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212
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DFFLyQ, 53, 74, 123, 124, DSULRUL, 21, 34, 37, 63, 70,
127, 146, 150, 151, 152 88, 93, 95, 98, 107, 111,
$FHUFDGHORULJHQ\OHJLWLPLGDGGH 112, 113, 129, 132, 133,
QXHVWUDFUHHQFLDHQODUHDOLGDGHO 173
PXQGRH[WHULRU, 73 $ULVWyWHOHV, 158
DFWLWXG, 21, 38, 115, 117, 118, DUWHREUDGH, 152
119, 121, 122, 123, 124, DUWHSURGXFFLyQ, 153
125, 126, 127, 128, 134, $XVOHJXQJ, 136
135, 182, 191, 201 DXWRELRJUDItD, 181
DFWLWXGDIHFWLYD, 123, 124 %DFKHODUG, 194
DFWLWXGVHQWLPHQWDO, 124 %DFRQ, 163
DFWLWXGYROLWLYD, 123, 124 EDVDPHQWRJQRVHROyJLFR, 87,
DFWLYLGDGLQWHUQD, 73 103
DIHFWLYR, 79, 121, 122, 164 %HUQRXOOL, 95
DOPDQDFLRQDO, 76, 168 ELRJUDItD, 40, 181
DQiOLVLV, 15, 16, 17, 18, 25, %UHQWDQR, 78, 115
26, 27, 32, 39, 40, 43, 47, FDSWDFLyQLQWHUQD, 91, 110, 114
50, 51, 54, 55, 61, 66, 71, FDSWDU, 59, 75, 121
76, 80, 81, 83, 86, 87, 89, FDWHJRUtD, 20, 128, 130, 132,
94, 96, 98, 99, 102, 103, 181
105, 108, 109, 113, 117, FDWHJRUtDV, 21, 22, 25, 26, 44,
119, 120, 121, 126, 128, 61, 70, 75, 77, 78, 88,
130, 132, 134, 137, 139, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131,
141, 147, 148, 149, 150, 134, 139, 174, 183, 193
157, 161, 164, 166, FDWHJRUtDVGHODUD]yQ, 174
167,168, 170, 171, 175, FDWHJRUtDVGHYLGD, 77
181, 186, 188, 191, 194, FLHQFLD, 13, 17, 24, 25, 26,
195, 199, 224 31, 35, 38, 39, 42, 47, 50,
DQiOLVLVKLVWyULFR, 33, 71, 89, 52, 53, 55, 60, 63, 64, 66,
98, 102, 186 67, 68, 71, 74, 75, 77, 78,
DQDORJtD, 41, 123, 138, 150, 81, 82, 85, 86, 87, 89, 90,
151 94, 95, 100, 102, 103,
DSHWHQFLD, 108 104, 106, 114, 127, 136,
DSRVWHULRUL, 88 138, 144, 145, 146, 153,
157, 159, 163, 175, 187,

213
 190, 192, 196, 203, FRPSUHQVLyQ, 11, 14, 18, 23,
204,206, 210, 224 41, 42, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57,
FLHQFLDVGHODQDWXUDOH]D, 25, 58, 61, 67, 68, 69, 71, 74,
26, 39, 52, 57, 65, 68, 69, 75, 77, 84, 91, 110, 111,
71, 73, 89, 91, 101, 106, 114, 117, 120, 131, 134,
110, 137, 145, 150, 162 135, 136, 137, 139, 141,
FLHQFLDVGHOHVStULWX, 11, 14, 142, 144, 145, 146, 148,
17, 24, 26, 32, 33, 34, 42, 149, 151, 152, 153, 154,
44, 45, 50, 52, 53, 54, 57, 155, 156, 157, 168, 170,
58, 60, 63, 68, 69, 71, 73, 175, 179, 186, 187, 189,
74, 75, 76, 77, 83, 86, 89, 190, 193, 195, 196, 211
101, 104, 105, 106, 117, FRPSUHQVLyQIRUPD
120, 135, 137, 138, 139, HOHPHQWDO, 149
141, 157, 170, 173, 174, FRPSUHQVLyQIRUPDVXSHULRU,
175, 177, 187, 196, 199, 149
203, 211 FRPSUHQVLyQIRUPDVGH, 149
&LHQFLDVGHO(VStULWX, 11, FRPSUHQVLyQIRUPDV
14, 15, 19, 69, 74, 75, VXSHULRUHV, 154
207, 209 &RPWH, 13, 32, 81, 83, 84,
FLHQFLDVGHOKRPEUH, 52, 66, 177
67, 203 FRQFHSWRVSVLFROyJLFRV, 100
FLHQFLDVKHUPHQpXWLFDV, 55 FRQFHSWRVSXURVGHO
FLHQFLDVQDWXUDOHV, 12, 49, 51, HQWHQGLPLHQWR, 174
57, 95, 96, 137, 138, 175 FRQFLHQFLD, 15, 18, 23, 26,
FLHQFLDVSDUWLFXODUHV, 16, 24, 27, 32, 35, 36, 37, 39, 40,
26, 82, 86, 89, 90, 161, 41, 42, 43, 45, 47, 49, 50,
193 67, 70, 73, 74, 85, 87, 89,
FLHQFLDVVRFLDOHV, 41, 56, 60, 91, 92, 93, 94, 97, 110,
61, 79, 137, 138, 170 112, 115, 120, 126, 130,
FtUFXORKHUPHQpXWLFR, 32, 68 141, 147, 150, 155, 169,
FRJLWR, 23, 42, 92, 179 175, 179, 181, 185, 186,
FRKHUHQFLDLQWHUQD, 22, 61, 183, 187, 190, 191, 193, 194,
184 195, 201
FRPSUHQGHU, 11, 25, 41, 53, &RQGRUFHW, 81, 163
56, 65, 67, 68, 70, 75, 78, FRQH[LyQGHILQ, 66, 163, 164,
94, 102, 135, 141, 148, 165, 193
152, 153, 156, 179, 180, FRQH[LyQLQWHUQD, 24, 83, 90,
181, 185, 188, 195 99

214
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FRQH[LyQYLWDO, 146 'LRV, 84, 97

FRQRFLPLHQWRFLHQWtILFR GLVWDQFLDLQWHUQD, 154
QDWXUDO, 106 GRFWULQD, 22, 27, 32, 54, 67,
FRQWHQLGR, 48, 86, 92, 93, 114, 82, 96, 102, 125, 127,
115, 117, 118, 119, 120, 128, 168, 183, 184, 185,
124, 125, 128, 134, 145, 201, 204
164, 182, 191, 196 GRORU, 74, 116, 117, 122, 128
FRQWHQLGRGHODYLYHQFLD, 115 'XUNKHLP, 83
FRUUHODFLyQ, 14, 83, 180 (LJHQVZHUWH, 125
FULVWLDQGDG, 162 (LQIKOXQJ, 128
FUtWLFD, 17, 24, 25, 31, 32, 35, (LQVWHLQ, 194
42, 46, 48, 60, 63, 75, 83, (O0XQGR+LVWyULFR, 68, 74, 87,
87, 88, 89, 90, 92, 94, 96, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118,
100, 102, 103, 105, 107, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123,
108, 157, 174 124, 125, 127, 128, 131,
FUtWLFDGHODUD]yQKLVWyULFD, 135, 156, 208, 209
24, 25, 31, 32, 90 HOTXHUHU, 36, 103, 111, 117,
&UtWLFDGHOD5D]yQ3UiFWLFD, 19 118, 123, 124, 125, 126,
&UtWLFDGHOD5D]yQ3XUD, 19, 127
25, 88, 90, 93, 96, 99, HOUHSUHVHQWDU, 36, 103, 111,
101, 104, 107, 184, 210 118, 125, 126
&UtWLFDGHO-XLFLR, 19, 44, 103, HOVHQWLU, 36, 79, 103, 111,
210 117, 118, 124, 125, 126,
FUtWLFDNDQWLDQD, 75, 88 127
FULWLFLVPR, 87, 88, 89, 90, 98, HPStULFR, 50, 65, 79, 92,
102 101, 113, 116, 127, 128,
FXDOLWDWLYD, 121, 224 129, 137, 138, 139, 170,
&XUVRVREUHHO2EMHWR, 48, 49 171, 179, 194
G·$OHPEHUW, 95 HPSLULVPR, 13, 37, 41, 42,
'HOD7RUUH0DUWtQH], 46, 47, 56, 88, 96, 138, 173
209 (Q7RUQRD.DQW, 93
GHGXFFLyQ, 84, 128, 129, HQGRSDWtD, 128
151, 161 HQODFH, 105, 149, 161, 162
GHGXFFLyQSRUDQDORJtD, 151 HQWHQGLPLHQWR, 88, 99, 101,
GHOLPLWDFLyQ, 71, 87 104, 105
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GHVFRQRFLGDUDt]FRP~Q, 99, (UOHEHQ, 18, 113
104, 133 (UOHEHQLVDXVGUXFN, 147

215
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187, 190 H[LVWHQFLDULR, 58, 188
(VFXHODGH%DGHQ, 45, 46, 47, H[SHULHQFLD, 13, 18, 19, 20,
224 25, 33, 36, 37, 38, 40, 41,
(VFXHODGH0DUEXUJR, 47, 45, 49, 55, 56, 63, 70, 72,
224 73, 76, 85, 88, 89, 90, 91,
HVFXHODKLVWyULFD, 79 92, 93, 94, 101, 105, 106,
HVSLUDOKHUPHQpXWLFD, 120 109, 110, 111, 112, 113,
HVStULWX, 15, 16, 17, 24, 26, 114, 126, 128, 129, 133,
43, 46, 49, 52, 53, 54, 56, 156, 157, 168, 173, 190,
57, 59, 61, 68, 69, 71, 72, 192, 204
73, 74, 75, 76, 82, 84, 85, H[SHULHQFLDH[WHUQD, 13, 90,
86, 89, 90, 94, 96, 98, 91, 109, 133
104, 106, 107, 112, 113, H[SHULHQFLDLQWHUQD, 13, 18,
135, 136, 139, 141, 142, 33, 41, 56, 76, 91, 92,
143, 144, 145, 146, 152, 105, 106, 109, 110, 111,
153, 154, 157, 161, 163, 113, 114, 128, 129, 134
168, 170, 171, 173, 180, H[SOLFDFLyQ, 19, 57, 61, 68,
181, 184, 193, 194, 200, 108, 129, 137, 185
224 H[SUHVLyQGHYLYHQFLDV, 75
HVStULWXGHOSXHEOR, 76, 168 IDFXOWDGHVGHODUD]yQ, 100,
HVStULWXREMHWLYDGR, 74, 142, 105, 108, 173
170 )HFKQHU, 77, 159
HVStULWXREMHWLYR, 141, 142, IHOLFLGDG, 122
143, 170 IHQyPHQR, 45, 48, 70, 97,
HVSRQWDQHLGDG, 101 138
(VWDGR, 35, 39, 142, 171, IHQRPHQRORJtD, 14, 15, 18,
201 21, 23, 55, 56, 61, 87,
HVWDGRVSVtTXLFRV, 41 115, 116, 177, 189, 191,
HVWpWLFD, 158, 196, 208 194, 210
HVWUXFWXUD, 55, 75, 115, 116, IHQRPHQROyJLFR, 18, 50, 56,
117, 119, 121, 130, 134, 191, 194
136, 143, 150, 166, 167, IHQyPHQRVELROyJLFRV, 85
168, 169, 182, 186, 187, ILMDFLyQGHYDORUHV, 125
188, 191, 204 ILORORJtD, 15, 136, 175, 193,
HVWUXFWXUDSVtTXLFD, 116, 119 195, 199
pWLFD, 26, 74, 200, 201 ILORVRItDGHODKLVWRULD, 79, 82,
(XOHU, 95 83

216
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ILORVRItDGHODKLVWRULD 113, 116, 118, 120, 128,

DOHPDQD, 80 132, 133, 134, 136, 157,
ILORVRItDGHORVYDORUHV, 46 170, 171, 173, 174, 175,
ILORVRItDSRVNDQWLDQD, 23 178, 179, 181, 182, 186,
ILORVRItDUHIOH[LYD, 23, 42 187, 196
ILQ, 13, 36, 44, 61, 96, 107, JQRVHRORJtDGLOWKH\DQD, 15,
109, 117, 120, 123, 127, 75
131, 132, 135, 136, 144, JQRVHRORJtDNDQWLDQD, 33,
146, 163, 164, 165, 166 108, 173
ILQHV, 39, 58, 64, 65, 75, 76, *RHWKH, 11, 31, 77, 93, 207,
127, 135, 142, 163, 164, 209
167 +DEHUPDV, 16, 18, 54, 56,
IRQGRFRP~Q, 108 210
IRUPDFLRQHVVRFLDOHV, 66, +DQGOXQJ, 146
163, 165 KHFKRSVLFRItVLFR, 76
IXHU]DDQtPLFD, 132 KHFKRVGHODYROXQWDG, 72
IXQGDFLyQJQRVHROyJLFD, 86, KHFKRVHVSLULWXDOHV, 66, 67,
87 71, 84
IXQGDPHQWDFLyQ KHFKRVSVLFROyJLFRVGHVHJXQGR
JQRVHROyJLFD, 41, 46 RUGHQ, 160, 162
IXQGDPHQWR, 13, 16, 17, 19, KHFKRVSVtTXLFRV, 47, 91,
21, 22, 24, 27, 32, 34, 35, 110, 116, 119, 121
37, 41, 45, 48, 50, 58, 59, +HJHO, 31, 35, 37, 39, 56, 60,
63, 65, 75, 78, 79, 83, 87, 69, 70, 80, 83, 84, 85,
89, 90, 94, 96, 103, 104, 181, 184, 200, 207, 209,
107, 117, 139, 162, 173, 211
174, 193, 195 +HLGHJJHU, 14, 16, 30, 51,
IXQGDPHQWRHIHFWLYR, 174 52, 53, 54, 55, 58, 61,
IXQGDPHQWRJQRVHROyJLFR, 187, 188, 191, 195, 210
24, 34, 79 +HUGHU, 80, 163
IXQGDPHQWRLQWHQFLRQDO, 174 KHUPHQpXWLFD, 13, 15, 18, 23,
JHJOLHJHUWH2UGQXQJ, 143 25, 32, 42, 45, 52, 55, 57,
JORERVLQWHOOHFWXDOLV, 71 58, 59, 117, 120, 136,
JQRVHRORJtD, 15, 16, 17, 24, 139, 149, 174, 175, 189,
25, 27, 33, 34, 35, 44, 45, 191, 192, 194, 195, 208,
47, 60, 61, 65, 75, 78, 85, 209, 224
86, 87, 91, 98, 100, 103, KHUPHQpXWLFDPHWRGROyJLFD,
105, 106, 107, 108, 111, 13

217
+LQHLYHUVHW]HQ, 155 ,PD], 11, 16, 29, 30, 31, 32,
KLVWRULD, 20, 24, 25, 26, 35, 33, 34, 60, 174, 209, 210
38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 44, 47, LPSHUDWLYRFDWHJyULFR, 98
51, 52, 53, 54, 58, 66, 67, LQGLYLGXR, 43, 72, 84, 106,
68, 69, 71, 72, 74, 78, 79, 124, 131, 132, 143, 147,
80, 82, 83, 84, 85, 89, 90, 166, 168, 185
96, 137, 157, 163, 167, LQGLYLGXRVSVLFRItVLFRV, 76, 86
169, 170, 180, 185, 188, LQGXFFLyQ, 13, 84, 93, 101,
189, 193, 199, 200, 201, 151, 224
202, 203, 206 LQIHUHQFLDLQGXFWLYD, 151
KLVWRULFLGDG, 51, 54, 185, LQIHUHQFLDSRUDQDORJtD, 149
186, 187, 188, 189 LQPDQHQFLD, 152, 153
KLVWRULFLVPR, 18, 48, 49, 50, LQPRUWDOLGDG, 97
51, 52, 57, 68, 185, 186, LQQHUHQ(UIDKUXQJ, 106
209 ,QQHZHUGHQ, 126
KLVWRULFLVWD, 89, 186 LQWHQFLRQDO, 15, 16, 23, 24,
KRORJUiILFD, 12, 65 33, 85, 113, 117, 119,
KRORJUDPD, 11 121, 184
KRORJUDPiWLFR, 11, 66 LQWHQVLYD, 121
KRPEUHHQWHUR, 17, 19, 24, LQWHUSUHWDFLyQ, 22, 30, 39, 43,
27, 59, 61, 97, 101, 102, 53, 57, 58, 59, 61, 67, 80,
103, 104, 105, 108, 109, 98, 105, 127, 132, 136,
111, 113, 116, 117, 118, 141, 142, 148, 192
119, 120, 121, 123, 126, LQWHUVXEMHWLYLGDG, 55
128, 131, 132, 133, 134, LQWXLFLRQHVSXUDV, 88
170, 173, 174, 178, 181 MXLFLR, 36, 104, 105, 108,
+XPEROG, 80 120, 134, 139, 145, 186
+XPH, 13, 20, 35, 77 MXLFLRHVWpWLFR, 104
+XVVHUO, 14, 16, 21, 23, 48, MXLFLRV, 13, 34, 64, 76, 95,
49, 50, 51, 54, 55, 61, 78, 99, 104, 105, 106, 144,
92, 115, 116, 176, 177, 145, 146
184, 187, 190, 192, 207, .DQW, 11, 14, 15, 17, 19, 21,
209, 210 22, 23, 24, 25, 29, 31, 32,
LGHDOLVPR, 11, 21, 46, 58, 70, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 39, 44,
96, 200 45, 46, 58, 60, 63, 64, 68,
,GHDVDFHUFDGHXQDSVLFRORJtD 70, 77, 85, 87, 88, 89, 90,
GHVFULSWLYD\DQDOtWLFD, 87 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98,
99, 100, 102, 103, 104,

218
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105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 139, 141, 170, 179, 192,
111, 112, 113, 129, 133, 194, 224
173, 176, 177, 181, 183, PpWRGRHPStULFR, 138
184, 194, 195, 205, 210, PHWRGRORJtD, 15, 16, 17, 53,
211, 224 84, 107, 120, 128, 137,
.HSOHU, 150 139, 157, 175, 203
/D&LXGDGGH'LRV, 80 0LOO, 13, 42, 77, 81, 224
/D&RPSUHQVLyQGHRWUDVSHUVRQDV PRGRVGHDFWLWXG, 123
\GHVXVPDQLIHVWDFLRQHVYLWDOHV, PRUDO, 32, 43, 81, 84, 96, 97
141 0R\D(VSt, 16, 40, 41, 42,
/DJUDQJH, 95 43, 60, 92, 179, 180, 181,
/DPDUN, 81 182, 211
/DPEHUW, 95 P~OWLSOH, 101
/HEHQVDƢHUXQJHQ, 141, 170 PXQGRH[WHULRU, 20, 45, 73,
/HEHQVZHUWH, 125 106, 123, 126
/HEHQV]XVDPPHQKDQJ, 146 1DFKHUOHEHQ, 114, 148, 156
OHJDOLGDG, 70, 98 1DFKIXKOHQ, 148
/HRSROGYRQ5DQNH, 79 QDWXUDOH]D, 19, 20, 25, 26,
/HVVLQJ, 40, 83, 204, 205, 38, 39, 46, 48, 52, 57, 58,
211 63, 66, 67, 68, 70, 71, 72,
OH\PRUDO, 97 73, 74, 75, 79, 81, 82, 85,
OLEHUWDG, 38, 71, 80, 97, 147 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 106,
/RFNH, 20, 35 107, 109, 115, 118, 122,
PDQLIHVWDFLRQHVGHYLGD, 117, 124, 128, 129, 134, 136,
136, 141, 144 149, 158, 160, 162, 165,
0DULiV-XOLiQ, 34 178, 181, 185, 210, 224
PDWHPiWLFD, 34, 70, 81, 95, QDWXUDOH]DItVLFD, 48
100, 150 QDWXUDOLVPR, 48
PHWDItVLFD, 21, 23, 32, 39, 65, 1HZWRQ, 75, 95, 194
67, 88, 89, 94, 98, 127, REMHNWLYH*HLVW, 141
137, 138, 160, 162, 171, REMHWLYDFLyQ, 41, 115, 131,
173, 177, 186, 189, 195, 136
196 REMHWLYLGDG, 41, 58, 79, 128
PpWRGR, 13, 20, 38, 39, 68, REMHWR, 36, 41, 53, 68, 69,
70, 77, 84, 93, 98, 99, 71, 76, 88, 91, 92, 99,
100, 101, 105, 107, 114, 106, 108, 110, 114, 115,
116, 129, 135, 137, 138, 117, 119, 120, 122, 125,

219
 127, 131, 134, 137, 148, SURFHVRV, 19, 20, 41, 43, 47,
158, 190, 191 79, 91, 99, 109, 110, 115,
RUGHQDUWLFXODGR, 143 116, 119, 127, 158, 175
RUJDQL]DFLyQH[WHUQDGHOD SVLFRORJtD, 13, 14, 23, 24, 32,
VRFLHGDG, 166, 167, 169, 33, 34, 45, 48, 52, 53, 55,
171, 193 56, 58, 59, 60, 61, 75, 76,
2UWHJD\*DVVHW, 16, 34, 35, 77, 83, 85, 86, 87, 100,
36, 37, 38, 39, 60, 85, 107, 108, 117, 133, 174,
113, 176, 178, 193, 211 175, 178, 188, 189, 191,
3DVFDO, 163 192, 204, 224
SHQVDPLHQWR, 11, 12, 13, 14, SVLFRORJtDGHVFULSWLYD, 14, 32, 33,
15, 16, 19, 20, 29, 30, 31, 34, 59, 86, 87, 100, 107,
40, 43, 46, 48, 51, 55, 56, 108, 117, 133, 174, 175,
59, 61, 63, 64, 67, 70, 72, 178, 191, 204
87, 91, 96, 102, 103, 109, SVLFRORJtDGHVFULSWLYD\
110, 131, 133, 135, 137, DQDOtWLFD, 14, 33, 34, 59, 87
139, 145, 155, 162, 164, SVLFRORJtDH[SHULPHQWDO, 48,
176, 177, 183, 184, 185, 77
190, 195, 196 SVLFRORJtDH[SOLFDWLYD, 77, 100,
SHUFDWDFLyQ, 24, 91, 109, 110, 107, 108
129, 133 3VLFRORJtD\7HRUtDGHO
SHUFDWDFLyQLQWHUQD, 109 &RQRFLPLHQWR, 31, 33, 73,
SHUFHSFLyQ, 36, 76, 91, 109, 109, 208, 209
181 SVLFRORJLVPR, 23, 49, 184,
SHUFLELU, 36, 117, 179 190
SODFHU, 74, 103, 108 3XFFLDUHOOL, 16, 44, 45, 46,
SRpWLFD, 32, 122, 157, 196, 60, 61, 73, 211
200, 208, 209 TXHUHU, 13, 17, 19, 20, 79, 85,
3RpWLFD, 158, 196, 208 103, 114, 117, 121, 126,
SRVLWLYLVPR, 12, 46, 57, 137, 127, 128, 178
177, 195, 196 UDt]FRP~Q, 36, 99, 104, 105,
SRVLWLYLVWD, 13, 42, 55, 84, 173
137 UD]yQ, 16, 17, 19, 20, 21, 22,
SRVWXODGRVGHEDVH, 183 24, 25, 31, 32, 35, 36, 38,
SULQFLSLRGHFRQWUDGLFFLyQ, 44, 58, 72, 75, 84, 88, 89,
50, 190 90, 94, 96, 97, 98, 99,
SULQFLSLRVPHWDItVLFRV, 63, 103, 105, 108, 111, 178,
162, 210 179, 185, 195, 196

220
 ÍNDICE

UD]yQSUiFWLFD, 36, 96, 97, VHQWLPHQWDO, 37, 74, 124, 126

108 VHQWLPLHQWR, 36, 37, 39, 73,
UD]yQWHyULFD, 36, 97 78, 103, 105, 108, 109,
UD]yQSXUD, 108 114, 115, 118, 119, 122,
UHDOLGDGKLVWyULFRVRFLDO, 24, 123, 124, 126, 127, 128,
26, 69, 75, 89, 137, 157, 134, 148, 164
185, 186 VHQWLPLHQWRV, 13, 73, 91, 102,
UHJXODFLyQ, 65 110, 121, 122, 123, 124,
UHODWLYLVPR, 49, 92, 132, 182, 127, 131, 148, 196
185, 186, 187, 190, 191 VHQWLPLHQWRVGHDJUDGR, 123
UHODWLYLVWD, 52, 78, 125, 182, VHQWLPLHQWRVVLWXDFLRQHOHV,
185, 187, 192, 195 125
UHSUHVHQWDFLyQ, 73, 79, 104, VHQWLU, 13, 17, 19, 20, 85,
105, 118, 126, 134, 153 103, 114, 116, 121, 123,
UHSUHVHQWDU, 13, 19, 20, 33, 125, 127, 164
79, 85, 103, 114, 116, 6HQWLU, 121
119, 148 VLJQLILFDGR, 22, 25, 40, 41,
UHSUHVHQWDWLYR, 74 43, 61, 87, 130, 143, 145,
UHVHQWLU, 148 152, 179, 180, 181, 193,
UHYLYHQFLD, 114, 117, 149, 154, 194, 224
170, 186 VLVWHPD, 21, 22, 36, 63, 69,
UHYLYHQFLDOtPLWHV, 156 70, 83, 97, 161, 162, 166
UHYLYLU, 148 VLVWHPDVFXOWXUDOHV, 166, 167
5LFNHUW, 45, 46, 47, 224 VLVWHPDVGHFXOWXUD, 136
5LFRHXU, 16, 23, 56, 57, 58, 6LVWHPDVGHILQHV, 163
59, 60, 61, 192 VRFLRORJtD, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83,
URPDQWLFLVPR, 195, 196 84, 85
URPiQWLFR, 80, 127 6SHQFHU, 77, 81
URPiQWLFRFDUiFWHU, 153 6WUyPDWD, 80
6DLQW²6LPRQ, 81 VXEMHWLYLGDG, 43, 54, 114
6DQ$JXVWtQ, 80 VXMHWRFRJQRVFHQWH, 35, 54,
6DQ&OHPHQWH, 80 69
6FKLOOHU, 158 VXMHWRHPStULFR, 94
6FKOHLHUPDFKHU, 58, 59, 166, VXSRVLFLRQHVGHEDVH, 22, 61, 65,
181, 201, 202, 206 69, 173, 183
6FKXOSKLORVRSKLH, 47 7DWEHVWDQG, 115
VHQWLGRH[WHUQR, 113 WHPSRUDOLGDG, 188, 189
VHQWLGRLQWHUQR, 107, 108

221
7HRUtDGHODVFRQFHSFLRQHVGHO 58, 59, 76, 77, 78, 86, 96,
PXQGR, 132 99, 102, 107, 110, 116,
7HRUtDGHODV&RQFHSFLRQHVGHO 117, 121, 122, 123, 125,
0XQGR, 49, 208, 209 128, 129, 130, 131, 132,
WHRUtDGHOFRQRFLPLHQWR, 33, 134, 136, 141, 142, 143,
35, 39, 79, 83, 107, 113 144, 145, 146, 147, 148,
7KQHQOH\GH, 159 151, 152, 154, 155, 156,
WUDQVSRVLFLyQ, 97, 149, 155, 157, 158, 162, 164, 170,
156 188, 189, 191, 192, 196,
WUDVFHQGHQFLDSDUFLDO, 119 197, 200, 202, 206, 207,
WUDVFHQGHQWDO, 11, 21, 44, 55, 224
65, 88, 96, 107, 111, 128, YLYHQFLD, 18, 25, 45, 56, 57,
134, 210, 224 75, 91, 105, 106, 111,
WUDVODGR, 149, 154, 155, 156 113, 114, 115, 117, 118,
WUDVSRVLFLyQ, 154 119, 120, 124, 125, 127,
7XUJRW, 163 128, 130, 132, 134, 135,
XQLGDGHVGHYLGD, 86 139, 148, 153, 155, 170,
XQLGDGHVSVLFRItVLFDV, 76 175, 179, 181, 182, 186,
YDOLGH]GHILQLWLYDGHOREMHWR, 120 191
YLYHQFLDH[SUHVLyQGH, 147
YDOLGH]XQLYHUVDO, 33, 34, 64,
YLYHQFLDH[SUHVLyQGHOD,
65, 93, 157, 190
YDORU, 18, 44, 46, 55, 76, 96, 147
YLYHQFLDVDIHFWLYDV, 122
124, 130, 131, 132, 139,
159, 166, 192, 204 YLYHQFLDVLQWHOHFWLYDV, 123
YDORUHVDEVROXWRV, 47 YROLFLyQ, 36, 73, 79, 118
YDORUHVSURSLRV, 125 YROLWLYR, 45, 73, 74
YDORUHV~WLOHV, 125 YROXQWDG, 36, 37, 38, 39, 45,
YDORUHVYLWDOHV, 125, 224 71, 72, 74, 78, 97, 105,
YHUGDG, 36, 49, 69, 72, 84, 108, 109, 114, 115, 119,
123, 124, 126, 150, 164,
95, 96, 121, 122, 138,
167
148, 153, 179, 185, 188,
:HEHU, 77
195
YHUGDGGHKHFKRV, 49 :LQGHOEDQG, 45, 46, 47, 224
YHUGDGGHSULQFLSLRV, 49 :LUNXQJVZHUWH, 125
9HUVWHKHQ, 18, 55, 68 :XQGW, 77, 224
9LFR, 80 =XVDPPHQKDQJ, 20, 24, 64, 71,
YLGD, 12, 20, 21, 26, 30, 31, 82, 141, 144, 149, 164,
180, 181, 193
41, 43, 49, 50, 52, 53, 55,

222
 ÍNDICE

=ZHFN=XVDPPHQKDQJ, 66, 163, 165



223
127$6
i
Los principales representantes de la Escuela de Baden son Wilhelm
Windelband (1848-1915), Heinrich Rickert (1863-1936), Georg Mehlis (1878-
1942), Richard Kroner (1884-1973), Bruno Bauch (1877-1942) y Emil Lask
(1875-1915), quien es el principal representante de esta escuela en la filosofía
del derecho.
ii
Windelband, Wilhelm (1848 ±1915). Filósofo alemán de la escuela de Baden.
Se lo recuerda por la imposición de los términos nomotético e ideográfico, que
tuvieron importancia en la psicología y en otras áreas, aunque no tanto en línea
con su significado original. Es considerado un neokantiano que enfrentó a otros
neokantiandos de su época y mantuvo que para entenderlo a Kant era necesario
ir más allá de lo que él mismo había ido.
iii
Rickert, Heinrich John (1863 ±1936). Filósofo alemán, uno de los líderes del
movimiento neokantiano de la escuela de Baden. Es conocido, entre otras
cosas, por su discusión sobre la distinción cualitativa realizada para distinguir
entre los hechos históricos y los científicos. En contra de filósofos como
Nietzsche y Bergson, Rickert enfatizó que los valores exigen una distancia de la
vida \ OR TXH %HUJVRQ 'LOWKH\ \ 6LPPHO OODPDURQ ³YDORUHV YLWDOHV´ QR HUDQ
valores verdaderos. El trabajo de Rickert influenció la obra de Max Weber, quien
toma partes de su metodología, incluyendo el concepto de tipos ideales. Algunos
asimilan su trabajo con el de Dilthey, en cuanto intentó ofrecer una teoría
unificada del conocimiento, aunque aceptando la división entre ciencias de la
naturaleza y del espíritu, superando esta división por medio de un método
filosófico nuevo: el de la hermenéutica para Dilthey y el método trascendental
kantiano para Rickert.
iv
Los principales representantes de la Escuela de Marburgo son Herman Cohen
(1874-1945), Paul Natorp (1854-1924), Ernst Cassirer (1874-1945) y Rudolf
Stammler (1856-1938), quien hizo la recepción del neokantismo de la Escuela
de Marburgo en la filosofía del derecho.
v
Wundt, Wilhelm Maximilian (1832-1920) Médico y psicólogo alemán reconocido
como el fundador de la psicología experimental. Menos reconocido por sus
contribuciones a la psicología social en la que trabajó los últimos años de su
vida. Trabajó con Hermann von Helmholtz.
vi
Mill, John Stuart (Londres, 1806 ² Aviñón, Francia 1873) Filósofo, político y
economista inglés representante de la escuela económica clásica y teórico del
utilitarismo. Una de las grandes obras de Mill fue Sistema de la lógica inductiva y
deductiva, revisada y editada en numerosas ocasiones. La reputación de la obra
de Mill estriba principalmente en el análisis de la prueba inductiva, que se
contrapone a los silogismos aristotélicos, de naturaleza deductiva. Mill formula
cinco métodos de inducción TXHKDQSDVDGRDFRQRFHUVHFRPRORV³0pWRGRVGH
0LOO´ HO PpWRGR del acuerdo, el método de la diferencia, el método común o
doble método de acuerdo y diferencia, el método de residuos y el de variaciones
concominantes. Mill propicia el método de la ciencia basándose en ellos.

224
 NOTAS

vii
Spencer, Herbert (Derby, 1820 - Brighton 1903). Filósofo, psicólogo y
sociólogo británico. Fundador de la filosofía evolucionista en Gran Bretaña y uno
de los más ilustres positivistas de su país. Ingeniero civil y de formación
autodidacta, se interesó tanto por la ciencia como por las letras. Desde el punto
de vista sociológico cabe considerarle como el primer autor que utilizó de forma
sistemática los conceptos de estructura y función. Por otra parte, concibió la
sociología como un instrumento dinámico al servicio de la reforma social.
Escribió influenciado por la teoría de la evolución expuesta a finales del siglo
XVIII por el naturalista francés Jean Lamarck. Su doctrina quedó principalmente
expuesta en su Sistema de filosofía sintética. De su extensa bibliografía, cabe
mencionar: La estática social (1850), Principios de psicología (1855), Primeros
principios (1862), Principios de biología (1864), La clasificación de las ciencias
(1864), La sociología descriptiva (1873), Principios de sociología (1877-1896) y
El individuo contra el Estado (1884).
viii
Fechner, Gustav Theodor (1801-1887). Psicólogo experimental alemán. En
1860 GHVDUUROOy OD OH\FRQRFLGD FRPR³OH\ GH:HEHU \ )HFKQHU´XQD HFXDFLyQ
que da cuenta de la relación entre el estímulo físico y la sensación. La fórmula,
expresada en palabras, dice "si la intensidad de una sensación crece en
progresión aritmética, entonces el estímulo debe crecer en progresión
geométrica". Expresada en términos formales esta ecuación es: S = c * logR,
donde está es el valor S de la sensación, R es el del estímulo, y c una constante
que varía de estímulo a estímulo. Más allá de lo anterior, fue pionero en la
psicología experimental y fundador de la psicofísica. Inspiró a varios científicos y
filósofos del siglo XX, incluyendo a Ernst Mach y a Wilhelm Wundt.
ix
Weber, Ernst Heinrich (Wittenberg, 1795 ± 1878). Médico alemán considerado
uno de los fundadores de la psicología experimental. Estudió medicina en la
Universidad de Wittenberg. En 1818 fue designado profesor asociado de
anatomía comparada en la Universidad de Leipzig y, posteriormente, profesor de
anatomía y fisiología en 1821. Trabajó con Gustav Fechner en psicofísica,
SHUtRGR GXUDQWH HO FXDO VH IRUPXOy OD OH\ FRQRFLGD FRPR ³OH\ GH :HEHU \
)HFKQHU´
x
Van Ranke, Leopoldo (1795-1886) Teólogo y filósofo, nacido en Tubinga. Su
obra es increíblemente grande, porque en él se combinan longevidad, capacidad
de trabajo y pasión por la historia. Sus obras más importantes son: Historia de
los pueblos romanos y germánicos, Historia de los papas, Historia alemana del
tiempo de la Reforma, Nuevos libros de la historia de Prusia, Historia de Francia,
Historia de Inglaterra y la Historia universal, esta última la dejó inconclusa al
morir.
Su ideología giraba en torno a la idea que raza y religión eran la base de las
nacionalidades, y esto obraba de modo unificante sobre el destino de los
pueblos europeos desde las invasiones bárbaras. Con relación al conocimiento
de los hechos humanos, encontraba que había dos caminos principales: el
filosófico y el histórico. El primero era de abstracción, el segundo; era el de la
percepción de lo particular. Su pensamiento para la labor de los historiadores
era que debían tomar la historia como un agregado de hechos particulares y no
tener los ojos puestos en el aspecto universal de las cosas. La efectividad del
método que usó y que puso en práctica con maestría, lo hizo célebre.

225
xi
San Clemente (¿Atenas?, circa 50 -215) Se convirtió tempranamente al
cristianismo y se instruyó con varios maestros. Llegó a ser miembro del cuerpo
presbiteral de Alejandría. Vivió en Alejandría y salió de esta ciudad sólo para
refugiarse en Cesarea de Capadocia durante la persecución de los cristianos del
202.
Sus obras principales son Protrepticus (o "Exhortación a los griegos"),
Paedagogus (o "Maestro"), y Stromata (o "Misceláneas"). En el Protrepticus,
Clemente invita al lector a no escuchar las leyendas míticas de los dioses, sino
la "nueva canción" del Logos, el principio de la existencia y el creador del
mundo. En el Paedagogus, se detalla el desarrollo de la ética cristiana. En el
tercer libro, los Stromata, Clemente de Alejandría detalla como perfeccionar el
modo de vida cristiano a través de una iniciación hacia el conocimiento. Se
considera a su trilogía uno de los proyectos literarios más significativos dentro
de la historia de la Iglesia ya que en dichas obras Clemente presentó el
cristianismo a los fieles a través de la forma tradicional de la literatura secular.
xii
San Agustín (Tagaste, Numidia, África romana, 354-Hipona, 430). Sus obras
principales son Confesiones, Retractaciones, Diálogos, Contra académicos,
Disciplinarum libri, De vera religione. Se destaca La ciudad de Dios (De civitate
Dei), como una de las obras maestras de Agustín. En ella ofrece una síntesis de
su pensamiento filosófico, teológico y político. La tesis central de la obra es que
la divina providencia, que guía la humanidad, dividida en dos ciudades, nacidas
de dos amores, el amor de sí y el amor de Dios. En ella afronta el problema de
los orígenes de la historia, de la presencia del mal, de la lucha entre el bien y el
mal, de la victoria del bien y de su eterno destino. Fue una obra muy leída y
ejerció una gran influencia en los siglos siguientes.
xiii
Vico, Giambattista (Nápoles, 1668-1744). Abogado y filósofo de la historia
italiano. Se propuso formular los principios del método histórico, basándolos en
tres premisas: 1) Determinados periodos históricos tienen características
semejantes entre sí, aunque varíen los detalles. 2) Establece un orden en los
ciclos históricos: Fuerza bruta, fuerza heroica, justicia, originalidad
deslumbrante, reflexión destructiva, opulencia, abandono y despilfarro. 3) La
historia no se repite, no son ciclos cerrados, más bien una espiral creciente que
crea nuevos elementos. Sus tesis sobre la distinta evolución de los periodos
históricos influyeron más adelante en las obras de Montesquieu, Auguste Comte
y Karl Marx. Sus obras principales son: Principios de la Filosofía de la Historia y
Principios de ciencia nueva.
xiv
Herder, Johann Gottfried von (1744 (Prusia) -1803). Filósofo y crítico literario
alemán. Estudió en la Universidad de Königsberg con el filósofo alemán
Immanuel Kant. Los escritos de Herder contribuyeron a la aparición del
romanticismo alemán. Como instigador del movimiento conocido como Sturm
und Drang (tormenta e impulso) inspiró a muchos escritores, entre ellos, y muy
especialmente, al joven Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, a quien conoció en
Estrasburgo y que posteriormente se convertiría en la principal figura del
clasicismo literario alemán. En su Filosofía de la Historia para la educación de la
Humanidad (1774), puso de relieve la necesidad de la educación del ideal
ilustrado y romántico de la tolerancia, como postulado de la razón histórica para
alcanzar la paz en la Humanidad.

226
 NOTAS

xv
Humboldt, Friedrich Wilhelm Christian Carl Ferdinand, (Potsdam, 1767 ±Tegel,
Berlín, 1835). Hombre de estado alemán, uno de los fundadores de la
Universidad de Berlín (en la actualidad Universidad Humboldt de Berlín). Dedicó
sus esfuerzos a las letras, enfocando sus trabajos hacia problemas tales como
la educación, la teoría política, el estudio analítico de las lenguas, la literatura y
las artes, además de trabajar activamente en la reforma del sistema educativo y
en la diplomacia de su nación, Gracias a su aprecio por los filósofos antiguos,
característica de la época del neohumanismo, y sus amplios conocimientos
sobre el tema, se convirtió en socio menor del clasicismo alemán (Berglar)
cuando se trasladó en 1794 con su familia a Jena, donde estaba trabajando
Schiller. El papel que tendrá a partir de ese momento, inicialmente frente a
Schiller y más tarde también con Goethe, era el de un análisis agudo, una crítica
constructiva y un consejo versado que tuvo gran influencia tanto en las baladas
y el Wallenstein de Schiller, como en el Herrmann und Dorothea de Goethe.
xvi
Condorcet, Marie-Jean-Antoine Nicolas de Caritat, marqués de (Ribemont,
Francia, 1743 - Bourg-la-Reine, 1794). Filósofo, matemático y politólogo francés.
8QRGHVXVSULQFLSDOHVWUDEDMRVHV³Ensayo sobre la aplicación del análisis a la
SUREDELOLGDGGHODVGHFLVLRQHVVRPHWLGDVDODSOXUDOLGDGGHYRFHV´, donde aplica
un razonamiento estadístico al mundo de la política.
xvii
Saint±Simon, Claude-Henri de Rouvroy, Conde de (París, 1760 - id., 1825).
Filósofo y teórico social francés que puede incluirse entre los filósofos del
socialismo utópico. Sus ideas fueron a parar a la democracia socialista europea
de finales del siglo XIX. Algunos le atribuyen el título de fundador del socialismo
francés, incluso de primer iniciador de la Sociología. El positivismo está en sus
escritos, pero, aunque la necesidad del estudio científico de la sociedad, de la
política y de la moral fue proclamada a todos los vientos por Saint±Simon, sus
propios escritos estuvieron totalmente alejados de la búsqueda científica tal y
como ahora la entendemos. Se considera precursor de la "Fisiología Social",
también llamada "Física Social", rebautizada por Auguste Comte como
Sociología.
xviii
Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste-Pierre-Antoine de Monet, caballero de (Francia, 1744
- 1829). Uno de los grandes nombres de la época de la sistematización de la
Historia Natural. Lamarck es el acuñador del término « biología » para designar
la ciencia de los seres vivos y el fundador de la paleontología de los
invertebrados. Lamarck trata por vez primera de la evolución de los animales y
de las plantas en 1800, en la lección inaugural de su curso de zoología de los
animales invertebrados (11 de mayo de 1800), publicado en 1801 con el nombre
de El sistema de los animales sin vértebras. En dicha obra aparecen ya las tesis
esenciales de su doctrina transformista. Hasta entonces parece que Lamarck
había sido rigurosamente fijista. En 1802, en su obra Investigaciones sobre la
organización de los cuerpos vivientes, Lamarck trata nuevos problemas, como el
de la degradación y el origen de la vida. En 1803 aparecen publicados los dos
primeros volúmenes de la Historia Natural de los vegetales; en 1809, su obra
capital, la Filosofía zoológica, donde por primera vez en la Historia aparece
formulada una teoría positiva de la evolución de los seres vivos. Su obra
maestra, la gran Historia Natural de los animales sin vértebras (1815-1822)
sienta las bases de la clasificación sistemática del inmenso mundo de los
invertebrados (que representa aproximadamente el 97% de las especies

227
animales conocidas), por aquel entonces muy olvidado de los zoólogos.
Lamarck postula dos fuerzas evolutivas cuya combinatoria habría conformado
un árbol filogenético ramificado: por un lado, la tendencia intrínseca de la
naturaleza hacia el aumento de la complejidad daría cuenta del tronco
ascendente que puede trazarse desde los organismos más sencillos hasta los
más complejos; por otro, la acomodación de los organismos a las circunstancias
externas y la herencia de tales adaptaciones explicaría las desviaciones que
ramifican esa gradación regular. La idea lamarckiana de evolución influyó sobre
el pensamiento evolutivo durante gran parte del siglo XIX, pero fue desplazada
por la teoría de la evolución por selección natural de Charles Darwin sin haber
perdido nunca una cierta capacidad de influencia.
xix
Comte, Isidore Marie Auguste François Xavier, (Montpellier, Francia, 1798 -
París, 1857). Se le considera creador del positivismo y de la disciplina de la
sociología aunque hay varios sociólogos que solo le atribuyen haberle puesto el
nombre. Su doctrina supone dos leyes universales en la actividad de todas las
ciencias, la "Ley de los tres estadios" y la "Ley enciclopédica". Combinando
estas leyes, Comte desarrolló una clasificación sistemática y jerárquica de todas
las ciencias, inclusive la física inorgánica (astronomía, geología y química) y la
física orgánica (biología) y, por primera vez, la física social posteriormente
renombrada "sociología". Comte vio esta nueva ciencia, la sociología, como la
última y la más grande de todas las ciencias, una ciencia que incluiría todas las
ciencias las cuales integrarían y relacionarían sus hallazgos en un todo
cohesionado. Comte acuñó el término "sociología" y se le considera
generalmente como el primer sociólogo. Su énfasis en la interconectividad de los
elementos sociales lo convirtió en un precursor del funcionalismo moderno.
Aunque fue influyente durante su vida y durante algún tiempo después, el
trabajo de Comte cayó rápidamente en el descrédito.
xx
Euler, Leonhard. (Suiza, 1707 ± Rusia,1783). Vivió en Rusia la mayor parte
de su vida. Probablemente fue uno de los más grandes matemáticos de la
historia, comparable a Gauss, Newton o Arquímedes. Fue discípulo de Jean
Bernoulli, pero superó rápidamente el notable talento matemático de su maestro.
Su carrera profesional se circunscribió a las Academias de Ciencias de Berlín y
San Petersburgo, y la mayor parte de su trabajo se publicó en los anales de
ciencias de estas instituciones. Fue protegido de Federico el Grande, en cuya
corte protagonizó discusiones metafísicas con Voltaire.
Euler fue el primero en emplear la notación f(x) proporcionando más comodidad
frente a los rudimentarios métodos del cálculo infinitesimal existentes hasta la
fecha, iniciados Newton y Leibniz, pero desarrollados basándose en las
matemáticas del último. Sentó las bases del análisis matemático avanzado al
generalizar su fórmula para que conectase las funciones exponenciales y las
trigonométricas. Con ello también desarrolló el cálculo complejo. Empleaba las
series de Fourier antes de que el mismo Fourier las descubriera y las
ecuaciones de Lagrange del cálculo variacional, las Ecuaciones de Euler-
Lagrange. Introdujo explícitamente el concepto de partícula y de masa puntual.
Introdujo la notación vectorial para representar la velocidad y la aceleración, que
definiría todo el estudio de la Mecánica hasta Lagrange. Estudió el flujo de un
fluido ideal incompresible, detallando las Ecuaciones de Euler de la
Hidrodinámica. Desarrolló método numérico consistente en ir incrementando

228
 NOTAS

paso a paso la variable independiente y hallando la siguiente imagen con la

derivada.
Anecdóticamente puede mencionarse que Euler resolvió el problema de los siete
puentes de Königsberg, ciudad natal de Kant. El problema consistía en
determinar si es posible dar un paseo empezando por una cualquiera de las
cuatro partes de tierra firme, cruzando cada puente una sola vez y volviendo al
punto de partida, dado que hay dos islas en el río Pregel que cruza Königsberg
se unen entre ellas y con la tierra firme mediante siete puentes. Euler demostró
que no era posible.
xxi
Lambert, Johann Heinrich (1728 - 1777). Matemático, físico y astrónomo
alemán de origen francés. Nació en Mülhausen (Alsacia, ahora Mulhouse,
Francia). Demostró que el número ¶ era irracional, con lo que cerró la posibilidad
de poder determinar una cifra "exacta" (fracción numérica) para este número.
También hizo aportes al desarrollo de la geometría hiperbólica. Lambert
desarrolló una teoría de generación del universo que era similar a la hipótesis
nebular que Kant había publicado recientemente. Lambert había leído la única
premisa posible de Kant para una demostración de la existencia de Dios. En
ella, Kant resumió brevemente su teoría sobre el origen de los planetas de una
nube gaseosa. El propósito de Kant era ilustrar la sabiduría y el propósito de
Dios y de esta manera de apoyar su existencia. Originalmente, Kant había
publicado una versión extendida de esta teoría en su Historia Universal Natural y
Teoría de los Cielos y comenzó un intercambio con Kant acerca de esta teoría.
Pronto, Lambert publicó su propia versión de la nebulosa protosolar del origen
del Sistema Solar.
xxii
Bernoulli, Familia de matemáticos suizos que se inicia a finales del siglo XVII
con los hermanos Johann I y Jakob I. Se estacaron en la enseñanza y desarrollo
de las matemáticas, en especial Jakob I, Johann I, Daniel, Johann III y Nikolaus
II.
- Bernoulli, Jakob I, (Suiza, 1654 - 1705). Desarrolló problemas de cálculo
infinitesimal a partir de los planteamientos de Leibniz. Desarrolló la técnica para
resolver ecuaciones diferenciales separables. Su obra maestra fue Ars
Conjectandi (el Arte de la conjetura), un trabajo pionero en la teoría de la
probabilidad.

d'Alembert, Jean le Rond (1717 ±1783). Matemático, físico teórico de la

xxiii

mecánica y filósofo. Es conocido por sus estudios sobre la refracción en cuerpos

sólidos, desarrollo también un criterio para establecer la convergencia de series,
DVtFRPRHOFRQRFLGRSULQFLSLRGHG¶$OHPEHUW, la suma de las fuerzas externas
que actúan sobre un cuerpo y las denominadas fuerzas de inercia forman un
sistema de fuerzas en equilibrio.
xxiv
Lagrange, Joseph Louis (1736 - 1813). Matemático, físico y astrónomo
italiano que después vivió en Prusia y Francia. Lagrange demostró el teorema
del valor medio, desarrolló la mecánica Lagrangiana y tuvo una importante
contribución en astronomía. Cuando tenía sólo diecinueve años, envió una carta
a Leonhard Euler en que resolvió un problema que había sido un asunto de
discusión durante más de medio siglo mediante una nueva técnica: el cálculo de
variaciones. Euler reconoció la generalidad del método, y su superioridad; y con
una cortesía rara en él, retuvo un papel que él había escrito previamente para

229
que el joven italiano tuviera tiempo para completar su trabajo, como exige la
invención de un nuevo método de cálculo.
xxv
Thünen, Johann Heinrich von (1783 - 1850). Economista del siglo XIX. Von
Thünen era un terrateniente del norte de Alemania quién desarrolló algunas
teorías en las que relacionaba la economía con la ubicación espacial de las
tierras y la teoría de la renta. En una de sus obras principales El Estado aislado
(1826) desarrolló la teoría de la productividad marginal.
xxvi
Helmholtz, Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von (1821 ±1894). Médico y físico
alemán. Helmholtz nació en Potsdam; primogénito de Ferdinand Helmholtz, que
estudió filología y filosofía clásica y fue amigo cercano de Immanuel Hermann
Fichte. Por ello se comprende que el trabajo de Helmholtz sea influenciado por
Fichte y Kant, cuyas teorías trató de trasladar a actividades empíricas como la
psicología.
xxvii
Bacon, Francis, (Londres, 1561 ± Londres, 1626) Promotor del empirismo.
Percibió que el razonamiento deductivo se destacaba entonces a expensas del
inductivo y creyó que, eliminando toda noción preconcebida del mundo, se podía
y debía estudiar al hombre y su entorno mediante observaciones detalladas y
controladas, realizando generalizaciones cautelosas. Para ello, el estudio que el
hombre de ciencia hace de los particulares debe realizarse mediante
observaciones que deben validarse. Los científicos deben de ser ante todo
escépticos y no aceptar explicaciones que no se puedan probar por la
observación y la experiencia sensible. La filosofía de Bacon influyó en la
creencia de que la gente es a la vez sierva e intérprete de la naturaleza, de que
la verdad no se deriva de la autoridad y que el conocimiento es fruto ante todo
de la experiencia. Se le reconoce haber aportado a la lógica el método
experimental inductivo, ya que anteriormente se practicaba la inducción
mediante la simple enumeración, es decir, extrayendo conclusiones generales
de datos particulares. El método de Bacon consistió en inferir a partir del uso de
la analogía, desde las características o propiedades del mayor grupo al que
pertenece el dato en concreto, dejando para una posterior experiencia la
corrección de los errores evidentes. Este método representó un avance
fundamental en el método científico al ser muy significativo en la mejora de las
hipótesis científicas. Su "Novum Organum" influyó mucho en la aceptación en la
ciencia de una observación y experimentación precisas. En esta obra mantenía
que había que abandonar todos los prejuicios y actitudes preconcebidas, que
llamó en griego eidola o ídolos, ya fueran la propiedad común de la especie
debido a modos comunes de pensamiento ("Idola tribu") o propios del individuo
("Idola especus"); ya se debieran a una dependencia excesiva del lenguaje
("Idola fori") o de la tradición ("Idola teatri"). Los principios que se plantean en
Novum Organum tuvieron gran importancia en el subsiguiente desarrollo del
empirismo.
xxviii
Pascal, Blaise, (1623 ± 1662) Matemático, físico y filósofo religioso francés.
Sus contribuciones a las ciencias naturales y ciencias aplicadas incluyen la
construcción de calculadoras mecánicas, estudios sobre la teoría de
probabilidad, investigaciones sobre los fluidos y la aclaración de conceptos tales
como la presión y el vacío. Después de una experiencia religiosa profunda en
1654, Pascal abandonó las matemáticas y la física para dedicarse a la filosofía y

230
 NOTAS

a la teología. Mantuvo correspondencia con Pierre de Fermat a quien le envió

una primera aproximación al cálculo de probabilidades. El pensamiento de
Pascal puede ubicarse dentro de la concepción esencialista o dualista, dentro
del racionalismo antropológico.
xxix
Turgot, Anne Robert Jacques, (París, 1727±1781), político y economista
francés. Es autor de dos notables disertaciones latinas, Sobre los beneficios que
la religión cristiana ha aportado al género humano, y sobre La historia del
progreso en el espíritu humano. Defensor del derecho y la ley natural. Se
considera en general que es el impulsor de un gran número de reformas y de
ideas de la Revolución francesa. Algunos lo consideran el fundador de la
economía política moderna, aunque su pensamiento fue más tenido en cuenta
en el Siglo XIX, que en el XVIII.
xxx
Condorcet: ver nota xvi.
xxxi
Herder, Johann Gottfried: ver xiv.

231
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