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Many photographers — even some experienced and knowledgeable ones — seem permanently
confused about contrast, especially when the word is used to describe lenses. In photography, like the
word "speed" (which can refer to the maximum aperture of a lens, the size of the gap in a constant-rate
shutter, or the sensitivity of an emulsion), the word "contrast" actually refers to several different things.
"Contrast" in photo paper, for instance, or in a finished image, refers to overall (sometimes called
"global") contrast, meaning how the materials distribute tonal gradation from black to white or lightest
to darkest.
When we talk about lens contrast, we are not talking about that quality. What we're talking about is the
ability of the lens to differentiate between smaller and smaller details of more and more nearly similar
tonal value. This is also referred to as "microcontrast." The better contrast a lens has (and this has
nothing to do with the lightdark range or distribution of tones in the final print or slide) means its
ability to take two small areas of slightly different luminance and distinguish the boundary of one from
the other.
You can have a lens of very low contrast that can be made to transmit the same overall range of light to
dark or white to black as one with high contrast. It will just show much less micro detail in the scene,
and look relatively muddy and lifeless. Some pictorialist-era pictures actually have a full range of tones
from white to black but show (by design) exceptionally low degrees of what we would call lens
contrast. Low lens contrast is also created when you put a "softening" filter on a lens you can still print
the picture with an overall contrast from pure white to maximum black, but the microcontrast will be
severely curtailed.
Savants talk about resolution and contrast being the same thing. Ultimately, they do go hand-in-hand,
because you can't distinguish contrast without resolution and you can't distinguish resolution without
contrast. But this is for very fine detail, in the range of 30-40 lp/mm or even greater frequencies
("frequency" in this sense refers to the spacing of the equal black and white lines used to determine
lp/mm and MTF), which the eye generally can't see in prints and slides (although Ctein thinks we
"sense" it in terms of a subjective sense of richness in gradation).
At coarser levels (or "for larger structures," as optical jargon might put it), say 5 lp/mm, you can have
more of one than the other, and, indeed, lens designers make choices in these areas. I have one lens, the
Leica 35mm F/2 Summicron-R, which has very high large-structure contrast, but not terribly good
resolution. That is, if you shoot with a very fine-grained film and look at the detail under a microscope
or in well-made enlargements, you may see finer actual detail in pictures made with other lenses yet the
Leica lens has a very high (and very pleasing!) sense of subjective "sharpness".
To see a great visual demonstration of this, check out Canon's excellent primer on optics at the back of
their book Lenswork (a must-read for any photographer interested in, but not trained in, optics). They
show the same picture (of a cat) with a) poor contrast and poor resolution, b) good contrast but poor
resolution, c) good resolution but poor contrast, and d) both good resolution and good contrast. This
will "key" your eye in to what is meant by lens contrast better than any verbal description can. As you
can see from those illustrations, it has nothing to do with overall contrast of the sort we mean when we
talk about paper grades.
A Third Definition
So far I've mentioned overall contrast and lens contrast. The final type of contrast we have to deal with
is something still different from either of the two definitions above, and this is "local contrast", or tonal
differentiation within certain specified tonal ranges. A film/paper combination whose characteristic
curves interrelate in a certain way can yield high highlight contrast (i.e., not much tonal discrimination
in the highlights, but a greater sense of "snap" in the gradation you do see) and low shadow contrast, or
good shadow contrast and low highlight contrast. In lenses, local contrast issues are accounted for
mainly by flare and veiling glare, and are affected mainly by lens coatings. A lens can have exactly the
same level of overall contrast (i.e., it will transmit the same overall range from light to dark), but it
might have much worse shadow contrast, for instance, in certain real-world situations. Meaning, there
will not be as much separation between slightly different shades of gray in very dark areas of the
picture. (Transmission of colour is also very much affected by the efficiency of the coatings and the
relative contribution of flare.)
The big question mark where local contrast is concerned is that almost all actual picture-taking
situations allow flare and veiling glare (the latter an overall dulling or haze of the image similar to
"flashing" an enlargement with a low dose of non-image-forming light, or fog) to contribute in varying
amounts and varying ways. Despite lots of scientific research, there still seems to be not much way to
quantify it exactly, or predict its contribution exactly with any given system ("system" meaning camera-
lens/film/enlarger-lens/paper) in real-world situations. Flare is always present to at least some degree,
but it is seldom present in exactly the same way in two different systems encountering two different
situations.
Before lens coatings were invented, lens flare was a major determinant of image quality. The best
lenses were generally the ones that allowed performance to remain high with the fewest elements,
because there were fewer air-to-glass surfaces to create flare. This explains the lifespan of the
exceptionally long-lived Tessar-type, despite its speed limitations. Lens coatings are of critical
importance to modern lenses; virtually all zoom lenses and many highly-corrected multi-element lenses
would be useless for general photography without them. Often, coating is what makes the most
difference between an average lens and a very good one.
Have you ever noticed how many early 35mm photographers tried to avoid bright sunlight? You might
be forgiven for thinking that the decade of the 1940s was entirely overcast (and not just by the world
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political situation). With experience as their teacher, many photographers in the '30s and '40s learned
various clever ways of avoiding or minimizing high-flare situations. The amateur admonition to "never
point the camera in the direction the sunlight is coming from" dates from this era. Such was life with
"miniature" cameras before the days of multicoating.