 2,
Brinell hardness, 𝐻𝐵
2𝐹 2∗500∗9.8

Shore Hardness:

Observation No Average Hardness

Hardness HD

Jute Glass fibre PP composite Jute Glass fibre PP composite

1 82 86.5 81.5 74.33 76.16 81.16

2 72 68 81.5

3 69 74 80.5

Rockwell Hardness Test

For Rockwell hardness test 150 kg F for 15 sec was applied.

Indenter: Tungsten carbide diamond shaped with a 120-degree angle
 Materials Type HRC

Normal Steel 14

Medium Carbon Steel 39

Mild Steel Heat zone 65.1

Welding zone 100

Base metal 36.1

Again,

For 100 kgF

Indenter: 1/16 inch diameter steel ball

Materials type HRB

Pure Aluminum 47.7

Aluminum Alloy 50.9

Rod Steel (TMT Bar) 68.3

Discussion:
1. Rockwell and Brinell Hardness Measurement:
 Rockwell Test:
 Measurement Principle: Measures the depth of indentation after applying a preload and a specific
load using a diamond or ball indenter.
 Formula: Rockwell Hardness Number (HRN) = (N - D) / 0.002, where N is the depth of penetration,
and D is the initial depth.
 Units: No specific unit; expressed as HRN.
 Procedure: Preload is applied, followed by a load, and indentation depth is measured. The Rockwell
hardness number is determined using the formula.
 Brinell Test:
 Measurement Principle: Measures the diameter of the indentation after applying a specific load
using a spherical indenter.
 Formula: Brinell Hardness Number (BHN) = (2P) / (π * D * (D - √(D^2 - d^2))), where P is the
applied load, D is the diameter of the indenter, and d is the diameter of the indentation.
 Units: No specific unit; expressed as BHN.
 Procedure: Load is applied, indentation diameter is measured, and the Brinell hardness number is
calculated using the formula.
2. Limitation on Specimen Thickness:
 Limitation: Specimen thickness should be at least 10 times greater than the depth of indentation for accurate
results.
 Explanation: Thinner specimens may deform during the hardness test, leading to incorrect readings.
3. Limitations on Distance:
 Limitation: Distance from specimen edge to indentation should be at least four times the diameter of the
indentation, and the minimum distance between indentations should be twice the diameter.
 Explanation: Ensures accurate measurements by avoiding edge softening influence and preventing
interaction between adjacent indentations.
4. Surface Conditions for Hardness Tests:
 Necessary Surface Condition: Homogeneous, smooth, polished, and free from deformations for Brinell,
Rockwell, and Vickers hardness tests.
5. Advantages of Vickers Test Over Brinell:
 Higher precision due to microscopic indentation and precise measurement of diagonals.
 Applicable to thin and small specimens more effectively.
 Suitable for a wider range of materials, offering versatility.
 Utilizes an optical microscope for measuring indentation diagonals, ensuring enhanced accuracy.
6. Variation in Hardness Values:
 (a) Sand Cast vs. Chill Cast:
 Sand-cast samples may exhibit lower hardness due to differences in cooling rates; chill casting results
in a finer microstructure and higher hardness.
 (b) As-Cast vs. Deformed/Wrought Sample:
 Deformed/wrought samples generally show higher hardness due to introduced dislocations and
improved material strength.
 (c) Pure Metal vs. Alloys:
 Alloys often have higher hardness values due to the presence of different elements forming solid
solutions or compounds, enhancing material hardness and strength.
(c) Impact (Charpy and Izod) test of metals at room temperature

Objective:
The objective of an impact test is to evaluate the toughness and resistance of a material to sudden loading or
impact, typically under high strain rates. This test helps determine the material's ability to absorb energy
and deform plastically before fracturing.

Materials used: Cast Iron, Mild steel sample, Impact Testing machine.

Procedure:
1. Dimension Measurement:
 We measured and recorded the dimensions of the provided specimens, including cast iron and mild
steel, ensuring accurate data for subsequent analysis.
2. Impact Testing:
 Placing the specimens onto the Impact testing machine, we conducted tests to assess their impact
resistance. We recorded the impact energy for each tested specimen, providing valuable data on their
toughness and ability to withstand sudden forces.

Result:

Cast Iron:

Width = 10 mm
Thickness: 10 mm
Depth: 2 mm
Length: 56 mm

Cast Iron

Mild Steel:

Width: 10 mm
Thickness: 10 mm
Depth: 2 mm
Length: 56 mm

Mild Steel
Impact energy:

Material Impact energy (J)

Type
Cast Iron 8
Mild Steel 256

Discussion:

1. Impact tests provide crucial information about a material's toughness,

measuring its ability to absorb energy during sudden loading, and identifying
factors such as notch sensitivity and ductile-to-brittle transition temperature,
essential for assessing its performance in various applications.
2. Some metals become brittle at cold temperatures due to a phenomenon known
as the ductile-to-brittle transition. At lower temperatures, the movement of
dislocations within the metal lattice decreases, reducing its ability to deform
plastically. This decrease in ductility makes the material more susceptible to
brittle fracture, where cracks propagate rapidly without significant plastic
deformation, resulting in sudden failure.
3. Cast iron: Cast iron often undergoes brittle fracture due to its microstructure
containing brittle phases like cementite. This characteristic, coupled with the
presence of graphite flakes, makes it less ductile, especially at lower
temperatures or under high-stress conditions.
Mild steel: Mild steel typically undergoes ductile fracture, characterized by
significant plastic deformation before failure. This behavior is attributed to its
ferritic microstructure, which allows for dislocation movement and energy
absorption, providing toughness and preventing sudden, brittle failure.