Topic 3: Voice of Genome

Mitosis n Meiosis
Mitosis Interphase New organelles synthesised & DNA replication Prophase y Chromosomes condense y Nuclear membrane disintegrates y Spindle fibres form from centrioles and attach to kinetochores at centromere Meiosis I New organelles synthesised & DNA replication Prophase I y Chromosomes condense y Nuclear membrane disintegrates y Spindle fibres form & attach y Homologous chr. pair up to form tetrads Metaphase I y Tetrads line up at metaphase plate y Crossing over occurs as non-sister chromatids will break & rejoin at chiasmata Anaphase I HC separate & are pulled to opposite poles Meiosis II Prophase II

Metephase Chromosomes line up at metaphase plate

Metaphase II

Anaphase Spindle fibres shorten and pull chromosomes to opposite poles

Telophase y Chromosomes unravel y Nuclear membrane reforms

Telophase I y Movement of HC continues until there is a haploid set at each pole y Cytokinesis

Anaphase II Centromere of sister chromatids separate & the now seprated sisters travel to opposite poles Telophase II y Separated sister chromatids arrive y Chromosomes unravel y Nuclear membrane reforms

Importance of Meiosis: -Reduces chr. no. in gametes from diploid to haploid -Introduce genetic variety: a) Independent assortment Chr. from parents distributed into gametes randomly b) Crossing over Bits of maternal & paternal chromatids joined together c) Mutation

Sexual reproduction
Production of new individual from the joining of 2 gametes Disadvantage -more risky -more expensive Advantage -Increases genetic variety Better chance of survival & ability to reproduce in a changing environment

Formation of Gametes Humans y y Sperm formed in testes Ovules formed in ovaries

Sperms -Made in seminiferous tubules & stored in epididymis in testes - Many, mini, motile - Head (acrosome-penetrate & deliver male haploid genome), neck (mitochondria-power flagellum) Ova -Contains food reserves for developing embryo

Spermatogenesis Primordial germ cell (2n) differentiation Spermatogonia 4mitosis diff Primary spermatocyte (2n) Meiosis I Secondary spermatocyte (n) Meiosis II Spermatids diff Spermatozoa

Oogenesis Primordial germ cell (2n) differentiation Oogonia 4mitosis diff Primary oocyte (2n) Meiosis I Secondary oocyte (n) + Polar body Meiosis II (not complete until fertilisation) Ovum + Polar body y y At birth, egg exist as Primary oocyte At puberty, few mature to form secondary oocyte

Plants y y Pollen formed in anther (anther+filament=stamen) Ovules formed in ovaries Pollen Egg cell

Anther 4 pollen sacs Large no. of microspore mother cells Microscpore mother cell (2n) meiosis 4 microspore (n) mitosis One cell envelope the other Pollen grain with 2 nuclei -Generative: fuse with nucleus of ovule to form new individual -Tube: produce pollen tube Megaspore mother cell (2n) meiosis 4 megaspore (n) 3 degenerate, 1 continue developing 3 mitosis 8 cells : -1 egg cell -2 synergids -2 polar bodies -3 antipodal cells

Fertilisation
External -Outside body -Gametes released directly into environ -Wasteful process -Requires moist habitat Internal -Direct transfer of male gametes to female gametes -Male gametes released directly into female body during mating -Gametes remains moist & placed as close together as possible Humans -Upper part of oviduct -Ovum released did not complete meiosis II, called secondary oocyte Front of sperm touches zona pellucida  Acrosome reaction triggered Follicle cells & zona pellucid digested by enzymes  Sperm will fuse with membrane & sperm nucleus will enter  Secondary oocyte completes Meiosis II Produce haploid egg nucleus to fuse with haploid male gamete

 Cortisol reaction triggered Cortisol granules released binds with zona pellucida to form tough fertilisation membrane Prevent polyspermy

Plants Pollen grain land on stigma  If conditions favourable, pollen grain germinates Pollen tube grows from tube cell through stigma into hollow style towards ovary Generative nucleus divides into 2 by mitosis  -Once pollen tube has entered micropyle, 2 male nuclei passed down into ovule Fertilisation Double fertilisation: 1 male nuclei fuse with nuclei of 2 polar bodies endosperm nucleus (3n) 1 male nuclei fuse with egg cell zygote (2n)

What causes cell differentiation? -Cells become specialised when genes are switched on & off in response to a stimuli (internal & external)

Control of gene expression Transcription switched on & off by: 1. Supercoiling and uncoiling 2. Master genes which code for signal protein Lac Operon Regulator gene codes for repressor protein Operator gene binding site for repressor protein & RNA polymerase Structural gene In eukaryotes Promoter region-binding site for RNA polymerase Regulator protein-need to bind to promoter region to start transcription