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Winter 2010-2011
Fluid Mechanics
431/480
TU Wien, PhZ
Introduction
Kinematics
Continuity equation
Linear momentum
Ideal uids
Viscous uids
Outline
1
Introduction Kinematics Continuity equation Linear momentum Ideal uids Viscous uids
Fluid Mechanics
432/480
TU Wien, PhZ
Introduction
Kinematics
Continuity equation
Linear momentum
Ideal uids
Viscous uids
Outline
1
Introduction Kinematics Continuity equation Linear momentum Ideal uids Viscous uids
Fluid Mechanics
433/480
TU Wien, PhZ
Introduction
Kinematics
Continuity equation
Linear momentum
Ideal uids
Viscous uids
Fluid Mechanics
434/480
TU Wien, PhZ
Introduction
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Density
The density of a uid particle (RVE) is a continuous function of space and time (y, t) = lim dM dV 0 dV
Fluid Mechanics
435/480
TU Wien, PhZ
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When the density of a uid particle is approximately constant along its trajectory, the ow is called incompressible. Alternatively, when the density of a uid particle is uctuating signicantly along its motion, the ow is called compressible
Fluid Mechanics
436/480
TU Wien, PhZ
Introduction
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Pressure
A motionless uid is only subjected to normal contact forces in the form of a hydrostatic pressure (y, t). In contrast, tangential forces due to friction, i.e. viscosity of the uid, are related to velocity gradients.
Fluid Mechanics
437/480
TU Wien, PhZ
Introduction
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Newtonian uids
A Newtonian uid satises the equation = Vf L
where V f is velocity of the uid and L a characteristic length. The ratio represents a velocity gradient and the coecient is the dynamic viscosity coecient in Nsm2 . For instance, air and water are Newtonian uids.
Fluid Mechanics
438/480
TU Wien, PhZ
Introduction
Kinematics
Continuity equation
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Ideal uids
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Ideal uid
An ideal uid is free of friction and has no viscosity. The boundary conditions of an ideal uid owing along a wall dier from those of a viscous uid which velocity is typically zero at the wall.
Fluid Mechanics
439/480
TU Wien, PhZ
Introduction
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Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics provides equations of state which provides relationships between macroscopic variables such as density , pressure and temperature T . These equations are valid for systems at equilibrium which is reached after 10 intermolecular collisions in gas theory. The macroscopic changes must therefore occur on a longer time scale than the molecular ones. This assumption of thermodynamic equilibrium is valid in most of the applications in uid mechanics.
Fluid Mechanics
440/480
TU Wien, PhZ
Introduction
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Continuity equation
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Heat transfer
Related to viscosity, heat transfer occurs in uids when a temperature gradient is present: Q= T L
where Q is the heat ux in Wm2 , is the heat transfer coecient in Wm1 K 1 , T is temperature and Lf a characteristic length in m. The ratio represents the gradient of temperature. The specic heat in Jkg 1 K 1 represents the quantity of energy you need to increase the temperature of a unit mass of uid by one degree. For gases, distinction is made between specic heat with constant volume cV and constant pressure cP .
Fluid Mechanics 441/480 TU Wien, PhZ
Introduction
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Equations of a uid
Continuity equation (conservation of mass) Linear momentum equation (Navier-Stokes for a Newtonian uid) Balance of energy (conservation of energy) Thermodynamical state equation (constitutive equation) These 6 equations allow for identication of 6 unknowns which are the velocity eld v(y, t), density (y, t), pressure (y, t) and temperature T (y, t).
Fluid Mechanics
442/480
TU Wien, PhZ
Introduction
Kinematics
Continuity equation
Linear momentum
Ideal uids
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Outline
1
Introduction Kinematics Continuity equation Linear momentum Ideal uids Viscous uids
Fluid Mechanics
443/480
TU Wien, PhZ
Introduction
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Euler description
Motion of a uid is usually modeled in Eulerian description, where the velocity eld v is function of the actual position y and time t
actual: t > 0
y
e3
v(y,t)
e2 e1
The Eulerian description is incomplete because initial conditions are necessary to obtain trajectories.
Fluid Mechanics 444/480 TU Wien, PhZ
Introduction
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Euler description
In Eulerian description all ow variables are function of the actual position and time: v(y, t), (y, t), (y, t), T (y, t)
Fluid Mechanics
445/480
TU Wien, PhZ
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Flow classes
Among general ows, external ows around an object such as a wing are distinguished from internal ows within a pipe or a containment.
In the special class of steady ows, the partial derivatives t of all variables with respect to time are zero: v(y, t) = v(y), (y, t) = (y), (y, t) = (y) and T (y, t) = T (y). This classication depends on the selected referential.
Fluid Mechanics
446/480
TU Wien, PhZ
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Stream lines
In contrast to trajectories, which describe the successive positions of a uid particle in time, stream lines are the tangent vectors to the velocity eld v(y, t) at time t. Adjacent stream lines can form impermeable stream surfaces and in particular stream tubes.
Fluid Mechanics
447/480
TU Wien, PhZ
Introduction
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Boundary layer
Viscous uids tend to adhere to solid surfaces and the ow velocity tends towards zero at this location. This means that frictional forces become important in the adjacent layer which is called boundary layer. In this layer, the ow may be laminar or turbulent. A laminar ow is characterized by regular and stable stream lines that coincide with trajectories, while a turbulent ow is unsteady and unstable. In case of a steady and laminar ow, the trajectories overlap with stream lines.
Fluid Mechanics
448/480
TU Wien, PhZ
Introduction
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Dv v = + (v y )v Dt t
449/480 TU Wien, PhZ
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When the pressure gradients dominate, the number of Reynolds is large and the relative size of the boundary layer becomes small. Accordingly, the ow problem can be decomposed into an external problem where the uid is ideal and an internal problem within the boundary layer where the velocity vanishes at the surface of the obstacle.
Fluid Mechanics 450/480 TU Wien, PhZ
Introduction
Kinematics
Continuity equation
Linear momentum
Ideal uids
Viscous uids
Fluid Mechanics
451/480
TU Wien, PhZ
Introduction
Kinematics
Continuity equation
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Ideal uids
Viscous uids
Outline
1
Introduction Kinematics Continuity equation Linear momentum Ideal uids Viscous uids
Fluid Mechanics
452/480
TU Wien, PhZ
Introduction
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Continuity equation
The continuity equation enforces conservation of mass of the uid particle DM =0 Dt This condition means that the internal change of mass is balanced by the mass leaving the volume of interest: (y, t) + y ((y, t)v(y, t)) = 0 t
Fluid Mechanics
453/480
TU Wien, PhZ
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Continuity equation
Example of a steady ow in a rigid tube 1 v1 A1 = 2 v2 A2 For an incompressible ow (steady or not) D = 0 v = 0 Dt This means that the velocity eld can be expressed by v =r
Fluid Mechanics
454/480
TU Wien, PhZ
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Continuity equation
For a compressible but steady ow (v) = 0 This means that the product can be expressed by v = 0 r where r can be a divergence free ( r = 0) rotation vector.
Fluid Mechanics
455/480
TU Wien, PhZ
Introduction
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Irrotational ow
A velocity eld is irrotational if v =0 This means that it derives from a potential v = Such a ow is also called a potential ow and can be either incompressible or compressible.
Fluid Mechanics
456/480
TU Wien, PhZ
Introduction
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Irrotational ow
For an irrotational ow, the continuity equation becomes 1 D + 2 = 0 Dt In the case of an incompressible ow (steady or not), this leads to the Laplace equation: 2 = 0 The stream lines of such a ow are orthogonal to the surfaces with constant .
Fluid Mechanics
457/480
TU Wien, PhZ
Introduction
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Rotational ow
A rotational ow involves a vortex vector =v In similarity with the angular velocity of solids, the vortex vector is twice the angular velocity of the uid particle. By extension to trajectories and stream lines, the vortex lines are the tangent of the vortex vector eld. Adjacent vortex lines can form vortex surfaces and tubes.
Fluid Mechanics
458/480
TU Wien, PhZ
Introduction
Kinematics
Continuity equation
Linear momentum
Ideal uids
Viscous uids
Boundary conditions
At an impermeable surface, the boundary condition on the velocity eld will be for a viscous (real) ow v = ys and for an ideal ow v = y s
Fluid Mechanics
459/480
TU Wien, PhZ
Introduction
Kinematics
Continuity equation
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Ideal uids
Viscous uids
Outline
1
Introduction Kinematics Continuity equation Linear momentum Ideal uids Viscous uids
Fluid Mechanics
460/480
TU Wien, PhZ
Introduction
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Continuity equation
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Linear momentum
The total linear momentum is the sum of the linear momentum of all the uid particles enclosed in the domain t mt (t ) =
t
v(y, t)(y)dV
Fluid Mechanics
461/480
TU Wien, PhZ
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Inertial forces
As usual, the inertial forces are expressed by the total derivative of the linear momentum
inertia
f(t ) =
D t t m ( ) Dt (v) dV + = t t
(v n)vdA
t
Fluid Mechanics
462/480
TU Wien, PhZ
Introduction
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Body forces
f(t ) =
t
g(y, t)dV
Fluid Mechanics
463/480
TU Wien, PhZ
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Contact forces
Contact forces are described by the stress tensor
contact
f(t ) =
t
p(y, t)dA =
t
ndA
Fluid Mechanics
464/480
TU Wien, PhZ
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Equilibrium
Balance of all the involved forces gives:
inertia
gdV
t
dA = 0
This represents Newtons second law for a domain of uid in the actual conguration.
Fluid Mechanics
465/480
TU Wien, PhZ
Introduction
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Introduction Kinematics Continuity equation Linear momentum Ideal uids Viscous uids
Fluid Mechanics
466/480
TU Wien, PhZ
Introduction
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Continuity equation
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Euler equations
For an ideal uid, the balance of forces can be expressed in volumetric form (v) + (v v) + gdV = 0 t
Using the continuity equation the Euler equations can be derived in local form 1 Dv = + g Dt
Fluid Mechanics
467/480
TU Wien, PhZ
Introduction
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Euler equations
For an incompressible uid D =0 Dt the ow is entirely described by the continuity and Euler equations with pressure (y, t) and velocity v(y, t) as the 4 unknowns.
Fluid Mechanics
468/480
TU Wien, PhZ
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Euler equations
Eulers equations admit explicit integrals when the body forces derive from a potential i.e. g = and if 1 The ow is irrotational v = and barotrope = () 2 The ow is rotational and steady
Fluid Mechanics
469/480
TU Wien, PhZ
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Archimedes theorem
In the case of a body immerged in an incompressible and static uid A dA f=
t
gdV
t
dA = 0
f=
t
dV =
t
gdV = M f g
Fluid Mechanics
470/480
TU Wien, PhZ
Introduction
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Continuity equation
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Bernoulli equations
In the case of an incompressible and steady ow, the Euler equations become (v v) + gdV = 0
t
The projection of this equation on a stream line (v) leads to the famous Bernoulli equation 1 + v 2 + gy3 = cte 2 If the ow is irrotational, the constant is 0, but if the ow is rotational, the constant is dierent from one stream line to the other.
Fluid Mechanics 471/480 TU Wien, PhZ
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Despite the lack of viscosity, Bernoullis equation is able to explain a number of phenomenon, in particular that, along a stream line, the velocity is high where pressure is low: 1 1 + v 2 + gy3 = + v 2 + gy3 2 2 This eect is called Venturi phenomenon and explains for instance the vaporisator mechanism.
Fluid Mechanics
472/480
TU Wien, PhZ
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( v) ndA =
ndA = cte
Fluid Mechanics
473/480
TU Wien, PhZ
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Potential theory
In the general case of an incompressible, irrotational and steady ow, the Euler equations become a Laplace equation for the potential: v = = 0 1 + ||2 + = cte t 2
2
The resolution of these equation system, which is equivalent to the equations of electrostatics and magnetostatics for the electric and magnetic elds, is beyond the scope of this introduction and can be found in uid mechanics textbooks.
Fluid Mechanics 474/480 TU Wien, PhZ
Introduction
Kinematics
Continuity equation
Linear momentum
Ideal uids
Viscous uids
Outline
1
Introduction Kinematics Continuity equation Linear momentum Ideal uids Viscous uids
Fluid Mechanics
475/480
TU Wien, PhZ
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Newtons hypothesis
Conguration of Couette ow
The shear stress is proportional to the velocity gradient dv = dy where the viscosity coecient is a property of the uid which depends mainly on temperature and to some extent on pressure.
Fluid Mechanics 476/480 TU Wien, PhZ
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Viscous ow
In the viscous general case, the stress tensor becomes = ( v)I + (y v + T v) y = ( v)I + 2D where is a volumetric and is the deviatoric (shear) viscosity. For incompressible uids v = 0, the volumetric viscosity disappears. For irrotational ows (v = T v), the divergence of the shear stress D is given by 2 v.
Fluid Mechanics 477/480 TU Wien, PhZ
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Navier-Stokes equations
Under these assumptions, the linear momentum equations become the Navier-Stokes equations Dv g + ( )v 2 D = 0 Dt
1 1 D = 2 v + ( )v 2 2
478/480 TU Wien, PhZ
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Hagen-Poiseuille ow
A simple solution of the Navier-Stokes equations is the incompressible and steady Hagen-Poiseuille ow between two plates 2 v1 1 = 2 v1 = y2 (d y2 ) y1 y2 2 y1 where d is the distance between the plates.
Fluid Mechanics
479/480
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Hagen-Poiseuille ow
Similarly, the velocity prole of a laminar ow within a cylindrical tube is parabolic v (r ) = The mass transfer is
4 = R M 8 y3
r R 2 (1 ( )2 ) 4 y3 R
R 2 y3
TU Wien, PhZ
Fluid Mechanics
480/480