System Development Methodologies Summarized Notes

Lesson 1: Introduction

Systems

Systems

A system is a set of interconnected or interdependent components or parts that work together

to achieve a common goal.

System Design

System design is a phase in the software development process that involves creating a

detailed plan for building a system

System Development

Systems development is a systematic process that includes planning, analysis, design,

deployment, and maintenance phases.

System Analysis

It is a process of collecting and interpreting facts, identifying the problems, and decomposing a

system into its components.

Elements of a system

● Inputs: These are the data that enter the system for processing.

● Processes: It is the element of a system that involves the actual transformation of input

● into output.

● Outputs: Outputs are the results or products generated by the system after processing

the inputs.

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 ● Feedback: Feedback is information about the system's performance that is sent back to

the system for monitoring or adjustment.

● Environment: The environment is the subsystem within which an organization operates.

● Boundaries: Boundaries define the limits of the system and separate it from the

external environment.

● Interfaces: Interfaces are the points of interaction between different components or

subsystems within a system.

Characteristics of a System

● Organization: it implies structure and order. It is the arrangement of components that

helps to achieve objectives.

● Interaction: It refers to how each component functions with other components of the

system.

● Interdependence: It means that parts of the organization or computer system depend

on one another.

● Integration: It refers to the holism of systems. It is concerned with how a system is tied

together.

● Central Objective: A system should have a central objective. Objectives may be real or

stated

Factors to Consider when Choosing Information Systems

An information system should be:

● Understandable: Easy to interpret it correctly

● Relevant: This should be pertinent and meaningful to the decision-maker.

● Complete: Contain all the facts that are necessary for the decision-maker

● Available: An information system may be useless if it is not readily accessible

● Reliable: It should be accurate, consistent with facts, and verifiable.

● Concise: Too much information cannot be processed in time and accurately.

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 ● Timely: Information must be delivered at the right time and the right place to the right

person.

● Cost-effective: It is not desirable if the solution is more costly than the problem.

System Methodologies

A system development methodology is what is used to structure, plan, and control the process

of developing a system. For Example:

● Spiral

● Prototyping

● Waterfall Model

● Rapid Application Development(RAD)

System Development Issues

● IT Strategy: A long-term plan for achieving a goal, in the context of a changing

technology environment.

● IT Infrastructure: This refers to an enterprise's entire collection of:

○ Hardware

○ Software

○ Networks

○ Data centers facilities

and related equipment used to develop, test, operate, monitor, manage, and/or support

information technology services.

● IT Function: IT department is an important department, complementing and

supplementing the others in numerous ways. Some of the IT functions are:

○ Communication

○ Data Management

○ Marketing

○ Process Improvement

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 ○ Enterprise resource planning

Types of Systems

● Physical Systems: Tangible entities that may be static or dynamic in operation.

● Abstract Systems: Conceptual or nonphysical entities.

● OpenSystems An open system has many interfaces with its environment.

● Closed Systems: A closed system is isolated from environmental influences.

● Man-made Information Systems: An information system is the basis for interaction

between the user and the analyst.

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Lecture 2- Software Development Life Cycle

Software is a computer program. Set of instructions. They can be:

● Proprietary: Software that is owned by an individual or a company

● Open Source: Software in which source code is released under a license that grants

users the rights to study, change, and distribute the software to anyone and for any

purpose.

● Generic (Off-the-shelf): Developed to be sold to a range of customers.

● Bespoke ( Custom): Developed for a single customer according to their specifications.

Software Development Life Cycle

The Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is a process used by the software industry to

design, develop and test high-quality software.

● Planning: A plan is a detailed proposal for doing or achieving something.

● Requirements: Requirements are what a system needs to do to provide a benefit

● Designing: A description of the recommended solution is converted into a logical

● and then physical system specifications

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 ● Implementation: The information system is coded, tested, installed, and supported in

the organization.

● Testing: Monitor the solution to ensure that it functions properly, reliable, and

predictable.

● Deployment: After successful testing, the product is deployed to the customer for their

use.

● Maintenance: An information system is systematically repaired and improved.

Approaches to SDLC

Prototyping Model: The Prototyping Model involves the creation of a working model

(prototype) of the system to gather user feedback and refine requirements before the full-scale

system is developed.

Joint Application Development (JAD): A collaborative approach to software development that

involves the active participation of stakeholders, including end-users, in the design and

development process.

Rapid Application Development (RAD:) To deliver a high-quality product quickly, with a focus

on iterative development and user feedback.

Agile development: Emphasizes iterative development, where software is built in small,

functional increments, allowing for quick adaptation to changing requirements.

Extreme Programming (XP): Aims to improve software quality and responsiveness to

changing customer requirements through frequent releases in short development cycles.

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Object-Oriented Approach (OOA): Uses the concept of "objects" to organize and structure

code. It is based on the principles of encapsulation, inheritance, and polymorphism.

Lecture 3- Approaches

Software Development Process (Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC)): The software

development process, is a systematic approach to planning, creating, testing, and deploying

software.

Characteristics of a good process

● Provides guidelines for efficient development of quality software

● Reduces risk and increases predictability

● Promotes a common vision and culture

● Presents the current best practice

Two main approaches to SDLC:

Predictive Approach: Assumes the project can be planned out in advance.

● Requirements are well-defined and understood.

● Low technical risk.

Adaptive Approach: More flexible, assumes the project cannot be planned out in advance.

● Requirements and needs uncertain

● High technical risk

Phases in SDLC

Pre-Project Planning: Initiate, ensure feasibility, plan schedule, and obtain approval for the

project.

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Analysis: Understand business needs and processing requirements.

Design: Define a solution system based on requirements and analysis decisions.

Implementation: Construct, train users, test, and install the new system.

Maintenance/support: Keep the system running and improve.

Parallel Approach

Instead of doing the design and implementation in sequence, performs a general design for the

whole system and divides the project into a series of distinct subprojects that can be designed

and implemented in parallel

Advantages of Parallel Approach

● Can reduce the schedule time required to deliver a system.

● There is less chance of changes in the business environment causing rework.

Disadvantages of Parallel Approach

● Still suffers from problems caused by paper documentation.

● Sometimes the subprojects are not completely independent.

● Design made in one subproject may affect another, and the project's end may require

significant integrative efforts.

Spiral Approach

• Project cycles through development activities over and over until the project is complete.

• Prototype created by the end of each cycle.

Advantages of Spiral

● Risk Management: Explicit focus on identifying and managing risks throughout the

development process.

● Flexibility: Well-suited for projects with changing or unclear requirements, allowing for

adaptability.

● Client Involvement: Encourages regular client participation and feedback at the end of

each iteration.

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 ● Early Prototyping: Incorporates prototyping for early visualization and feedback on the

evolving product.

● Incremental Releases: Supports the development of incremental releases, providing

tangible results sooner.

Disadvantages of Spiral

● Complexity: The model itself can be complex, requiring experienced project

management and team members.

● Documentation Overhead: Involves more planning and documentation compared to

some agile methodologies.

● Resource Intensive: This may demand more resources, especially in terms of time and

personnel.

● Not Ideal for Small Projects: Overkill for small projects with straightforward

requirements.

Iteration Approach

The iteration approach in software development refers to a method where the development

process is divided into a series of repetitive cycles or iterations.

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Lecture 4 – Waterfall Model

Waterfall Method

The Waterfall Model is a linear approach to software development that follows a sequential

process.

In the Waterfall Model, the development process is divided into distinct phases, and each

phase must be completed before the next one begins.

Applications of Waterfall Method:

● Software product definition is stable.

● Requirements are very well-fixed, clear, and well-documented.

● Technology is understood and is not dynamic.

● There are no ambiguous requirements.

● The project is “small”.

● Enough resources are available to support the software product.

● Required expertise is available.

Advantages of the Waterfall Method

● System requirements are identified long before programming begins.

● Simple and easy to understand and use

● Phases are processed and completed one at a time.

● Clearly defined stages/phases.

● Well-understood milestones.

● Relatively easy to arrange tasks.

Disadvantages of the Waterfall Method

● Design must be completely specified on paper before programming begins.

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● No working software is produced until late during the life cycle.

● High amounts of risk and uncertainty.

● Not a good model for complex and object-oriented projects.

● Poor model for long and ongoing projects.

● It is difficult to measure progress within stages.

● Cannot accommodate changing requirements.

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Lecture 5 – V Model

V-Model

● A V Model is an extension of the Waterfall model.

● Also known as the Verification and Validation model.

● The next phase starts only after the completion of the previous phase.

● V Model has a testing phase for each corresponding development stage while waterfall

only tests at the end of the development cycle.

V-Model Applications

● Some situations where the use of V model include:

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 ● Requirements are well-defined, clearly documented, and fixed.

● Product definition is stable.

● Technology is not dynamic and is well understood by the project team.

● There are no ambiguous or undefined requirements.

● The project is short.

V-Model Activities – Verification Stages

Requirements Analysis

● Business system requirements.

● Detailed communication with the customer to understand the expectations and exact

requirements.

System Design

● Detailing the complete hardware and communication setup for the product under

development.

Architecture Design

● A technical approach is proposed and based on the technical and financial feasibility

the final decision is taken.

● High level.

Module Design

● Detailed internal design for all the system modules is specified.

● Low level.

Coding

● Actual implementation using computer programming languages.

● The programming language is decided based on the system and architectural

requirements.

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V-Model Activities – Validation Stages

Unit Testing

● Testing at the code level helps eliminate bugs at an early stage.

● All defects cannot be uncovered by unit testing.

Integration Testing

● Performed to test the coexistence and communication of the internal modules

within the system.

System Testing

● Checks the entire system functionality and the communication of the system

under development with external systems.

● Software and hardware compatibility issues can be uncovered during this

system test execution.

Acceptance Testing

● Acceptance testing is associated with the business requirement analysis phase

and involves testing the product in a user environment.

● Acceptance tests uncover the compatibility issues with the other systems

available in the user environment.

● It also discovers the non-functional issues such as load and performance defects

in the actual user environment

Advantages of V-Model

● Simple and easy to use.

● Testing activities like planning, and test designing happen well before coding.

● Proactive defect tracking as defects can be found at an early stage.

● Avoids the downward flow of the defects.

● This is a highly-disciplined model and Phases are completed one at a time.

● Easy to manage due to the rigidity of the model.

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Disadvantages of V-model

● High risk and uncertainty.

● Not a good model for complex and object-oriented projects.

● Not suitable for projects where requirements are at a moderate to high risk of changing.

● Very rigid and least flexible. Once an application is in the testing stage, it is difficult to

go back and change functionality.

● No early prototypes of the software are produced.

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Lecture 6 – System Development

Systems can be developed through:

Outsourcing: Contract from an outside supplier/another organization.

Insourcing: Using an organization's personnel or other resources such as IT specialists to

accomplish a task that was previously outsourced.

Selfsourcing: The internal development and support of IT systems by knowledge workers,

such as yourself, with minimal contribution from IT specialists.

Principles of System Development

● Get the system users involved.

● Use a problem-solving approach.

● Establish phases and activities.

● Document through development.

● Establish standards.

● Manage the process and the projects

● Justify systems as capital investments.

● Don’t be afraid to cancel or revise the scope.

● Divide and conquer.

● Design systems for growth and change.

Use a Problem-Solving Approach

Classical Problem-solving approach

● Study and understand the problem, its context, and its impact.

● Define the requirements that must be met by any solution.

● Identify candidate solutions that fulfill the requirements, and select the “best” solution.

● Design and/or implement the chosen solution.

● Observe and evaluate the solution’s impact, and refine the solution accordingly.

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Establish Phases and Activities

Manage the Process and Projects

Process management

● An ongoing activity that documents manages, oversees the use of, and improves an

organization’s chosen methodology for system development.

● Process management is concerned with phases, activities, deliverables, and quality

standards that should be consistently applied to all projects.

Project management

● The process of scoping, planning, staffing, organizing, directing, and controlling a

project to develop a system at a minimum cost, within a specified time frame, and with

acceptable quality

Justify Information Systems as Capital Investments

Cost-effectiveness

● Striking a balance between the lifetime costs of developing, maintaining, and operating

an information system and the benefits derived from that system.

Strategic information systems plan

● Formal strategic plan (3-5 years) for building and improving an information technology

infrastructure and the information system applications that use that infrastructure.

Strategic enterprise plan

● Formal strategic plan (3-5 years) for an entire business that defines its mission, vision,

goals, strategies, benchmarks, and measures of progress and achievement.

Cancel or Revise Scope

Creeping commitment

● A strategy in which feasibility and risks are continuously reevaluated throughout a

project.

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Risk management

● The process of identifying, evaluating, and what might go wrong in a project before it

becomes a threat to the successful completion of the project or implementation of the

information system.

Identifying Systems Development Projects

● Problem – an undesirable situation that prevents the organization from fully achieving

its purpose, goals, and/or objectives.

● Opportunity – a chance to improve the organization even in the absence of an identified

problem.

● Directive - a new requirement that is imposed by management, government, or some

external influence.

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Lecture 8 – Software Testing and Debugging

Testing: To determine if a code contains errors.

Debugging: To locate the error and fix it.

Programming Errors: Also known as bugs(a moth in the Mark I computer.)

Compilation Errors: Syntax error. Example: missing a semi-colon.

Runtime Errors: Occur at runtime(execution).

Logic Errors: The program runs but produces an incorrect result

Modularization: The problem is broken into sub-problems(modules) and each sub-problem is

tackled separately.

Software Testing

Verification

● The activity of evaluating a software system.

● Determines whether the product of a given phase satisfies the requirements

Validation

● Activities confirming that a product meets its intended use.

● Validation activities also aim at confirming that a product meets its customer’s

expectations.

Failure

● A state is when the external behavior of a system does not conform to that prescribed

in the system specification.

Error/Fault

● Represents mistakes made by people.

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Test Process Improvement (TPI) Model

● Testing can be a troublesome and uncontrollable process.

● Test process improvement helps you reach quality, cost, and delivery targets.

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Test Maturity Model (TMM)

● TMM is based on the Capability Maturity Model (CMM). It is a detailed model for test

process improvement. It has 5 levels that define testing capability and the assessment

model.

Testing Stages

Unit Testing - Individual components/modules are tested separately

Integration Testing - Groups of modules that are working together are tested together

System Testing - The whole system is tested together after integration.

Acceptance Testing - Verifying whether the whole system works as intended.

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Modes of Testing

White Box Testing

● Test cases derived from inspecting the structure of the code

● Mainly used for low-level (unit) testing

Black Box Testing

● it compares actual against expected output for a given set of valid and invalid input.

● Used for all levels of testing.

Software Debugging

Steps Involved In Software Debugging:

● Problem identification and report preparation.

● Verify that the defect is genuine.

● Defect analysis using modeling, documentation, finding, and testing candidate flaws.

● Defect resolution by making required changes to the system.

● Validation of corrections.

Documentation

Test and Debugging Documentation

● To improve the maintainability of the code.

● Include sensible comments, a good coding style, and clear logic.

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