Topic – Animal Classification TARGET BIOLOGY TARUN SIR

NEET /AGRICULTURE /CLASS-XI ---7679598996

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Basis of Classification
There is a difference in structure and form of different animals, there are a few fundamental
characteristics that are common to various organisms. The features are -------
 Arrangement of cells,
 Body symmetry,
 Nature of coelom,
 Patterns of digestive, circulatory and reproductive systems,
 Arrangement of cells in germ layers,
 Segmentation,
 Notochord. These are the features that forms basis for animal classification.

Levels of Organisation :-- All the organisms of the Animal kingdom are multicellular but they do not
exhibit the same pattern if organization of cells. The patterns of cellular organization seen in animals are ----

a) Cellular Level of Organization - In these animals the cells are arranged in the form of loose cell aggregates.
This kind of cellular organization is seen in sponges..Example: Sponges.
b) Tissue Level of Organization - Cells of the animals show division of activities among themselves. Cells
performing the same function are arranged as tissues. Example: Coelentrates.
c) Organ Level of Organization - Tissues of the animals performing the similar function are grouped to form
organs. Each organs is specialized for specific function. Example: Platyhelminthes.
d) Organ system Level of Organization - In animals where organs have associated to form functional systems
where each system is concerned with a specific physiological function are said to exhibit organ system
level of organisation. Example: Annelids, Arthropods, Molluscs, Echinoderms and Chordates.
 Patterns of Organ Systems
Organs systems in different groups of animals exhibit various patterns of complexities.

 Digestive System - There are two patterns of digestive system incomplete and complete digestive
system.

Incomplete digestive system - This pattern of digestive has only one opening to the outside of the body, i.e., a
single opening serves as both mouth and anus. Example: Platyhelminthes.

Complete digestive system - In this pattern there are two opening to the outside of the body, the mouth and
the anus. Example: Arthropods, Chordates, etc.

 Circulatory System - Circulatory system may be of two types - open type and closed type.

Open type - In open type circulatory system the blood is pumped out of the heart and the cells and tissues are
diectly bathed in it.

Closed type - In this type of circulatory system the blood is circulated through a series of vessels of varying
diameters - the arteries, veins and capillaries.

Body Symmetry
Animals can be categorized on the basis of their body symmetry. The arrangement of body parts around a
central point or line determines the symmetry.

 Asymmetrical - some animals cannot be divided into two equal halves along any plane passing
through the center of the organism. Asymmetry is the complete absence of symmetry. Example:
Sponges.

 Radial Symmetry - Animals are said to exhibit radial symmetry, when any plane passing through the
central axis of the body divides the organism into two identical halves. Example: Coelentrates,
ctenophores and echinoderms.

 Bilateral Symmetry - Animals where body can be divided into identical right and left halves are said to be
bilaterally symmetrical. Example: Annelids, Arthropods,etc.
Body Wall
Body wall of animals are arranged in two or three embryonic layers. Accordingly animals are ------
a) Diploblastic Animals - Animals in which the cells are arranged in two embryonic layers are known as
diploblastic animals. Diploblastic animals have an external ectoderm and an internal endoderm.
The middle mesoglea is the middle undifferentiated layer present between outer ectoderm and
middle mesoderm. Example: Coelentrates.

b) Triploblastic Animals - Triploblastic animals are those, whose cells are arranged in three germinal layers,
the outer ectoderm, inner endoderm and the third germinal layer mesoderm which is in between
outer ectoderm and the endoderm. Example: Platyhelminthes to Chordates.
Nature of Coelom :--

The presence or absence of a cavity between the body wall and the gut wall is important characteristic for
classification. Coelom is the body cavity that is lined by the mesoderm. There are three types of
animals based on the type of coelom - coelomates, pseudocoelomates or acoelomates.

Acoelomates - Animals in which the body cavity is absent are known as acoelomates. Example:
Platyhelminthes.
Pseudocoelomates - Animals in which the body cavity is not lined by the mesoderm, instead the mesoderm is
present in scattered pouches in between the ectoderm and the endoderm are known as the
pseudocoelomates. Example: Aschelminthes.
Coelomates - Animals possessing the body cavity which is lined by the mesoderm are known as coelomates.
Example: Annelids, Mollusca, Arthropods, Echinoderms, chordates.

SEGMENTATION -- In some animals, body is segmented externally and internally, with serial repittion of at least
some organs. This phenomenon is known as metamerism and the segmented body pattern is known as
metameric segmentation. Example: Earthworm.
 Phylum – Porifera ( pore bearing organism )
There are approximately 5000 species known. (Most of them are marine while a few are fresh water forms)

1) Poriferans are commonly called sponges.

2) Body wall is diploblastic. Outer layer pinacoderm and inner layer choanoderm.

3) Pinacoderm consists of pinacocytes which are flattened cells comprise the outer surface and which can
be expanded or contracted at their margins to alter its size slightly. At the base the pinacocytes secrete
a substance which anchors the sponge to its substratum and Choanoderm consist of choanocytes
which are flagellated cell with a collar of protoplasm at the base of the flagellum, numbers of which line
the internal chambers of sponges)

4) The middle layer is mesenchyme which has various kinds of wandering amoebocytes. ( delivering
nutrients from choanocytes to other cells within the sponge/ giving rise to eggs for sexual reproduction
and differentiating into more-specific cell types)

5) Body wall contains numerous pores called ostia through which water enters in the body through a canal
system into the central body cavity, called spongocoel.

6) The canal system mainly comprise of incurrent and excurrent canals which are lined with Body also
contains one or more openings called oscula (-um/singular) through which water passes out from the
body. TARUN SIR M- 9153668079 / 7679598996

7) Sponges feed on minute organisms and small organic particles which enter the body through water
current and are ingested by the choanocytes.
 8) Respiration takes place by diffusion of oxygen from water the flowing into the body.

9) Sponges have an exoskeleton which is made up of either spongin fibers or calcareous/siliceous

spicules or a combination of both.

10) Asexual reproduction takes place by external or internal budding (formation of gemmules) or by
disintegration of body into reduction bodies.

11) Sexual reproduction involves internal fertilization. Male gametes enter the sponge body through water
current and fertilize with ovum with the help of choanocytes.

CLASSIFICATION OF PORIFERA :----

Porifera is divided into three classes based on the skeleton they possess.
1. Calcarea -- Skeleton consists mainly of calcareous spicules

Examples: Sycon, Leucosolenia

2. Hexactinellida (Hyalospongiae) -- Skeleton consists mainly of siliceous spicules

Examples: Euplectella, Hyalonema

3. Demospongiae -- Skeleton consists mainly of spongin fibres which may be in combination with spicules

Example: Spongilla

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 General characteristics of Phylum Porifera
1. Kingdom: Animalia
2. Habitat: Aquatic, mostly marine, few are terrestrial
3. Habit: They are solitary or colonial.
4. Grade of organization: cellular grade of body
5. Shape: Body shape is variable, mostly cylinder shaped
6. Symmetry: Asymmetrical or radially symmetrical.
7. Germ layer: Diploblastic animals. The adult body wall contains two layers, outer dermal layer and inner
gastral layer. In between these two layers, there is a gelatinous and non-cellular mesoglea containing
numerous free amoeboid cells.
8. Coelom: Absent; acoelomate but spongocoel is present
9. Surface of the body has numerous perforation called ostia (for the entry of water) and a large pore at the
apex called osculum (for the exit of water).
10. Water canal system present
11. Endoskeleton: Either calcareous spicules (calcium carbonate) or siliceous spicules (silica) or sponging
fibers (protein).
12. Nutrition: holozoic
13. Digestion: Intracellular
14. Nervous system: absent
15. Circulatory system: absent
16. Reproduction:
Asexual: by budding or gemmule or regeneration
Sexual: gamatic fusion
17. Fertilization: Internal

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 Phylum – Cnidaria (Coelenterata)
(Gk. knide = nettle or stinging cell)

1) Habitat :- All are aquatic and are mostly marine, except a few like Hydra, are fresh water.
2) Body Form:-- Body form varies considerably. Many colonial cnidarians like Obelia are trimorphic, having
three kinds of zooids — polyps, blastostyles and medusae. Occurrence of more than one type of
individuals in their colonies performing different functions is called polymorphism.
3) Symmetry:-- They show radial symmetry.
4) Germ Layers:-- Cnidarians are diploblastic animals, i.e., derived only from two embryonic germ layers, viz.,
ectoderm and endoderm.
5) Level of Organization:-- They are the first multicellular animals from evolution point of view which show
tissue level of organization.
6) Body wall :-- The body wall consists of two layers of cells; outer epidermis and inner gastro dermis. There is
a non-cellular gelatinous layer, called mesogloea, between the epidermis and the gastro dermis.

TARUN SIR M- 9153668079 / 7679598996

a) Epidermis: The epidermis consists of the following cells ------------
(i) Epitheliomuscular cells. They provide protection and act as muscles,
(ii) Cnidoblasts (= stinging cells). Name of the phylum Cnidaria is due to the presence of these
cells. A cnidoblast (also called nematoblast) has nematocyst (‘stinging organ’). The nematocyst
consists of capsule, shaft and thread tube .The nematocysts are used for defence and offence,
(iii) Interstitial cells. They are reserve cells and are called totipotent cells which can be converted into
any type of cells,
(iv) Nerve cells. They form a primitive nervous system,
(v) Sensory cells. They are sensory in function.

b) Gastro dermis: The gastro dermis comprises ---------

(i) Nutritive muscular or digestive cells. Intracellular digestion takes place inside these cells. They also
act as muscles;
(ii) Gland cells. They secrete digestive enzymes for extracellular digestion;
(iii) Interstitial cells;
(iv) Nerve cells and
(v) Sensory cells.
Functions of interstitial cells, nerve cells and sensory cells are similar to the cells found in epidermis.
7) Digestive Tract :-- Cnidarians have a central gastro vascular cavity (coelenteron) with a mouth, which also
acts as anus. Thus there is present incomplete digestive tract.
8) Digestion :-- Both intra- and extra-cellular digestion are present.
TARUN SIR M- 9153668079 / 7679598996
9) Respiration and excretion:-- Respiration and excretion are carried out through body surface by diffusion.
Ammonia is chief excretory waste.
10) Primitive Nervous System :-- A primitive form of ‘Nervous system’ is found in these animals. It consists of
a network of nerve cells and their processes. Statocyst is a sense organ for balance which is first time
developed in cnidaria.
11) Skeleton :-- In some coelenterates the body is supported by horny or calcareous exoskeleton or
endoskeleton.
12) Reproduction:-- Reproduction is both by asexual (budding) and sexual methods. Both gonads and buds
arise from the interstitial cells. The power of regeneration is also developed.
13) Development :-- The cleavage is holoblastic. Direct or indirect development is found. In Obelia planula
larva is present. However in Aurelia planula, scyphistoma and ephyra larvae are found.

14) Metagenesis :-- In Obelia, polyps reproduce medusae asexually and medusae form the polyps sexually.
Such alternation of asexual and sexual phases in the life cycle of Obelia is called metagenesis. It
should not be confused with alternation of generations as found in plants where one phase is haploid
and other is diploid. Here both phases are diploid.
Unique Features of cnidaria ------- (i) Presence of cnidoblasts for defence and offence,
(ii) Network of nerve cells acting as ‘‘Primitive Nervous System.”
Advancement over Sponges --------- (i) Tissue level of organisation.
(ii) Digestive tract.
(iii) Nerve cells and sensory cells.
TARUN SIR M- 9153668079 / 7679598996
Classification of Phylum Cnidaria/Coelenterata :--
Class1: Hydrozoa
(Hydra; water; zoon: animal)
 Habitat: mostly marine, few are fresh water
 Habit: some are solitary and some are colonial
 Asexual Polyps is dominant form
 Medusa possess true velum
 Mesogloea is simple and acellular
 Examples: Hydra, Obelia, Physalia physalis (portuguese man of war), Tubularia
Class 2: Scyphozoa or Scyphomedusae
 Habitat: exclusively marine
 Habit: solitary, freely swimming
 Medusa is dominant and it is Large bell or umbrella shaped
 Polyps is short lived or absent
 Mesogloea is usually cellular
 Examples: Aurelia aurita (Jelly fishe), Rhizostoma
Class 3: Anthozoa or Actinozoa
(Anthos: flower; zoios: animal “flower like animals”)
 Habitat: exclusively marine
 Habit: Solitary or colonial
 Medusa stage is absent
 Mesogloea contains fibrous connective tissue and amoeboid cells.
 Examples: Metridium (sea anemone), Telesto, Tubipora, Xenia

Corals and Coral reefs

Some cnidarians secrete certain chemical substance, which forms a protective covering around their body.
These are called corals. They are of different shape and size. Coral reefs are formed underwater near the
surface of the sea. These are usually present in warm water. Along the Australian eastern coast, these reefs are
found over hundreds of miles, which is called Great Barrier Reef.
Corals are brightly coloured. Red corals are used to make jewellery and other decorative items.
 Phylum-Ctenophora ( comb jellies)
# It contains only about 110 species.
# It includes a set of marine animals commonly called comb jellies or sea walnuts.
# These animals exhibit the characters of Coelenterata and platyhelminthes.
# The important Ctenophore animals are Pleurobachia ,Coeloplana, Ctenoplana, Velamen,
hemiphora,,Beroe,etc..

General Characteristics
1) Habits :-- They feed on plankton, swim by cilia. Power of regeneration is well marked. Bioluminescence (the
property of living organism to emit light) is well-marked in ctenophores.
2) Body Form:-- Body form is variable. They are transparent
3) Symmetry: -- Symmetry is biradial (radial + bilateral). The arrangement of comb plates gives the appearance
of radial symmetry; the tentacles and branching of gastro vascular canals are of bilateral type.
4) Germ Layers:-- They are diploblastic having ectoderm and endoderm.
5) Level of Organisation:-- Tissue level of organization is present.
6) Appendages:-- Tentacles may or may not be present. When present, they are two in number.
7) Body Wall:-- The body wall consists of outer epidermis, inner gastro-dermis and middle mesogloea (=
collenchyma). The mesogloea is different from that of cnidaria as it contains amoebocytes, elastic fibres
and muscle cells. From this reason ctenophores may be considered as “triploblastic”. Special adhesive
cells called colloblasts (= lasso cells), are present in the epidermis of tentacles which help in food capture.
 The ctenophores do not have nematocysts except Euchlora rubra. Euchlora rubra has
nematocyst on tentacles. It does not have coloblasts. The presence of nematocysts in this species is an
evidence of the cnidarian origin of the ctenophores.
8) Locomotion:-- Comb like eight ciliary plates called comb plates are present on the body. The cilia of these
plates help in swimming. Ctenophores are hence called comb Jellies.
9) Digestive Tract (= Gastro vascular tract):-- It consists of mouth, pharynx or stomodaeum, stomach or
infundibulum, anal canals and two anal pores. The stomach is highly branched to form a complex system
of gastro vascular canals. Since there are mouth and anal pores, the digestive tract is complete. Digestion
is both extracellular and intracellular.
10) Skeletal:-- Circulatory, respiratory and excretory systems are absent.
11) Nervous System:-- The nervous system is diffused as in cnidarians.
12) Sense Organ:-- The aboral end (opposite end of mouth) bears a sense organ, called statocyst for
equilibrium (balance).
13) Reproduction:-- They are monoecious (= hermaphrodite or bisexual). Fertilization is generally external.
Asexual reproduction is not present. Paedogenesis is common.
14) Development:-- The development is indirect with a ciliated sphencal cydippid larva.
Unique Features:
(i) Comb like ciliary plates for swimming,
(ii) Special adhesive cells, the colloblasts for capturing the prey,
(iii) Mesogloea with amoebocytes and smooth muscle cells,
(iv) Two anal pores.
Advancement over Cnidaria:
(i) Triploblastic origin of tissue,
(ii) Independent muscle cells,
(iii) Complete digestive tract,
(iv) Determinate Cleavage.

Classification of phylum Ctenophora:

The phylum ctenophora is divided into two classes: Tentaculata
and Nuda.
Class 1 Tentaculata:
They have tentacles and small stomodaeum. Examples: Hormiphora (The Sea Walnut), Pleurobrachia (The Sea
gooseberry). Ctenoplana, Cestum (The Venus’ Girdle).
Class 2 Nuda:
Their body is without tentacles. They has spaceous mouth and stomodaeum. Example: Beroe.
Pleurobrachia — The Sea gooseberry:
Pleurobrachia reproduces only sexually. Life history includes a cydippid larva. Power of regeneration is well
marked. The tentacles bear special adhesive cells, the lasso cells or colloblasts which help in food capture. The
broad end called aboral pole, contains the anal canals, anal pores and a sense organ, the statocyst. The animal
is hermaphrodite.
Phylum- Platyhelminthes( Flat worms)
1. Habitat: mostly parasitic, few are free living in sea water or fresh water
2. Grade of organization: Organ- system grade of organization
3. They are soft bodied, unsegmented worms
4. Symmetry: Bilateral symmetry and Body is dorso-ventrally flattened
5. Germ layer: Triploblastic. Ectoderm is very specialized with distinct epidermis
6. A true body cavity or coelome is absent, and the space between the body organs is filled with loose
parenchyma.
7. Digestive system: incomplete or absent
 No mouth (oral opening directly into pharynx).
 No true stomach structure (pharynx opens into a complex “intestinal” structure).
 Anus is absent.
 In tapeworms, Direct absorption of soluble nutrients by cells and tissues.
8. Excretory system: consists of flame bulbs or flame cells or protonephridia connected to the excretory
ducts.
9. Respiration: by simple diffusion of gases through body surface
10. Circulatory system: Absent
 11. Reproduction:-- Sexual: by gamatic fusion in hermaphrodite species
Asexual : by regeneration and fission

Phylum- Nemathelminthes or Aschelminthes or Nematodes (Thread / Round worm)

# Over 25,000 have been described, of which more than half are parasitic,

It is a phylum of unsegmented, triploblastic, pseudocoelomic, cylindrical or thread-like worms which are

covered by a body wall having cuticle and epidermis.

1) Nematods are found everywhere in fresh water, sea water, soil humus-rich soil.

2) Many as a parasite and cause health problems.

3) Animal of this phylum are Cylindrical, tapering at both end without segmentation.

4) Anterior end does not show distinct head.

5) Body wall consist of -----------

(a) Cuticle - Firm, non living, resistant to digestive enzymes of host.

(b) Epidermis - Without cilia. Syncytial i.e., a continuous layer of cytoplasm having scattered nuclei.

(c) Muscle layer: Longitudinal fiber divided into four quadrants.

6) Body cavity is there between body wall and digestive tract which is not lined by mesothelium i.e. Pseudocoel
(developed from blastocoel) and contain Pseudocoelomic fluid.

7) Skeleton is not mineralized. High fluid pressure in the pseudocoelom maintains body shape. It is called
Hydroskeleton. Digestive tract is complete and differentiated into mouth, pharynx, intestine & anus

.
8) Respiration is through body surface by diffusion.

9) Circulatory system is undeveloped

10) Nervous system comprises of circum pharyngeal ring (Brain). Sense organs like Papillae (Tango
receptors- touch and pressure), Aphids (chemoreceptor) are present on lip.

11) Excretory system is H-shape consists of gland cells or intracellular canal or Protonephridia (Renette cell).

12) Excretory matter is ammonia.

13) Reproduction system is developed and sexes are generally separate.

14) Male is smaller than female and curved from its caudal end.

15) Male has Penial spiculas for copulation. Genital tract joins digestive track to form cloaca.

16) Fertilization is internal and development is mostly direct.

Nematoda has been classified into two classes on the basis of specialized sense organ, caudal receptor &
excretory system. ----1) Class- Phasmidia 2) Class- Aphasmidia

 Ascaris - Intestinal round worm (in small intestine) larva - Rhabditiform/Rhabditoid

  Wuchereria - Filarial worm (in Lymph vessels /gland) by female culex mosquito.

 Loa-loa - Eye worm (African eye worm )

Phylum- Annelida ( from Latin anellus = "little ring")

# The word Annelida

was first coined by
Lamarck.

# This phylum includes

elongated worm like
earthworms, nereis
leeches etc.

# The annelids are

distributed all over the
world. Nearly 7,000
species are known
today. Many of the
annelids are marine but
some are terrestrial.

1. The body is elongated and bilaterally symmetrical. Cephaiization is seen. They show metameric
segmentation.
2. The body shows segments or metameres, which are arranged one after the other in a linear order.
3. Cuticle is the outer covering of the body. It is secreted by the epidermis.
4. The body wall is dermo-muscular Body wall consist of –--------
(a) Cuticle - Thin moist albuminoid cutical allow free exchange of gas.
(b) Epidermis - Single layered epidermis made up of supporting cell, sensory and glandular cell.
(c) Muscle layer - (a) Circular layer, (b) Longitudinal layer. Muscles are smooth/unstrained.
Body wall may have minute chitinous setae.

5. The locomotary organs are groups of chitinous setae or chaetae, embedded in setigerous sacs.
6. The body is triploblastic with Ectoderms , Mesoderm and Endoderm layers.
7. Annelids are true coelomate animals. Coelome is a spacious cavity, except in leeches in which it is filled with
botryoidal tissue.
8. The alimentary canal is a straight tube starting with mouth at the anterior end, and ends with anus, at the
posterior end of the body.
9. Digestion is extracellular. The respiration is through general body surface by diffusion. Some have gills
(branchial respiration).

10. The blood-vascular system is well developed and closed type.

11. The blood is red coloured fluid with haemoglobin dissolved in plasma.

12. The excretory system consists of the nephridia, which are segmentally arranged.

Excretory matter (a) Ammonia - in aquatic form (2) Urea - in land form
13. The nervous system consists of nerve ring around the pharynx and doubly ventral nerve cord is seen
extending the entire length of the body.
14. Asexual reproduction is seen in many species.
15. In hermaphrodite (male + female) animals the development is direct.e.g. Oligochaeta, Hirudinea.
In unisexual animals the development is indirect with " trochophore " larva.e.g. Polychaeta, Archiannelida.
 Phylum- ARTHROPODA (means jointed legs)
# Aristotle described crabs and some decapods. He grouped them as malacostraca in insecta.
# These animals are meteorically segmented, coelomate and triploblastic.
# It is the largest phylum of Animal kingdom. About 9,00,000 species are there.

1. These animals are multicellular triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical animals.

2. Body is segmented. Segments are limited. Segmentation More obvious in larval forms, adults have fused
segments -----> Head | Thorax | Abdomen
Some have a fused head and thorax -- the cephalothorax
Each segment bears a pair of appendages. They are jointed.
3. The body is covered by exoskeleton. It is made by chitin. The exoskeleton project inside. The projections are
useful for muscle attachment.
4. The exoskeleton is cast off periodically and new one is secreted. It is called ecdysis.
5. Tubular dorsal heart is present.
6. True coelom is greatly reduced. It is represented only by the cavities of the reproductive and excretory organs.
7. The blood is colorless.
8. Circulatory system is open type or lacunar type.
9. The nervous system shows nerve ring and double ventral nerve cord.

10. Nephridia are absent. Excretion is by malphighian tubules, green glands and coxal glands.
11. Antennules are present in some arthropods.
12. Striated muscles are present segmentary.
13. Compound eyes are present.
14. Cilia and flagella are entirely absent.
15. These are gills or book gills in aquatic forms and tracheae or book-lungs in terrestrial forms.
16. Sexes are separate, sexual dimorphism is seen. Gonads and their ducts are paired.
17. Fertilization is usually internal. They are mostly oviparous. Development may be direct or indirect. In indirect
development there is metamorphosis.

18. Parthenogenesis - Development of an egg (ovum) into a complete individual without fertilization by a sperm
is called parthenogensis. Male honey bees (drones) are formed by parthenogenesis.

Limulus (The king Crab or Horse-shoe crab):

The king crab continues to remain unchanged for the past about 190 million years. It is, therefore,
also called “living fossil”. Excretion takes place through four pairs of coxal glands. Respiratory
organs are book gills.
 Phylum - Mollusca (soft bodied and shelled)
Second largest animal phylum

(1) They have a bilateral symmetry, but snails are asymmetrical

(2) They are triploblastic, coelomate and have organ system grade of organization.

(3) The body is soft and non-segmented.

(4) The soft body is covered by a fleshy fold of the body wall. It is called mantle.

(5) The molluscs are provided with one or two calcareous shells.

(6) Respiration is carried out by the gills or pulmonary chambers.

(7) The digestive system is well developed.The radula is an anatomical structure that is used by mollusca for
feeding, sometimes compared to a tongue . It is a minutely toothed which is typically used for scraping or
cutting food before the food enters the esophagus

(8) The circulatory system is of an open type.Haemocyanin present.

(9) The organs of Bojanus or Bojanus organs are excretory glands that serve the function of kidneys

(10) The nervous system is well developed.

(11) The sensory organs are eyes, statocysts (balance) and osphradia( measurement of water chemical nature)
(12) Sexes are separate in them, or they are hermaphrodites.
 Phylum - Echinodermata (spiny skin)
1.Habitat :-- All existing echinoderms are marine. They generally live at sea bottom borne are pelagic (free
swimming in open water) and a few are sessile (attached to the substratum).
2. Body Form :--It varies considerably. The body is star-shaped, spherical or cylindrical. It is un-segmented. The
body lacks head.
3. Spines and Pedicellariae :-- Many echinoderms bear spines and pincer-like pedicellariae. The spines are
protective in function. The pedicellariae keep the body surface clear of debris and minute organisms.
4. Symmetry :-- The symmetry is bilateral in larvae but pentamerous radial in adults i. e., body parts are
arranged in fives or multiples of five.
5. Body Wall :-- Epidermis is single layered and ciliated. In many echinoderms there is endoskeleton of
calcareous plates in the dermis which are mesodermal in origin.
6. Ambulacral System (= Water Vascular System) :-- Presence of ambulacral system is the characteristic
feature of phylum echinodermata. A perforated plate called madreporite is present in this system. The pores
of the madreporite allow water into the system Tube teet of this system help in locomotion, capture of food
and respiration. Water vascular system is of coelomic origin.
7. Digestive Tract :-- It is usually complete. Brittle stars have incomplete digestive tract.
8. Haemal and Perihaemal Systems :-- Instead of blood vascular system, there are present haemal and
perihaemal systems which are of coelome ongin.Thus the so called circulatory system is open type and
includes haemal and perihaemal systems. The so blood is often without a respiratory pigment. There is no
heart.
9. Respiratory Organs :-- Gaseous exchange occurs by dermal branchae or papulae in star fishes peristominal
gills in sea urchins, genital bursae in brittle stars, and cloac respiratory ‘trees in holothnrians. Exchange of
gases also takes place through tnbe feet.
10. Excretory Organs :-- Specialized excretory organs are absent. Nitrogenous wastes are diffused out via gills.
Ammonia is chief excretory matter.
11. Nervous System :-- It consists of a nerve ring and radial nerve cords. Brain as such is absent.
12. Sexes and Fertilization :-- Except a few individuals, the sexes are separate. There is no sexual
dimorphism. Fertilization is usually external.
13. Development :-- The development is indirect and includes a ciliated, bilaterally symmetrical larva that
undergoes metamorphosis to change into the radially symmetrical adult. Different larval forms are found
which are mentioned in the classes of Echinodermata.

TARUN SIR M- 9153668079 / 7679598996

 Phylum – Hemichordata (Hemi = half and Chorda = chord.)

1. Solitary and colonial, mostly tubicolous, exclusively marine.

2. Body soft, fragile, vermiform and divisible into proboscis, collar and trunk.

3. Body wall with a single-layered epidermis.

4. Coelom enterocoelous, divisible into protocoel, mesocoel and metacoel.

5. Buccal diverticulum, earlier considered as notochord, present in the proboscis.

6. Digestive tract complete; in the form of straight or U-shaped tube.

7. Gill-slits, when present, are paired and one to numerous.

8. Circulatory system simple and well developed; closed type; usually with a contractile heart vesicle and two

longitudinal vessels, one dorsal and one ventral, interconnected by lateral vessels and sinuses.

9. Excretion by a single glomerulus situated in the proboscis.

10. Nervous system primitive comprising mainly of an intra-epidermal nerve plexus.

11. Reproduction mostly sexual. Sexes separate or united. Gonads one to several pairs.

12. Fertilization external. Development mostly indirect through a free swimming tornaria larva. Direct

development is also found in some forms.

 Phylum- Chordata

These characteristics are only present during embryonic development in some chordates.

1) The notochord provides skeletal support, gives the phylum its name, and develops into the vertebral
column in vertebrates.
2) The dorsal hollow nerve cord develops into the central nervous system: the brain and spine.
3) Pharyngeal slits are openings in the pharynx that develop into gill arches in bony fish and into the jaw and
inner ear in terrestrial animals.
4) The post-anal tail is a skeletal extension of the posterior end of the body, being absent in humans and apes,
although present during embryonic development.

Other features of chordates include:

5) Bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, coelomic and segmented body.

6) The body design is complex and well-differentiated.
7) The body has organ system level of organization.
Key Terms

Notochord : A flexible rodlike structure that forms the main support of the body in the lowest chordates; a
primitive spine. The notochord, however, is replaced by the vertebral column (spine) in most adult
vertebrates.
 Nerve cord : A dorsal tubular cord of nervous tissue above the notochord of a chordate. The nerve cord
found in most chordate embryos develops into the brain and spinal cord, which comprise the central nervous
system.

Pharyngeal slit : Filter-feeding organs found in non-vertebrate chordates (lancelets and tunicates) and
hemichordates living in aquatic environments. Some invertebrate chordates use the pharyngeal slits to
filter food out of the water that enters the mouth. In vertebrate fishes, the pharyngeal slits develop into
gill arches, the bony or cartilaginous gill supports.

In most terrestrial animals, including mammals and birds, pharyngeal slits are present only during
embryonic development. In these animals, the pharyngeal slits develop into the jaw and inner ear
bones.

Post-anal Tail : The post-anal tail is a posterior elongation of the body, extending beyond the
anus. The tail contains skeletal elements and muscles, which provide a source of locomotion in
aquatic species. In some terrestrial vertebrates, the tail also helps with balance, courting, and
signaling when danger is near. In humans and other apes, the post-anal tail is present during
embryonic development, but is vestigial as an adult.

They have about 45,000 species. Phylum chordata have 3 sub phylums.

Sub-Phylum 1. Urochordata / Tunicata (Gr. Uros- tail + chordata = notochord):

(i) Adults are generally sedentary (fixed to substratum),

(ii) This sub-phylum is also called Tunicata because the adult body is enclosed within a leathery test or tunic

formed of a cellulose-like organic substance termed tunicin.

(iii) The notochord is only present in the tail of the larva and disappears in the adult,

(iv) The dorsal tubular nerve cord is found in the larva. It is replaced by a dorsal ganglion in the adult,

(v) The pharynx is perforated by numerous apertures called stigmata formed by the larval gill slits.
Example -- Ascidia, Ciona, Doliolum, Salpa
Sub-Phylum 2. Cephalochordata (Gr. cephalos- head + chordata = notochord):

(i) Both the adult and larva are motile,

(ii) The persistent notochord extends forward beyond the brain. Hence these are called cephalochordates.

(iii) The notochord persists throughout life,

(iv) Pharyngeal gill slits are more numerous and are better developed.

(v) The tail is present throughout life,

Example – Amphioxus , Branchiostoma.

Sub-Phylum 3. Vertebrate or Craniata:

(1) These are advanced chordates that have cranium (brain box) around brain.

(2) Notochord is only present in the embryonic stage; it is replaced by a cartilaginous or bony vertebral

column in the adult forms.

(3) There is very high degree of cephalization (formation of head).

(4) The epidermis consists of many layers of cells. Epidermis may bear an exoskeleton of scales, feathers or

hair.

(5) Three types of muscles, striped, un-striped and cardiac, are present.

(6) Heart is ventrally situated with two, three or four chambers. There is present hepatic portal system.

(7) There is closed circulatory system consisting of blood vascular and lymphatic systems. RBCs are present.
(8) Nervous system consists of central nervous system (brain and spinal cord), peripheral nervous system

(cranial and spinal nerves) and autonomic nervous system (sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems).
Example -- Bony fishes , Frogs, Snakes , Mammals etc

Class Cyclostomata : They are ectoparasites [lives on the outside of its host] on some fishes.Cyclostomes
have a sucking and circular mouth without jaws.
Examples: Petromyzon (Lamprey) and Myxine (Hagfish).
Class Chondrichthyes: They are fishlike. The jaws are present. They have paired appendages and
cartilaginous skeleton. They have no swim bladder. Examples: Skates, rays, sharks.
Class Osteichthyes: They have bony skeleton. They swim bladder and operculum is present. Example:
Bony fishes
Class Amphibia: Their skin produces mucous. They possess lungs or gills. They have moist skin. Skin acts as
respiratory organ. There are aquatic developmental stages in them. Larva is changed by metamorphosis
into adult. Example: Frogs, toads, salamanders.
Class Reptilia: They have dry skin with epidermal scales. They have amniotic eggs. The y have terrestrial
embryonic development. Example: Snakes, lizards, alligators.
Class Aves: They possess feathers. They efficiently regulate body temperature (endothermic). They have
amniotic eggs. Example: All birds.
Class Mammalia: Their bodies are partially covered by hair. They are endothermic. The young are nursed by
mammary glands. They have amniotic eggs. Mammals

Super class – Agnathostomata (are jawless vertebrates )

Class - Cyclostomata (Gr., cyclos = circular, stoma = mouth)

The cyclostomes are marine or fresh-water vertebrates. ( lampreys and hag fishes) . Ectoparasite on some
fishes or scavengers (feeds on dead animal and plant material )
Characters: --------

1) The body is long, eel like. It shows trunk and compressed tail.

2) Paired fins are absent. Median fin is supported by cartilaginous fin-rays.

3) The skin is soft and smooth. It is slimy. It as scale less.

4) The mouth is circular. It works like a sucker. It is surrounded by tentacles.

5) Endoskeleton is cartilaginous.

6) Vertebrae are represented by neural arches, around the notochord.

7) Five to sixteen pairs of gills are present in sac like pouches

8) The heart is two chambered. Sinus venousus ( a large quadrangular cavity which precedes the atrium on
the venous side of the chordate heart ) is present , but conus arteriosus is absent.

9) Blood contains leucocytes and Irregular nucleated erythrocytes.

10) Ten pairs or less number of cranial nerves are present.

11) Nasal sac is single and median.

12) Lateral line sense organ is present.

13) Sexes are separate.

Different Types of Scales

placoid scales - are the tiny tough scales that cover the skin of sharks, rays, and other elasmobranchs
grow out of the dermis, with the flat rectangular base plate .
Ctenoid (toothed) scales - are like cycloid scales, with small teeth along their outer edges. They are
usually found on fishes with spiny fin rays, such as the perch-like fishes.

Cycloid (circular) scales - have a smooth texture and are uniform, with a smooth outer edge or margin.
They are most common on fish with soft fin rays, such as salmon and carp.

Ganoid scales - are found in the sturgeons, paddlefishes, gars, bowfin, and bichirs. They are derived from
cosmoid scales, with a layer of dentine in the place of cosmine, and a layer of inorganic bone salt.
Superclass – Gnathostomata have 6 classes ------------ 1) Chondrichthyes 2) Osteichthyes

3) Amphibia 4) Reptilia 5) Aves 6) Mammalia

Class - Chondrichthyes Class - Osteichthyes

1. The mouth is ventral in position. 1. The mouth is apical in position.

2. The body is covered with minute and 2. The body is covered with cycloid or ctenoid or
microscopic placoid scales, the skin is tough. ganoid scales. The skin is soft. Complete
absence of scales in cat fish group.
3. Paired pelvic fins are provided with claspers
(intromittent organs used to channel semen into 3. Claspers are absent.
the female's cloaca ) in males.
4. The tail is heterocercal( upper lobe larger 4. The tail is homocercal,
than the lower )
5. Gill slits, usually five pairs, open separately 5. Gill slits, usually four pairs, open in a gill
and directly to the exterior. chamber

6. Operculum always absent. 6. Operculum with branchiostegal membrane

always present.

7. A spiracle usually present. 7. A spiracle is absent.

8. The endoskeleton is cartilaginous, with 8. The endoskeleton is bony with amphicoelous

amphicoelous vertebrae. vertebrae.

9. A conus arteriosus is present. Aortic arches 9. A conus arteriosus is absent. Aortic arches
five pairs. four pairs.

10. A spiral or scroll valve is present in the 10. A spiral valve in the intestine is absent.
intestine.
11. Cloaca absent.
11. Cloaca present.
12. An air bladder is absent 12. An air bladder is usually present

Class - Chondrichtyes (Cartilaginous Fishes)

1) The fishes of this class bear cartilaginous endoskeleton. They are cold blooded (poikilothermous or
ectothermic). There are about 600 species of cartilaginous fishes.

2) The skin is tough, containing minute placoid scales, which are dermal in origin.
3) Except in the Chimaeras, the gills are not covered by an operculum (gill cover).

4) Jaws are well developed. Mouth is ventrally placed. A spiral valve called scroll valve is usually present in
the intestine. The digestive tract leads into the cloaca.

5) External nares are present on ventral side of the head. The internal nares are absent.

6) Paired fins are broad. The caudal fin is mostly heterocercal -asymmetrical (Gr.heteros- different).

7) Heart is two chambered (one auricle and one ventricle). Heart has a well developed sinus venosus; and
conus arteriosus. There is well developed renal portal systems RBCs are oval and nucleated.

8) Kidneys are mesonephric. Urea is chief nitrogenous waste.

9) The brain bears large olfactory lobes and a large cerebellum.

10) There are 10 pairs of cranial nerves.

11) Lateral line system is well developed.

12) Lung or air bladder is absent in these fishes.

13) They have internal ears which help the fish keep its balance. The nictitating membrane in the eye of fish is
well developed.

14) Some of them are electric organ (e.g. Torpedo) and some possess poison sting (e.g.Trygon).

15) They have cloaca. In males, pelvic fins may bear 1 or 2 claspers which are used in copulation. The oviducts
in cartilaginous fishes are called Mullerian ducts. The fertilization is internal. They are oviparous or
ovoviviparous (eggs hatch in mother’s genital tract) Development is direct.

16. Most of the cartilaginous fishes are marine and most of them are predators.

Examples:

Scoliodon, Torpedo, Trygon and Chimaera. Rhinobatus (guitar fish) Pnstis, Zygaena, Carcharodon (Great White
Shark).
 Class - Osteichthyes (Bony Fishes)
1) The endoskeleton is cartilaginous in the embryonic stage, but in the adult forms more or less it is replaced by
bones. Thus they have bony endoskeleton. They are ectothermic (cold blooded). There are about 25,000
species of bony fishes.
2) Caudal fin usually homocercal symmetrical (Gr. homos- alike).

3) The exoskeleton, if present comprises cycloid, ctenoid or ganoid scales, which are dermal in origin.
4) The mouth is terminal. Digestive tract leads into an anus. Cloaca is absent in bony fishes.
5) External nares lie on the dorsal surface of the snout. In lung fishes internal nares are also present.

6) Bony fishes have a sac-like outgrowth, the swim bladder (also called air bladder), arising from the dorsal wall
of the oesophagus, which is air-filled organ, used to maintain balance and to swim up and down. In some
fishes, such as Heteropneustes, it helps in respiration.
7) They have 4 pairs of gills which are covered by an operculum on each side.
8) The heart is 2-chambered (one auricle and one ventricle) and also has sinus venosus and conus arteriosus.
Lung fishes have three chambered heart. (Two auricles and one ventricle). Bony fishes have well developed
renal portal system. RBCs are oval and nucleated.
9) Kidneys are mesonephric. Ammonia is chief nitrogenous waste.

10) There are present 10 pairs of cranial nerves.

1) Lateral line system is well developed.
12) They have internal ears which helps the fish keep its balance. The nictitating membrane in the eye of fish
is well developed.
13) Fertilization is generally external. Most forms are oviparous, some are ovoviviparous. Development is direct
except in Anguilla where development is indirect with a larva lepto- cephalus. Some bony fishes show parental
care.
Examples: Marine Fishes — Exocoetus, Hippocampus, Solea, Echeneis (Sucker fish), Lophius (Angler fish).

Fresh Water Fishes — Labeo, Catla, Clarias (Magur), Anguilla, Anabas, Mystus,
 Class – Amphibia
Amphibians are cold blooded vertebrates. In the Devonian period of palaeozoic era they were originated from
fishes, in the carboniferous period, they increased their number, hence that period is called ‘Age of amphibians’

According to Romer Dipnoi fishes are the “uncles of Amphibians” According to Newman “Dipnoi and
amphibians had same grand father.”

General characters of Amphibians

1) They are the first cold blooded vertebrates from evolution point of view which came to the land. Class
Amphibian includes about 3,000 species.
2) They are amphibious in nature, viz. they can live on land as well as in water. They are mostly found in warm
countries. They are ectothermic (cold blooded).
3) Body is divisible into head and trunk. Tail may be present in some amphibians.
4) The skin is smooth or rough having glands which keep it moist.
5) They are usually without scales, but if present they are hidden beneath the skin (e.g caecilians).
6) Paired fins are absent. Unpaired fins may be present. Two pairs of limbs are used for locomotion except
caecilions.
7) The gills are present at least in the larval stage; some adult forms also carry external gills in addition to
lungs (e.g., Necturus, Proteus).
8) Skull is dicondylic, i.e., with two occipital condyles for articulation with vertebral column.
9) The respiratory organs are lungs, buccopharyngeal cavity, skin and gills.
10) The heart is three chambered, having two auricles and one ventricle. In the heart, there are present sinus
venosus and truncus arteriosus. Both hepatic portal and renal portal systems are well developed. RBCs are
biconvex, oval and nucleated.

11) Kidneys are mesonephric. Urinary bladder is present in frog. Larvae and tailed amphibians (e.g.,
salamanders) are ammonotelic. Frogs and toads are ureotelic.
12) Alimentary canal, urinary and reproductive tracts open into a common chamber called cloaca which opens
outside through cloacal aperture.
13) Ear consists of internal and middle ear. Tympanum (outer membrane) covers the middle ear. The eyes have
eyelids. Nictitating membrane is well developed.
14) Ten pairs of cranial nerves are present.
15) Fertilisation is external. However in Salamander and Ichthyophis (blind worm) fertilisation is internal. They
are mostly oviparous; however, Salamandra is viviparous. Development is mostly indirect.
e.g.- Necturus — Mud Puppy, Water Dog ; Hyla Arborea (Tree Frog) ; Rhacophorus (Flying
Frog) ; Bufo Melanostictus (Indian Toad)

Classifications of Living Amphibians

Living Amphibians are divided into three orders:

Order 1. Apoda (Gymnophiona or Caecilia): Limbless, scales present, e.g., Uraeotyphlus, Ichthyophis. They
are called “blind worms” or caecilians.
Order 2. Urodela (Caudata): Tail present, e.g., Necturus (Mud puppy), Amphiuma (Congo-eel), Salamandra,
Proteus, Siren (Mud-eel), Ambystoma, Triturus (newt), Tylototrition (crocodile newt).

Order 3: Anura (Salientia): Without tail, e.g., Rana (Common frog), Rhacophorus, Bufo, Hyla, Alytes, Xenopus
(African toad), Pipa.
 Class - Reptilia (The Creeping Vertebrates)
In the Mesozoic era “Reptiles” dominated the entire world and that era is called ‘GOLDEN AGE OF REPTILES”.
In the Mesozoic era giant dinosaurs dominated the earth. In the late cretaceous
period of Mesozoic era they became extinct.
In the present day world nearly 5,000 known species of reptiles are living. Reptiles are poikiothermic
vertebrates. They are first true land vertebrate’s. They are the first amniotic group of vertebrate animals.
The Present day reptiles are sphenodon, lizards, snakes, turtles and crocodiles.

GENERAL CHARACTERS : --

1. Reptiles are the creeping and burrowing cold blooded vertebrates bearing epidermal scales. They are
ectothermic (cold-blooded) and are found mostly in the warmer parts of the world. They are few in colder parts.
They are mostly terrestrial animals. There are about 6,000 living species of reptiles in the world.

2) Skin is dry, rough and without glands, bearing epidermal scales or scutes.

3) Snakes and lizards shed their scales as skin cast.

4) They do not respire by means of gills. Respiration always takes place through lungs. Ribs help to expand
and contract the body cavity, making the lung respiration more efficient than in amphibian.

5) Skull is monocondylic, i.e., with single occipital condyle.

6) Except in snakes, there are two pairs of pentadactyl limbs, each with 5 digits bearing claws— tetrapodus
pentadactyl type.

7) Heart consists of two auricles and a partially divided ventricle. In crocodilians, heart is four chambered (two
auricles and two ventricles). Renal portal system is less developed. RBCs are nucleated.

8) Kidneys are metanephric. Urinary bladder may be present. Crocodiles are ammonotelic. Turtles and alligators
are ureotelic. Lizards and snakes are uricotelic.

9) Twelve pairs of cranial nerves are present.

10) Each ear consists of three parts; external, middle and internal. Snakes do not possess ears.

11) The lateral line system is altogether absent.

12) Tortoises feed almost entirely on vegetation. Some turtles are flesh eaters. All other reptiles are
carnivorous/insectivorous.

13) A typical cloaca is present.

14) They are mostly oviparous. Reptiles lay macrolecithal eggs (= polylecithal eggs). Some forms are
ovoviviparous or viviparous. Embryonic membranes (chorion, amnion, allantois and yolk sac) are formed
during development.
Living Reptiles are divided in to following Subclass:
1. Anapsida : -- Skull has a solid bony roof, no temporal vacuities. It includes only single living order chelonia e.g.,
Che lone (turtle), Testudo (Tortoise), Trionyx (Terrapin)—soft shelled turtle of Indian rivers. Sub class
2. Diapsida :-- Skull has two temporal vacuities. It includes three living orders ------
Order 1. Rhynchocephalia e.g., Sphenodon (Tuatara)—a living fossil.

Order 2. Squamata It includes two suborders:

(i) Suborder Lacertilia (Sauria) e.g., Lizards, such as Chameleon (Tree lizard), Calotes (Garden lizard),
Hemidactylus (wall lizard),
(ii) Suborder Ophidia e.g., snakes, such as Naja (Cobra), Bungarus (Krait), Vipera (Viper).

Order 3. Crocodilia e. g., Crocodilus (Crocodile), Alligator, Gavialis (“Gharial”). They have
(i) the codont teeth,
(ii) Lungs in pleural cavities,
(iii) a muscular diaphragm, analogous to that of mammals and
(iv) 4-chambered heart.

Four features make reptiles true land animals:------------

(i) Internal fertilization,
(ii) The amnion (embryonic membrane) encloses the embryo and provides it with a watery environment during
development, therefore, embryo does not need watery environment
(iii) Shell around egg to check desiccation, and
 (iv) Horny scales on body of reptiles check loss of water.

TARUN SIR M- 9153668079 / 7679598996

Difference Between Poisonous and Non Poisonous Snakes

Poisonous Snakes
1) All poisonous snakes are generally brightly coloured
2) Venomous snakes have a very distinctive head,looks like hand or triangular and side portion is wide.
3) Cobra group of snakes are Highly Venomous
4) Venomous snakes has heat sensitive pit
5) All sea snakes are Highly Poisonous
6) Poisonous snakes Family- Elapidae,Colubridae and Viperidae

Highly Venomous snakes in India– King Cobra,Indian Cobra,Russell’s Viper,Saw Scaled Viper,Malabar pit
viper and Krait.

Non Poisonous Snakes

1) Non Poisonous Snakes are not brightly coloured
2) Non Poisonous Snake head is usually narrow and elongated
3) Usually Nonvenomous snake do not have Fangs but few snakes do have Fangs
4) Pythons are Non Venomous but equipped with rows of teeth
Common non Poisonous Snakes in India– Rat snake,Banded kukri,Bronze back tree snake,Sand boa and
Indian Python

Snake Venom
Snake venom is a clear, transparent, pale yellow or straw-coloured fluid. The pH of the venom varies in
different species, e.g., Russell’s viper’s pH is 5.8 and that of cobra venom is 6.6. It is protein in nature
containing many enzymes, viz., Proteinase, Hyaluronidase, L-Arginine hydrolases, Transaminase, L-Amino acid
oxidase, Phospholipase-A, B and C, Phosphodiesterase, Cholinesterase, Ribonuclease, Deoxyribonuclease,
Alkaline phosphatase, Acid phosphatase, Exopeptidases, etc.

Use of Venom:--
Snake venoms are used for treatment of various diseases like epilepsy, asthma, arthritis, chronic nervous and
muscular pain, neuritis, neuralgia, migraine and pain for cancer. Russell viper’s venom can be used as haemo-
static agent.
To stop the internal bleeding venom’s dilution can be used. In homeopathy rattle snakes venom is used
to cure various diseases like lumbago, sciatica, coccygodynia, laryngitis, pleurisy and insomia, etc.

Types of Snake Venom:

a. Neurotoxic:-- The venom effects mainly on nervous system. Ultimately the respiration ceases due to
failure of nervous system and death occurs. This type of venom occurs in cobras, kraits,
mambas and coral snakes.
b. Haemo-toxic:-- The venom acts on blood vascular system. Damage is seen to the lining of blood vessels
causing hemorrhages. RBC is destroyed causing haemolysis. Clotting of blood occurs, e.g.,
vipers, and rattle snakes.
c. Myo-toxic:-- The venom effects on muscles. This type of venom is seen in sea snakes.

Anti-Snake Venom Serum

A mixture of venom of four common poisonous snakes (Cobra, Naja naja; Common Krait, Bungarus caeruleus;
Russel’s viper, Vipera russelli and Saw scaled viper, Echis carinatus) is injected into horse’s body and increases
its doses gradually. When the horse acquires a certain level of immunity, the plasma is collected by drawing blood
from the body. After collection, 10 ml doses are packed.

Class – Aves (BIRDS)

Birds are bipedal vertebrates. Birds are adopted for aerial mode of life. Hence the body shows many
modifications for aerial mode of life.
The science which deals with birds is called ornithology. Birds and reptiles are grouped together in
“sauropsida” group.
The present day living birds are represented by 8, 590 species. They are aerial, terrestrial and aquatic.

CHARACTERS: -----
1) Birds are bipedal, feathered and warm blooded (homothermous) animals i.e., they are able to maintain a
constant body temperature. Their fore-limbs are modified into wings. Most of them can fly except flightless
birds (e.g., Ostrich).
2) The hind-limbs are adapted for perching, walking or swimming, etc., and usually bear four, sometimes three
and rarely two toes.
3) Gland (preen gland or oil gland), at the base of the tail, no skin gland is present. Ostrich and parrot lack oil
gland.
4) The alimentary canal has additional chambers, the crop and gizzard. The crop stores and softens the food;
however, the gizzard helps in crushing and churning the food. There is a cloacal aperture. Gall bladder is
absent in some seed-eating birds (graminivorous) such as pigeons.

5) The upper and lower jaws are modified into beak, which lacks teeth. Beaks are adapted to many ways of
feeding; seed-crushing, fruit-scooping, flesh-tearing, nector-sip- ping, wood-chiseling and so on.
6) Legs are modified for walking, hopping, grasping, perching, wading and swimming. Legs bear homy epidermal
scales
7) In birds Respiratory system is well developed. The
lungs are spongy. They are non distensible sacs
around the lungs. Nine air sacs are present. They
are useful for make body light. The larynx does not
act as a voice box. Voice is produced by a special
organ, the syrinx (the vocal organ located at the
base of a bird's trachea )
8) The heart is four-chambered. Sinus venosus is absent.
Renal portal system is very much reduced. Red blood
corpuscles are nucleated, oval and biconvex.
9) The kidneys are metanephric which drain the nitrogenous
waste matter (chiefly uric acid) into cloaca through the ureters
10) Brain is better developed than that of reptiles of which cerebrum, cerebellum and optic lobes are quite large.
11) Birds have 12 pairs of cranial nerves.
12) Birds have a keen sense of sight but poor sense of smell but kiwi has good sense of smell. Pecten ( non-
sensory, pigmented structure that projects into the vitreous body from the point where the optic nerve enters the
eyeball) is present in the eyes of birds.
13) Endoskeleton is fully ossified (bony) and the long bones are hollow with air cavities (pneumatic) to reduce
weight. There is no bone marrow. One occipital condyle present. Sternum with a median keel for the
attachment of flight muscles.
14) Many birds show sexual dimorphism. All birds are oviparous. Like reptiles birds lay eggs which are
macrolecithal and calcareous.

Flight Adaptations in Class Aves:

1. Spindle-Shaped Body: It is designed to offer minimum resistance to the wind.
2. Feathers: They provide the passage for air and reduce friction to minimum. They also prevent loss of heat and
help to maintain a constant temperature.
3. Wings: Fore-limbs are modified into wings, which help during flight.
4. Beak: Besides procurement of food, the beak is also used for nest-building.
5. Neck and Head: Mobile neck and head are very useful for feeding, nest building, offence and defense.
6. Flight Muscles: The flight muscles on the breast are greatly developed which help in flight.
7. Hind Limbs (Legs): They are well suited for perching.
8. Endoskeleton:Most of bones are pneumatic and filled with air instead of bone marrow. It makes the body light.
Most of bones are firmly fused together, which help in flight.
9. Air Sacs: These are attached to lungs which serve as reservoirs of air. They may also aid as cooling devices
in regulation of the temperature of the body.
10. Warm-Bloodedness: Birds are warm-blooded animals which is necessary for flight.
11. Circulatory System: A large oxygen supply is required for rapid metabolism and warm-bloodedness. It is
done by an efficient circulatory system.
12. Absence of Urinary Bladder: Except Rhea, urinary bladder is absent in birds. Excreta are passed out at
once. This helps in reducing the weight of the body.
13. Brain and Eyes: Brain and eyes are well developed. Equilibrium is maintained by well developed cerebellum
of the brain.
14. Single Ovary: Presence of a single functional ovary on the left side in the female bird also leads to reduction
of weight which is so essential for flight.
Class – Mammalia
In the coenozoic era these animals increased their number and became very complex. This era is
called 'age of mammals'. Today nearly 5416 species of mammals are living in the world.

General Characteristics : -----

1. These animals are warm blooded, hairy and have mammary or milk producing glands, (mammary glands).

They are the only animals which nourish their young ones with milk.

2. They are homoiothermous (warm blooded).

3. Oil glands (sebaceous glands) and sweat glands (sudoriferous glands) are present in the skin.

4. Teeth are of different types (heterodont) and are embedded in the sockets of jaws (the codont). These are

developed twice during the life-time of the animal (diphyodont), milk and permanent teeth.

5. Except a few, mammals possess seven cervical (neck) vertebrae.

6. The skull is dicondylic i.e., with two occipital condyles.

7. Respiration is by lungs.

8. They possess a muscular diaphragm dividing trunk into thorax and abdomen.

9. The coelom is divided into four cavities; a pericardial cavity lodging the heart, two pleural cavities each

containing the lung and an adominal cavity having the rest of viscera.

10. The heart is four chambered. Sinus venosus is absent. The red blood corpuscles are without nucleus. Renal

portal system is absent.

11. The brain has large cerebrum and cerebellum. Optic lobes are divided into four lobes called corpora

quadrigemina. Corpus callosum connects the two cerebral hemispheres internally.

12. 12 pairs of cranial nerves are present.

13. Each ear consists of three parts: external, middle and internal. Pinna is a part of external ear. Middle ear has

3 bony ear ossicles (malleus— hammer shaped, incus-anvil shaped and stapes-stirrup shaped). Internal ear

has organ of Corti, the actual hearing organ.

14. Except egg laying mammals they are viviparous. There are present four embryonic membranes: chorion,

amnion, allantois and yolk sac. Except egg laying mammals a well developed placenta is present.
15. Mammals occur in all sorts of habitats. They are dominant animals and are capable to learn because of their

better developed brain.

Mammal Subclasses and Infraclasses

Among the mammals, there are three major variations in reproductive systems.This is the basis for dividing them
into subclasses and infraclasses.

class: Mammalia
subclass: Prototheria Theria
infraclass: Metatheria Eutheria

Subclass - Prototheria (monotremes )

1) Lay eggs like most non-mammalian vertebrates.

2) They feed their newborn with mammary gland secretions like all other mammals.

3) They lack nipples, but the skin over their mammary glands exude milk for their babies.

4) The Prototheria are also referred to as monotremes ( have one opening for excretion and reproduction like
birds and reptiles.)
5) Their legs are on the sides of their bodies rather than underneath them.This results in a reptile-like gait.

There are only three surviving rare species groups of Prototheria. These are the Australian platypus and 2
echidna (spiny anteater) species of Australia and New Guinea.

Platypus (subclass Prototheria) Echidna (subclass Prototheria)

Subclass - Theria

They have in common the fact that they give birth to live young

The oldest Infraclass - Metatheria ( Marsupials )

1) Their young are born very immature and cannot live without further development in the mother's pouch. (they
give birth very early and the young animal, essentially a helpless embryo, climbs from the mother's birth canal
to the nipples.)
2. Mammary glands are developed.
3. Placenta is absent.

Marsupials include kangaroos, koalas, opossums, and many other similar animals. Most of them are native only
to Australia and New Guinea.

Kangaroo, koala, and opossum (infraclass Metatheria)

Infraclass - Eutheria ( placental mammals) Human fetus in utero

1. These are highly evolved mammals with advanced organisation.

2. Nourishment, respiration and excretion of young takes place through a complex allantoic placenta.
3. The young ones are born in relatively advanced state (miniature adults). Complete development takes place in
the uterus only. Gestation period is generally long.
4. Testes are usually present in scrotal sacs. Penis is situated infront of the testes.
5. Vagina is single. Urinogenital passage and anus are separate..
6. Corpus callosum is well developed.
7. Eutherians are viviparous.

Eg. cats, dogs, bears, hoofed animals, rodents, bats, seals, dolphins, and whales are among the dominant
placental mammal groups today. Nearly 94% of all mammal species now are placental mammals (5,080 species
out of 5,416).

Whale, dolphin, monkey, and zebra (infraclass Eutheria)

 TOOLS FOR STUDY OF TAXONOMY
Techniques, Procedures and Stored Information that are useful in Identification and classification of organisms are
called taxonomic aids. They are required because taxonomic study of plants, animals and other organisms are
basic to almost all branches of biological studies for their proper identification and finding their relationships with
others. Herbarium, botanical gardens, museum, zoological parks (zoos) and key are important tools used in
identification of plants and animals.

(1) Herbarium
1) Herbarium is a place where dried and pressed plants specimens, mounted on sheets are kept systematically
according to a widely accepted system of classification.

2) Herbarium is a repository or store house for future use.

3) Every institute teaching botany, school college or university, has a small or large herbarium. Very large herbaria
are maintained by botanical gardens and institutes connected with plant systematic.

4) Every student of botany is required to collect plant specimens and prepare herbarium sheets.

Equipment: Digger and pruning knife, sickle with long handle, vasculum, polythene bags, magazines or
newspapers, bolting papers, plant press, field notebook, herbarium sheets, glue, labels, small transparent polythene
bags.

Specimen (Herbarium Sheet) is of Different Types

 Holotype: Herbarium sheet on which the first description of plant is based.
 Lectotype: In case of holotype is lost, second herbarium sheet prepared from the original plant is called
lectotype.
 Neotype: In case holotype and original plant is lost then herbarium sheet prepared from some other plant of
same
 Syntype: In case holotype and original, plant is lost then many herbarium sheet prepared from many plants of
same species is called syntype.
 Isotype: Duplicate of holotype - In presence of holotype a second herbarium sheet prepared from the original
plant is called isotype.
 Paratype: Additional herbarium sheet used in the first description of plant is called para type. It is prepared from
some other plant of same species having some variations.

Important Herbaria
Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew (London)(largest herbarium) 6.5 million

Central national herbarium (India) 2.0 million

( 2) Botanical Gardens
Botanical gardens efficiently large size tract where plants of different type and areas of grown for scientific and
educational puposes.

The important functions of botanical gardens are:

(i) Growing important plants of local flora.

(ii) Keeping record of local flora.

(iii) Providing living plant material for systematic work.

(iv) Supplying seeds and materials for different aspect of a Botanical research.

(v) Growing and maintaining rare and endangered plant.

Some major botanical Gardens of the world are:

1. Main botanical garden Moscow. Largest garden, spread over an area of 900 acres.

2. Royal Botanical Garden, Kew London: it has an area of 300 acres but grows a very large number of plants.

3. Indian Botanical Garden Sibpur, Kolkata. it is the largest botanical garden of Asia spread over 273 acres
which is famous for its Great Banyan tree, Palm house, Succulent Plants, Indian Grasses etc.

(3)Museum
Museum is an institution where artistic and educational materials are exhibited to the public. the materials available
in exhibition for study in called collections.

Function of Museums
Museums Performs the following functions:

 Acquisition of materials. Every new object that a museum adds to its collection is called Acquisition. Museum
acquire object in several ways, of which field collection is one of the most useful. The scientific and technician
go outside to gather specimens and data on particular subject which is with the scope of the museum.

 Recording of Materials. Each acquisition is listed carefully by specialist staff. As soon as objects are received,
the data, the source, the method of acquisition and other available information are entered in to record register.

 Preservation of Materials. The primary purpose of museum is to preserve selected objects are received.
Curators (person in charge of museum) know that no specimens will last forever. What museums undertake to
do is to prolong the lifetime of the objects. Preservation in a museum consists of two steps:

(i) Specimens must be put into a condition that that checks deterioration.

(ii) The specimens must be protected.

 Research: One important use of museum is to extract as much knowledge as possible specimens. Many
museums published scholarly journals, series of papers and books to make available result of research on
collections.
 Exhibitions of Materials: Various members of museum staff prepare acquisitions for exhibitions. The
specimens selected for exhibition are put on a view in numerous ways. The choice of approach and techniques
depends on the purpose of exhibits.

 Education. A Number of universities conduct some courses in certain subjects as museum university advantage
of the collections. Thus museums help in spreading education.

(4) Zoological Parks (Zoos)

A Zoo is a place where are various living animals are kept within enclosures display to the public and may be used
for study. Animals may also Bred.

In fact concept of ZOO has changed instead of Zoos, Zoological parks or zoological gardens established where
high standard of care is observed and the animal live under more natural conditions.
Importance :----
# Wild animals are kept in protected environments.
## Provides opportunity for studying the behaviour and food habits of the animals

(5) Key

# Keys are used for identification of plants and animals based on similarities and dissimilarities.
## Manuals, monographs, and catalogues are other means of recording descriptions.
### Manuals help in the identification of names of various species of organisms in a given area.

(6) MONOGRAPH

Monograph is a detailed and well-documented work on any particular taxon.

A monograph is a comprehensive treatment of a taxon in biological taxonomic of any one taxon.

The first ever monograph of a plant taxon was given in Robert Morison, 1672 Plantarum Umbelliferum Distribution
Nova.

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