Department of Mechanical Engineering

Faculty of Engineering
Lecturer: Griffin Salima, MRE

HYDRAULICS & PNEUMATICS

BASIC HYDRAULICS
Fluid power uses fluid under pressure to convert energy into force to do the work. Both
liquid and air (a gas) are considered fluids. A fluid power system is either pneumatic or
hydraulic depending on the fluid used. Pneumatic systems use air pressure and flow to do
the work, while hydraulic systems use liquid. This module covers the basic theory of
hydraulic systems in general and some specifics on hydraulic power.

Versatility is just one of the advantages that hydraulic systems offer over either mechanical
or electrical systems. Some are:
a. Fewer moving parts.
b. Accuracy of operator control.
c. Small components, flexible designs.
d. Compatabi1ity with other systems.
e. Multiplication of force.
f. Safety and Economy

In conclusion, this Basic Hydraulic module, is a guide to how a hydraulic system works, what
components make up the system, and how to specify those components. It is essential that
the I.S.O. graphic symbols are remembered; otherwise it will be difficult to read and
understand the hydraulic schematics in section.
Hydraulic Theory
To understand the basics of hydraulics, we begin with an understanding of the characteristics
of liquids. All liquids have:
1. Weight.
2. Mass and Volume
3. Indefinite Shape
These characteristics of liquids are easily demonstrated with a cup of oil. When the cup is
filled with oil it weighs more than when it is empty. The oil occupies space in the cup, that is,
it has mass and volume. Finally, if the oil is poured onto the floor it loses its shape,
demonstrating that liquids have no shape but only assume the shape of their containers.

Pascal’S Law
A French physician, Blaise Pascal, in 1650 observed that confined liquids transferred force
proportionally from one confined container to another. From his observation he formulated
a law that when pressure is exerted on a confined liquid it is transmitted undiminished in all
directions and with equal force on equal areas. This is known as Pascal IS Law.

Pascal’s Law

1
Pascal’s Law, therefore implies a relationship between force, pressure and area. When the
law is restated in simpler terms, the relationship is more apparent -Force = pressure x Area
or F = p x A.
It is possible to alter the values of force, pressure or area without altering the relationship
between them. For example a large cylinder with low pressure applied to it does the same
work as a smaller cylinder with higher pressure applied.

Hydrostatic System
The hydraulic system described by Pascal’s Law is hydrostatic. This means "liquids having no
motion". A hydrostatic system uses confined motionless fluid to transmit force.

A hydraulic jack is a good example of a hydrostatic system.

When the handle of the jack is raised, it raises the input piston. Note that the outlet check
valve remains closed, b1ocking flow to the output piston .When the handle is lowered, the
input of piston is also lowered. The input check valve closes to keep the oil from flow1ng
back to the reservoir, while the outlet check valve opens to allow oil to flow into the cylinder
and raise the output piston.

Hydraulic jack

2
A simple hydrostatic system requires:
a) Pump -To develop fluid flow thus creating hydraulic energy.
b) Actuator- To transfer hydraulic energy into mechanical force.
c) Reservoir- To store the fluid.
d) Valves -To control f1uid pressures and flow. ii
e) Lines -To carry the fluid
f) Fluid -Fluid is necessary for the system to work.

The directional control valve allows the oil to either be rotated through the actuator or to
bypass it and return to the reservoir. The relief valve on the system relieves the pressure if
the build-up exceeds the safe working pressure of the system.

Hydrodynamic Systems
Another type of hydraulic system is a hydrodynamic system. This means "liquid in motion".

Hydrostatic System

3
 Hydrodynamic System

Advantages of Hydrostatic System

a. Fl ex ibi1ity
b. Safety
c. Economy

Disadvantages
a. Friction
Friction is the result of fluid flow through the system. It is caused by long lines,
excessive bends and fittings, improper bends, undersized lines, or improper fluid
viscosity. Friction cannot be eliminated, but it can be minimised by correcting or
avoiding the causes.

b. Heat
Heat is produced by friction. The more a fluid has to "bend' within the components,
the greater the fluid turbulence. Turbulence creates friction and heat. When the heat
within the system exceeds the normal operating temperature of 43°C -65°C, a heat

4
 exchanger can be added. A heat exchanger uses air or water to cool the oil and reduce
the temperature.

c. Pressure Drop
Pressure drop is unavoidable in this system. From the beginning of the hydraulic
system to the end.

The amount of drop depends on the amount of friction. Pressure drop however, only
occurs when the fluid is moving. The longer the pipe and the more restrictions, the
greater the drop.

Since most mobile fluid power systems are hydrostatic rather than hydrodynamic,
hydrostatic systems are covered in this module. The theory and systems you have covered
are a foundation and insight into basic hydraulics. The following sections will show you how
to apply the theory to an operating hydraulic system, identify the various components and
graphic symbols.

Components
There are six components in a basic hydraulic system. They are:
a. Actuator -Performs the work.
b. Valves -Control the fluid flow, direction & pressure.
c. Pump -Forces fluid through the system.
d. Reservoir -Stores the fluid.
e. Lines -Carry the fluid.
f. Fluid -Necessary for the system to work.

5
Actuators
The actuator or work component, converts fluid power into mechanical force. Actuators
may be either rotary or linear. The rotary actuators are: Gear Motor, Valve, Motor and
Piston Motor. The linear actuators are: Single-Acting Cylinders and double-Actuating
Cylinders.

Rotary Actuators
A Rotary Actuator, or hydraulic motor, converts fluid energy into mechanical (rotary)
motion. Hydraulic motors are fixed or variable displacement type. Displacement refers to the
amount of fluid needed to force the motor through one complete cycle. As the name
implies, fixed displacement motors displace the same amount of fluid with each revolution.
Variable displacement motors have a control device which allows the displacement to be
varied.

6
Gear Motor
A gear motor consists of two gears - the drive gear & driven gear - a housing with an inlet
and outlet. Pressurised fluid entering at the motor causes the gears to rotate in opposite
directions, meshing at the point midway between the inlet and the outlet. Torque develops as
a result of the gear’s resistance to flow.

outlet
Internal seal

ISO symbol

The gear motors' simple design means that it costs less to produce and is less susceptible to
breakdown. It can also withstand a higher level of fluid contamination than other motors.

A gear motor is typically used in steam turbines to supply oil to bearings, either internally or
as an auxiliary unit.

7
Vane Motor
The vane motor has a rotor that revolves within a cylindrical housing. Vanes set within the
rotor slide in and out as the rotor turns. The force of the pressurized fluid on the vanes
creates torque.

Rotor

Inlet
Outlet

Vane Drive shaft

Fixed Displacement vane Motor

ISO symbol
Unidirectional Fixed Displacement Motor

Piston Motor
There are two types of piston motors: axial and radial. In the axial piston motor fluid flows
through the inlet, forcing the piston outward. The cylinder block rotates as the piston is
extended. If the angle of the swash plate is fixed, the piston motor is fixed displacement. If
the angle of the swash plate can be varied, the motor is a variable displacement.

8
Radial piston motors have a cylinder barrel with the pistons fitted into it. When oil enters the
cylinder bore, the piston is forced outward causing the cylinder to rotate.
The thrust ring forces the pistons to retract. The thrust ring is stationary in the fixed
displacement motor and adjustable in the variable displacement motor.

ISO symbol

Radial Piston Motor

Piston motors are more efficient than either vane or gear motors. However, they are also
more expensive and more sensitive to contamination. They are occasionally used in mobile
hydraulic systems; however, a more common application is in construction equipment and
vertical crystallizers in the Mill situation.

9
Linear Actuators
Work that requires linear motion needs a cylinder or piston type actuator.

Double Acting Cylinder

Single Acting Cylinder

ISO symbols

Cylinder type actuators consists of a moveable element - either a piston, piston-rod, or

plunger -which extends outward, and a cylindrical housing. Single-acting cylinders extend
hydraulically, and retract by a spring or the weight of a load.

Valves
Valves are the control component in the hydraulic system. They control the pressure system.
They control the pressure level of the fluid, the direction of the fluid flow, and the amount
of fluid flowing to components in the system.

The three types of valves are named for the function they perform in the hydraulic system:
a. Pressure Control Valves '
b. Directional Control Valves
c. Flow Control Valves

10
Pressure Control Valves
This valve controls the pressure level within the system. Depending on the specific function
the valve performs within the system it can be classified as:
a. Relief-simple and compound.
b. Pressure reducing
c. Sequence
d. counter balance
e. Unloading

Relief Valves
The simple relief valve is found in nearly every hydraulic system and is considered the most
common type of pressure control valve. It ensures that pressure does not exceed safe
working pressure for the system. Therefore, the simple relief valve functions as a safety
valve.

The simple relief valve has a normally closed, spring-loaded ball or poppet to restrict fluid
flow.
When the system pressure exceeds the preset level, the ball or poppet is forced open,
allowing fluid to flow. When the pressure in the system drops below the preset level, the
valve closes.

Simple Relief Valve

ISO Symbol

11
Pilot-Operated Relief Valve-
The pilot operated relief valve is a normally closed, two-stage valve. When the system
operates at a pressure less then the preset level of the valve, the pressure is greater above the
seat or sealing element of the valve. If pressure increases slightly below the piston, the pilot
valve opens for fluid to flow back to the reservoir, maintaining the preset pressure level

Pilot Operate Relief Valve

ISO symbol

Pilot operated relief valves allow more precise control, better reseating, and maintain better
working pressure. They are, however, more costly because of the number of parts and the
closer tolerances of the parts. These relief valves are used primarily in industrial hydraulic
systems.

12
Pressure Reducing Valves
This normally open valve is used to maintain reduced operating pressure in a secondary
circuit. When pressure in the secondary circuit is below the preset level, flow from the inlet
to the secondary circuit is uninterrupted.

As the pressure approaches the preset level, oil fills the internal passageway from the outlet.
When the preset level is reached, the spool is partially closed, limiting the amount of oil
flowing into the secondary circuit. Notice the drain through the piston that allows oil to
drain back to the reservoir. T

Pressure Reducing Valve

ISO symbol

Sequence Valves
Sequence valves are normally closed valves used to control flow to secondary circuits. They
open or close on demand either manually or by pressure differential.

13
A pilot operated valve is shown in the illustration. Notice that the secondary circuit outlet is
blocked when the valve is in the normal position.

When the pressure reaches the preset level, the piston is forced upward, unblocking the
secondary outlet. The spring chamber is externally drained so that the spool is not prevented
from shifting.

Pressure Reducing Valve with Relief Feature (counter Balance

Valve)
These valves are a combination valve having the pressure reducing function for the normal
flow and the counter balance function for the reverse flow. The secondary pressure is kept at
the reduced pressure preset. The reverse flow from the secondary side is relieved to tank

14
Unloading Valves
This valve permits a large volume of hydraulic oil to bypass with a minimum pressure drop.
There is also lowered heat generation and energy loss.
The pressure in the pilot section is reduced when the pilot valve is normally opened. The
main relief is then open, permitting the flow of oil from the pump, through the valve to the
reservoir

When the pilot valve is manually closed, pressure building up in the pilot section closes the
main relief.

Unloading Relief valve

ISO Symbol

15
Directional Control Valves
Directional control valves control fluid delivery to the actuator. In addition to stopping,
starting, speeding up or slowing down the actuator, directional control valves are also used
to:
a. Activate a circuit
b. Isolate a circuit.
c. Reverse the direction of flow.
d. Divert return flow from an output device.
e. Combine flow from two or more circuits.
f. Separate flow from one circuit to two or more circuits.

There are four factors to be considered when specifying, directional control valves:
a. Type of internal control element.
b. Number of ways.
c. Number of positions.
d. Type of centre (open or closed).

Type of Internal Control Element

Directional Control valves are classified according to the construction of the internal control
element. The three most common types are:
a. Sliding Spool Valve
b. Rotary Spool Valve
c. Rotary Plate Valve

The Sliding Spool Valve

The sliding spool valve is the valve most often used in mobile hydraulic systems. It is usually
open centred allowing fluid flow through the valve and back to the reservoir when the valve
is the. in neutral position. When the valve is shifted, B up or the spools slide to align with the
inlet and are also outlet allowing flow to the actuator. When the valve is reversed, flow may
be closed off or directed to another opening.

16
Trouble Shooting and Maintenance
Despite good maintenance, a hydraulic system may occasionally break down. When this
happens follow these six steps to help locate the problem.
a. Check the operating manual. The manual will have basic information about the specific
system, such as a circuit schematic. It will include specifics on each of the components.
It may have a trouble shooting guide also.
b. Talk with the operator. Find out the circumstances of the failure. Also ask if he has
made any adjustments or repairs to the system.
c. Operate the equipment if possible. Check the general performance to see if it
conforms to the operators description. Also, check gauge readings for information on
temperature and pressure, and listen for any unusual noise in the equipment.
d. Inspect the equipment. Check the lines for breaks or cracks. Inspect the components
for loose fittings, bolts, or signs of leakage. Check the fluid in the reservoir.
e. Based on the observations just made, list all the possible causes for failure.
f. Start with the most obvious cause and check the system. For example, check to see if
there is fluid in the reservoir. Use the troubleshooting guide in the equipment
operating manual or at the end of this section.

17
PNEUMATICS
A pneumatic circuit is an interconnected set of components that convert compressed gas
(usually air) into mechanical work. In the normal sense of the term, the circuit must include a
compressor or compressor-fed tank.
 Active components
Compressor
A gas compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by
reducing its volume. Compressors are similar to pumps: both increase the pressure
on a fluid and both can transport the fluid through a pipe. As gases are compressible,
the compressor also reduces the volume of a gas. Liquids are relatively
incompressible, so the main action of a pump is to pressurize and transport liquids.

 Transmission lines
Air tank: A pressure vessel is a closed container designed to hold gases or liquids at
a pressure different from the ambient pressure.
The pressure differential is potentially dangerous and many fatal accidents have
occurred in the history of their development and operation. Consequently, their
design, manufacture, and operation are regulated by engineering authorities backed
up by laws. For these reasons, the definition of a pressure vessel varies from country
to country, but involves parameters such as maximum safe operating pressure and
temperature.

o Pneumatic hoses
o Open atmosphere (for returning the spent gas to the compressor)

A valve is a device that regulates the flow of a fluid (gases, fluidized solids,
slurries, or liquids) by opening, closing, or partially obstructing various
passageways. Valves are technically pipe fittings.
Valves are also found in the human body. For example, there are several which
control the flow of blood in the chambers of the heart and maintain the correct
pumping action.

18
  Passive components
Pneumatic cylinders: Pneumatic cylinders (sometimes known as air cylinders)
are mechanical devices which produce force, often in combination with
movement, and are powered by compressed gas (typically air).
To perform their function, pneumatic cylinders impart a force by converting the
potential energy of compressed gas into kinetic energy. This is achieved by the
compressed gas being able to expand, without external energy input, which itself
occurs due to the pressure gradient established by the compressed gas being at a
greater pressure than the atmospheric pressure. This air expansion forces a
piston to move in the desired direction.

Pneumatic Controls
Pneumatic controls are very common in industrial use, primarily for applications that require
a fixed distance travel of or reciprocation of objects. Examples include transfer of materials
between conveyors, clamping objects for assembly or testing, punch presses etc.
Compressed air is used to generate the actuating action.
Elements of pneumatic systems:

(1) Valves: Valves are used to control the direction and quantity of air flow between the
tubes (or lines) of a pneumatic circuit. Most valves are constructed to function in two-
positions. Each position opens one or more paths for free air flow and shuts off the
others. Depending upon the position, the flow of air is controlled. The two most
common valves are 3/2 and 5/2 valves. The first number denotes the number of air
connections, and the second number the number of air flow paths. Figure 5.1 shows a
schematic representation of these valves. Each valve is represented by two abutting
rectangles, and the external air connections. Moving the valve from one position to the
other can be visualized by sliding the corresponding rectangle over the other one,
keeping the air lines fixed. Moving valves between the two positions can be done in
many different ways. Figure 5.2 shows some example schematics.

19
(2) Cylinders: are actually piston cylinder assemblies. These are the elements that cause
motion, and do the real work that is to be done. The valves are merely used to create
the logic, which determines the sequence in which the various cylinders move. Two
common types of cylinders include spring-return type, and double-acting type. These
are shown in the schematics below. The pistons move in or out. Apart from the fully
extended and fully retracted positions of the piston, there is no intermediate position
control in piston motion.

(3) Compressors: Compressors provide the high pressure air that is delivered to the
cylinders in order to make the pistons move. Most compressors are turbines that are
run using electric motors. In pneumatic circuits, it is common to omit the compressor
and just represent the compressed air supply by the symbol in the figure below.

20
Pneumatic circuits are built of these basic elements to create the logic of a required set of
motions. The two positions of the piston in a cylinder are usually shown by +/- signs. The
sequence of desired positions of cylinders is shown as a list of symbols as in figure 5.4,
which shows a simple pneumatic circuit.

21