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Levels of classification recap

What are primates?

 The mammalian order to which we belong evolved about
65 million years ago, about the same time that the last of
the dinosaurs were disappearing.

 Primate characteristics include:

 Nails
 Large brain
 Stereoscopic vision
 Brachiation

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Order: Primates

Interpretation of phylogenetic tree

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Apes and humans common ancestor

Physiological,
morphological and
behavioural
changes occurred
since humans
separated from
apes

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Phylogenetic relationships among

crown-group primates

Anthropoids:
monkeys, apes
and humans

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 The phylogeny of present-day homonids (great apes) and

homonins (humans). Numbers in yellow indicate the % DNA
identity with humans (excl. deletion and insertion mutations)

Trends in human evolution

 Humans did not develop from apes
 Molecular evidence
 Chimps and human separated 6mya

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Human ancestors
 Order: Primates – e.g. monkeys, baboons, apes (apes and
humans have larger brains and no tail)
 DNA evidence: humans are closest to chimpanzees
 NB: we do not come from chimpanzees, but share a
common ancestor 6-10 million years ago – this is when the
human evolutionary line split from that of the apes.

Evidence for human evolution

1. Fossils
2. Artefacts
3. DNA sequences

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Anatomical comparison between

African apes and humans

Shared characteristics (Homo sapiens vs. African apes)

 Up-right posture
 Long upper arms
 Pentadactyl limb
 Opposable thumb
 Large complicated brain
 Flat nails instead of claws/ bare finger tips
 Stereoscopic vision
 Two mammary glands

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Characteristics of Homo sapiens that

differ from other primates
 Bipedalism (foramen magnum, spine, pelvic girdle)
 Brain size
 Dentition (teeth) With the aid of diagrams,
 Prognathous (protruding jaw) ensure you understand
each of these features
 Palate shape and what these
 Cranial ridges differences represent
 Brow ridges

 Humans have larger skeletons

 Shorter arms, longer legs
 Pelvic girdle bigger, shorter, wider – support weight of upright posture
(ape – long and narrow)

 Vertebral column S- shaped – more flexible and shock absorber

(ape – C-shaped)

 Knee-joints bigger and stronger

 Big toe in line – helps maintain balance
 Arch of foot curved
(apes – opposable toe, flat foot)
 Dentition – canines same size as rest of teeth

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Comparison of skulls
 Sagittal crest: bony ridge on top of the skull to which large
chewing muscles attach (yes/no?)

 Browridge: bony ridge protruding above the eyes (yes/no?

Large/small?)

 Facial slope: (gentle\steep?)

 Prognathism: ‘muzzle’ or snout – protrusion of parts of the

face below the eyes (weak\pronounced?)

Comparison of skulls continued…

 Dental arcade: shape or arch of the jaw (rectangular, box
shape\ gentle curved U shape, parabolic?)

 Canines: 3rd tooth from the centre of the top and bottom
jaw. Description:
 Long/short?
 Dull/sharp?

 Diastema (gap between upper incisors and canines)

present/absent?

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Comparing skeletons
 Cranium size

 Arm length relative to body size

 Length of hand bones

 Pelvis size

 Shape and size of the feet

 Leg length relative to body size

Changes in structure observed in humans

 Foramen magnum shifted forward (centrally at
bottom of skull) – skull on top of vertebral column,
eyes look forward

 Ape – like head in front of vertebral column, foramen

magnum at back of skull

 Humans – rounded skull, enlarged cranium

 Ape – like , protruding jaws, prominent brow ridge,

large canines. Cranium small and long

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Brain size

Bigger brains

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Understanding bipedalism
(walking upright on 2 legs)

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Bipedalism
(foranum magnum position)

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Bipedalism
(spine)

Bipedalism
(pelvic girdle)

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Dentition
(arrangement of teeth in jaw)

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Palate shape

diastema

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Prognathous
(protrusion of jaw without/with chin)

Cranial and brow ridges

 Cranial ridge across the top of the cranium serves as an
attachment for jaw and muscles and indicates the presence
of strong jaw muscles

 No cranial ridge in modern humans and brow ridges not

well developed

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Cranial ridge

Brow ridge

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 Homework
 Activity 2 on page 243: Identify the anatomical
differences of apes and humans

 Homework:
 Activity 4 on page 245: compare the skeletons of three
hominids

Labelled African ape skull

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Example
from
June 2017
NSC

From Homonid to Homonin

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The hominins
 Bipedalism- skeletal changes and many other advantages
 Modification of hand-tool making
 Skull, brain size and dentition
 Language-modification of skull and facial bones= vocalisation

Fossil evidence for human evolution

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Important fossil hominids from Africa

 Refer to pages 249-251 • Age of fossils
• Where?
 Ardipithecus • Discovered by?
• Description
 Australopithecus afarensis
 Australopithecus africanus
 Paranthropus
 Homo habilis
 Homo ergaster and Homo erectus
 Homo sapiens

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Ardipithecus

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Australopithecus:
(ape-like & human-like) 4,5 – 1,4 mya
 Not human ancestors – developed simultaneously with
Homo genus

 Bipedalism and walking upright

 1st primates to do so
 3.8 my old footprints in Tanzania

 Transition to bipedalism
 Bodies less exposed to sun
 Hands free to use tools, prepare food, hunt or fight
 Vision extends further over tall grass of the savannah

 Brains larger than those of apes

 More human-like teeth, smaller canines and thicker enamel

 ‘Southern ape’

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Australopithecus africanus:
Taung child
 In 1924 Prof. Raymond
Dart discovered a juvenile
homonidwith a brain ase
volume too large for an ape
in Taung- NW of Kimberley,
South Africa

 Small brain similar to apes

 Human-like teeth
 Bipedal
 3-2 million years ago

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Australopithecus africanus: Mrs Ples

 1947
 Sterkfontein caves
 Dr Robert Broom
 Probably Mr Ples after all

Complete adult bones and skull

found
 Brain capacity similar to chimpanzee

 Bipedal (position of foramen magnum)

 Long arms short legs (ape-like)

 No protruding canines – mainly plant material

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Australopithecus…species unknown:
Small foot
 1994 – Sterkfontein caves Dr Ron Clarke
(ankle and foot bones)
 1997 rest of skeleton was found
 Short arms
 Bipedal based on foramen magnum
position
 Hands similar to modern humans
(short palms and fingers)

Astralopithecus afarensis: Lucy

 1974
 Ethiopia

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 Female - shape of pelvis

 Bipedal

 Ape – like characteristics

 Low forehead
 Flat nose
 Protruding lower jaw
 Large canines
 Long arms, short legs
 Brain capacity small

Australopithecus sediba:
Karabo
 Found 2008 – Young woman and a boy

 Considered transitional fossil between

Australopithecus afarensis and 1st Homo
species

 More advanced brain

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The evolution of the Homo species

Homo lineage

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Homo species
 Larger and better developed brain
(used tools, made fire, started to develop language)
 Skull more human-like

 Less prominent brow ridges

 Flatter face
 Smaller teeth
 More rounded jaw bone

Homo habilis: Handy man

 1960- Tanzania
 Smaller body than Australopithecus and ape-like
 Larger brain- used tools

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Homo erectus: Upright man

 Large bodies similar to modern humans
 Thick skull with low, prominent forehead
 Strong brow ridge, no chin

Homo erectus (ergaster):

Turkana Boy

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Homo sapien neanderthalensis

 230 000- 30 000 years ago
 Europe and West Asia
 1856- Neander Valley Germany
 Skulls long and flat
 Low forehead
 Broad nose
 Prominent brow ridge
 Although brains were large, lang. not well developed and little
technological development.
 Hunters, wore clothes (animal skin), built shelters in caves, used fire
 Buried dead - culture

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Homo sapien sapien: modern human

 Large brain
 Increased intelligence
 Creating and using more advanced tools and
precise tools
 Using animal pelts as clothing
 Developing tools that help produce other tools
 Language and culture advancement

 Fully modern humans (like us) in Africa ~60 000

years ago

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Homonin phylogeny

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Highlighting characteristics of
intermediates
 Bipedalism

 Brain size

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 Dentition, palate and facial shape

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Activity
 Tabulate major phases of homonin evolution

Genus Diagnostic When Evolutionary

features existed trends

Ardipithecus
Australopithecus
Homo

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Activity
Species Characteristics/ Associated When Where Where, when &
evol. trends technology? existed existed by whom fossils
discovered
Ardipithecus
ramidus
Australopithecus
africanus
Australopithecus
afarensis
Australopithecus
sediba
Homo habilis
Homo erectus
Homo
neanderthalensis
Homo sapien

when
Species characteristics associated technology? where existed fossil discovery
existed
semi bipedal (foramen magnum further forward than in apes,
wider pelvis), long arms for climbing, small brains 300-350 cm3, “Ardi": White (1994)
Ardipithecus None known 5.8-4.4 mya East Africa
ape-like teeth, protruding jaw, sloped face, narrow rectangular Afar Valley of Ethiopia
pallate and smaller brows.
bipedal (centrally located foramen magnum, short and wide
Possibly ate meat by carving “Lucy”: Johanson
Australopithecus pelvis), long arms for climbing, long and curved fingers, small
animal carcasses with stone 3.9-2.9 mya Southern Africa (1974) Afar Valley of
afarensis brain ~400cm3, smaller canines, protruding jaw, sloping face, U-
implements Ethiopia
shaped pallate, large brows
“Taung child”: Dart
bipedal (centrally located foramen magnum, short and wide (1924) in Taung,
Australopithecus pelvis), long arms for climbing, long and curved fingers, small Hand morphology supports Kimberly.
3.3-2.1 mya East Africa
africanus brain ~340 cm3, smaller canines, protruding jaw, sloping face, U- possible tool use “Mrs Ples”: Broom
shaped pallate, large brows (1947) in Sterkfontein,
Gauteng.
Small brain and large brow ridges in comparison to humans, but “Karabo”. Berger and
Australopithecus
the shape indicates a more advanced brain than other Unknown 1.9-1.7 mya Southern Africa son (2008) Cradle of
sediba
Australopithecus species Humankind
H. habilis was short and had disproportionately long arms
compared to modern humans; however, it had a less protruding
Basic stone tools - stone flakes.
face than the australopithecines from which it is thought to have
Homo habilis Used to butcher animals and to 2.2-1.6 mya East Africa
descended. H. habilis had a cranial capacity slightly less than
skin the animals.
half of the size of modern humans ~640 cm3, (this is also about
50% larger than the australopithecines)

1.9 mya - 35
Homo erectus
000 ya

Homo
neanderthalensis

Homo sapiens

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How & where did modern man

originate?
 Homo sapiens isolated at south coast of South Africa
 Depend on fish and shell fish- Omega 3 fatty acids
improve brain development

 Blombos cave- Stilbaai (shell artefacts, ornaments,

engraved orchre 75 000 years old)
 Klasies River (anatomically correct human remains 100
000 years old)

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Importance of the Cradle of

Humankind
 Area richest in hominin fossils
 40km South of Jo’burg
 13 fossil sites – Sterkfontein caves

 World heritage site – UNESCO 1998

Important fossils found in the area

 Mrs Ples (Australopithecus africanus) 1947 Dr Broom
Sterkfontein caves

 Little foot (Australopithecus spp) 1994 Dr Clarke

Sterkfontein caves

 Australopithecus sediba – 2008 Prof Lee Berger Malapa

area

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The Great rift valley in east Africa

 6000km from Syria to Mozambique
(Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania)

 Rich source of fossils – favourable

conditions for fossil formation

Important fossils found in the area

 Ardipithecus ramidis - 5,8 – 4,4mya Afar desert Ethiopia

 Lucy (Australopithecus afarensis) – Afar valley Ethiopia

 Australopithecus footprints - 3.8mya volcanic ash Tanzania

 Homo habilis – 2,2 – 1,6mya Tanzania

 Homo erectus (Turkana boy) – 1,5mya Lake Turkana

Kenya

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The Out of Africa hypothesis (OOA)

 Homo sapiens originated in Africa and migrated to the
rest of the world to replace other hominins (H. erectus
and H. neanderthalensis)

Out of Africa hypothesis

 All modern humans originated in Africa and subsequently
expanded their range to the rest of the world

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What is the OOA hypothesis?

 Scientists believe that Homo sapiens probably evolved in South Eastern Africa
and spread throughout the rest of the world.

 This means that all the people on planet earth evolved from an ancestral
population that originated only ~200 000-60 000 years ago.

 As a species we migrated out of Africa relatively recently around 100 000-70

000 years ago.

 This group and their descendants moved into Middle-East and spread over the
rest of the world, replacing the other Homo species that had migrated earlier.

 About 50 000 years ago they reached South Asia and about 40 000 years ago
they reached Australia. They probably reached America via Asia only 20 000
years ago.

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 About 1,9 million years ago, long before Homo sapiens

appeared, some Homo erectus moved out of Africa using
the land bridge which developed when the sea-level
dropped during the ice ages. They then spread across the
grasslands of Asia and Europe. Homo neanderthalensis
was in Europe from around 500 000 years ago.

 Thus H. sapiens replaced H. erectus in Asia and H.

neanderthalensis in Europe. H. sapiens had better
technology and were better suited to the environment than
other Homo species.

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 Homo sapiens originated approx. 200 000 – 100 000 years

ago.
 Migrated approx. 50 000 ya
 Higher level of technical skill, better adapted to their new
environment. Survived & more successful, therefore
replaced H. erectus and H. neanderthalensis
 Homo erectus - 1 of the earliest hominins occurring in
Africa
 1st to leave Africa approx. 1.8mya, settled in Europe, Asia,
Indonesia – Turkana Boy, Peking man China, Java man
Java (Indonesia)

Evidence of Out of Africa Hypothesis

 Fossil evidence – info on each of the following fossils that
serve as evidence for OOA hypothesis:
 Ardipithecus (fossils found in African ONLY)
 Australopithecus (fossils found in Africa ONLY: including
Karoba, Little foot, Taung child, Mrs Ples)
 Homo (fossils of Homo habilis found in Africa ONLY;
oldest fossil of Homo erectus found in Africa)

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Fossil evidence
 The world’s oldest and richest concentration of fossils of early humans has been found
in Africa. Some of examples of excavated fossils of early humans found in Africa are
listed below:
 6 to 7 million years old bipedal primates, Sahelanthropus tchadensis found in Chad.
 Little Foot is a 3,9 to 4,2 million years old fossil discovered in the Sterkfontein Caves.
 Lucy is a 3,2 million years old Australopithecus fossil discovered in Ethiopia.
 Taung Child (Australopithecus africanus) , a 2,6 to 2,8 million old fossil found in the
Northern Cape.
 Mr. Ples (Australopithecus africanus) 2,6 million years old fossil found in the Sterkfontein
Caves.
 Kromdraai (Paranthropus robustus) was also discovered in Sterkfontein.
 1,2 to 2,2 million years old fossil Paranthropus boisei was discovered in Tanzania.
 Fossil of Homo habilis was discovered in Tanzania.
 Florisbad man (an earlier Homo sapiens), a 250 000 year fossil was discovered in the
Free State.

Genetic evidence – mitochondrial

DNA for OOA
 Genetics used to determine descent \ ancestry

 Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) – mother to child shows oldest

female ancestor from Africa

 DNA on Y chromosome – From father to son

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MtDNA
 More mutations = older
 More time for mutations to take
place

 Greatest level of genetic variation in

mtDNA occurs in populations if
Africa

 All humans descended from her

- the mitochondrial “Eve”

DNA and y chromosomes

 Y chromosome only carried by males

 Doesn’t undergo crossing over\exchange of genetic

material during meiosis – remains largely unchanged over
generations

 Men sharing a common male ancestor will share practically

the same Y DNA – male ancestral descent from “Adam”

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Genetic evidence
 DNA is used for the purpose of tracing ancestry.
 A search is made for mutations since individuals who have
the same mutation must share the same common ancestor.
(markers of descent).
 On the basis of DNA analysis, scientists believe that from
Africa early humans spread across the continent of Africa.
Then they moved out of the continent through north-east
Africa.

DNA from y chromosomes

 Since the major part of Y-chromosomes of males does not undergo crossing
over with its mismatched X chromosomes, DNA on the Y chromosomes is
passed on from father to son without being mixed with nucleotides from the
mother.

 Therefore, mutant nucleotides can be traced from son to father to

grandfather to great grandfather and so on.

 This way, our male ancestry can be traced.

 By using mutant nucleotides on Y-chromosomal DNA as markers of descent,

scientists have recently traced the lineage of every man alive to a common
ancestor who lived in Africa ~210 000 years ago.

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DNA from mitochondria

 Since the mitochondrial DNA of the sperm cell does not
fuse with that of the egg cell, it is passed on from mother to
child.
 By following mutant nucleotides in mitochondrial DNA,
scientists are able to trace the female line of descent.
 Analysis of mitochondrial DNA leads to an ancestral female
population that lived in South East Africa, ~180 000 years
ago.

Cultural evidence of tool-making

 Homework:
 Activity 6 on page 253: compare and describe evidence
of cultural evolution

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Explanations of human evolution

 Paleoanthropology: the study of human evolution using
fossils and artefacts

 Human evolution and the theory of common descent

 Common ancestors
 Darwin: humans originated in Africa as the great apes
live in Africa and they are the species most similar to
humans

 Alternative explanations to Darwin’s theory of evolution

 Creationism (religious texts form the basis)

Alternatives to evolution
 Cultural explanations
 Zulu

 San

 Religious explanations
 Creationism

 Intelligent design
 Literalism

 Theistic evolution

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Example exam questions

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 Homework:
 Test practice on page 267-268

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Reminders
 My = million years
 Mya = million years ago

 OOA hypothesis- oldest fossils in Africa (South Africa)

 Skull vs cranium/brain box

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