CHANNELS AND CULVERTS Channel The purpose in designing a channel is to determine the cross section of the canal that

will accommodate water flow smoothly and cheapest to construct and maintain. 1. Side slope with a ratio of 2:1 or even flatter is most acceptable, except on rock or other hard materials where channels are lined. For unlined or unfinished channel surface, the best cross section requires the least total excavations. 2. The design of crown ditches, gutters, stream channels, and culverts flowing partially or fully based on the principles of flow in an open canal. For uniform flow, the relationship is expressed in the Manning s Formula:  Where: Q = quantity of discharge in meter per second R = hydraulic radius in meter. This is the area of the floe across section divided by the wetted perimeter A = area of the flow cross section in square meter S = slope of the channel N = Manning roughness coefficient Table 1 REPRESENTATIVE VALUES OF ROUGHNESS COEFFICIENT n, VARIOUS CHANNEL LINING TYPES OF LINING VALUE OF n Ordinary earth, smooth gravel 0.02 Rough rubble or jagged rock 0.04 Rough concrete 0.02 Bituminous lining 0.02 Smooth rubble 0.02 Well maintained grass-depth of flow over 15 cm 0.04 Well maintained grass-depth of flow under 15 cm 0.06 Heavy grass 0.10 The condition to various channel problems rest on the following distinctions: a.) Water flowing down a mild slope in an open canal is in sub-critical flow b.) Water flowing on steep slope is in Super critical flow.

Sub-critical flow exists when the depth of the water in the channel is greater than the critical depth. Super critical flow exists when the depth is less than the critical level. The critical depth occurs when the velocity head is one half the average depths. The Average depth or Mean depth is the cross sectional area of the flow divided by its with at the liquid surface. Unless the possibility of erosion is eliminated within a reasonable limit, channel design is considered not a complete unit. 1. The actual velocity must be checked against the maximum values for unprotected earth. 2. Where channel is scouring is indicated, reduction of water velocity should be adapted to a safe level. 3. To reduce the velocity is to reduce the flow of water by diversion. 4. Where the diversion is not possible, the channel is widened, or lengthened. As an alternative, the slope of the channel is decreased. 5. Baffles, checks or drops are introduced to reduce slope in the channel.

Culvert With the exception of storm drain, culvert includes all closed conduits with standard designs repeatedly used.

Stabilizing the Unsupported Slope An existing earth slope that has been stable can experience significant movement called slope failure or landslide due to the following physical changes: a. Changes in nature condition b. Changes induced by man Changes in nature conditions may be the result from: 1. Occurrence of earthquake 2. Subsidence of underground cavern 3. Erosion 4. Slope weakening due to the development of cracks or shrinkage cracks that are followed by water intrusions. 5. Variations in the elevation of ground water or changes in the slope subsurface flow that create new seepage forces

6. Weakening of buried soil or rock seams due to ground water flow or chemical leaching. Changes Induced by Man a. Increased loading on the slope or near its crest b. Removal of earth below the toe of the slope c. Removal of materials from slope making it steeper. d. Topographic modification like earth moving, excavations, change in elevation from one area to another which may create slope failure. e. Landslide or other condition caused by man. Slide Slide refers to the occurrence where the moving mass is defined and separated from the underlying and adjacent earth by plane, comprising a number of adjacent planes were seepage result. The seepage plane represents the continuous surface where the maximum shear strength of the earth material has been reached with the result that large displacement occurs. Slide is classified into four: 1. Rotational slide 2. Translational slide 3. Block or wedge failure 4. Flows and spread Rotational slide is associated with natural slope and constructed embankment of homogenous materials possessing cohesion. Translational slide is associated with slope of layered materials where the mechanism of slippage occurs along a weak plane that possesses a downward dip and in cohesionless soil slopes where seepage occurs. Block or wedge failure refers to the displacement of an intact mass of soil due to the action of an adjacent zone of earth. Flows and spread failure is the most complex type of soil mass movement. Flow involves lateral movement of soil having a characteristic of viscous fluid, although the actual consistency of the moving mass may vary from very wet to dry. Spread refers to the occurrence of multi-directional lateral movement by a fractured soil mass. Earthquake is a typical cause of lateral spreads. Improving the Stability of Slope Slope areas that have experienced slides in the past should be considered likely to undergo further movement if loading condition changes.

Retaining Wall The practical use of gravity retaining wall is controlled by height limitations. Thus, the required wall cross section increases significantly with tall heights due to the effect of the triangular soil pressure distributed behind the retaining wall. If the ground water level rises into the backfill behind a retaining wall because of either changing ground water condition or percolating water surface, the lateral pressure against the wall is also changed. Settlement and distortion of a retaining wall due to compression of the foundation soil must be limited to a tolerable value. The combined effects of soil and water pressure on the retaining wall cause over turning moments and sliding forces greater than the condition where there is no water. To avoid the rise of water building up behind the retaining wall, a weep hole or collector drainage system or both are provided as part of the design construction. Weep holes are at least 3 inches in diameter provided with granular soil filter fabric at the wall to prevent backfill erosion. The horizontal spacing of the weep holes ranges from 1.20 to. 3.00 meters For taller walls, two or more rows of weep holes may be provided with typical vertical spacing at 1.50 maters. A good retaining wall design must conform to the following requirements: 1. The base and the stem of then retaining wall must be capable of resisting the internal shear and bending moments developing as a result of soil and other loading. 2. The wall must be safe against overturning. 3. The wall structure must be safe against sliding. 4. The bearing capacity of the foundation material supporting the wall must not be exceeded. Highway Bridges Highway bridges are of two types: 1. Those that carry vehicular traffic and pedestrian over a large stream. 2. Those that separate traffic movements as interchanges and street pedestrians over or under crossing. Hydraulic Problems 1. There must be available stream record that provides the usual method of estimating water discharges under the bridge. 2. Analysis of the channel relationship as to: a. Peak flow b. Water way opening c. Water surface elevation at the structure and upstream and flow velocity

3. The degree of contraction of the flowing water in the channel approach. 4. Final structure proportions and required channel modifications based on the studies. 5. Effects of bridge opening and approaches that might cause flood to adjacent properties. This is associated with hydraulic aspects of bridge design. 6. Economic, legal and social implications where cooperative planning with all affected groups and agencies is necessary. Highway Bridges, Designed to Resist Loads brought by: 1. The weight of the structure itself called the dead load. 2. The weight and dynamic effect of moving load called live load. 3. The centrifugal forces developed by moving vehicles on curved structure. 4. The wind load and stresses brought about by: a. Temperature change b. Earth c. Shrinkage d. Buoyancy e. Rib shortening f. Erection g. Current pressure h. Earthquake Bridge types A bridge consists of substructure of abutments and piers that supports superstructure that carry the roadway between supports. Bridge type includes: slab, girder, truss, arch and cable stayed. Each suspension bridge has a distinctive form of structures, the selection of the kind of bridge to be installed depends on the length of the individual span as follows: